Impact of Earthquake on Water Resources in Selected ... of...contribution of the study team Mr....
Transcript of Impact of Earthquake on Water Resources in Selected ... of...contribution of the study team Mr....
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Disclaimer The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed
herein are those of the author (s) and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the institutions.
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Foreword
This research was part of WACREP activity of Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha
(JVS)/GWP Nepal. JVS/GWP Nepal highly appreciates the
contribution of the study team Mr. Somnath Paudel and Ms. Anju
Air. Our sincere gratitude also goes to Dr Amod Mani Dixit, General
Secretary of National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal
(NSET) for reviewing the draft by providing valuable suggestions.
JVS/GWP Nepal also acknowledges the contribution from Mr.
Tejendra GC during the preparation of this publication.
Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha/GWP Nepal
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Executive Summary
Earthquake has been notoriously devastating Nepal since time immemorial. Nepal is ranked
11th globally in terms of relative vulnerability to earthquake. The impacts of earthquake are
more studied on physical, social and geographic sectors but impacts on water resources are
less documented.
This study evaluated visible impacts on water resources caused by the Gorkha earthquake in
Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality (Kavre-palanchowk district), Chandragiri, Dakshinkali
Kirtipur Municipalities and Bagmati river (Kathmandu district). The studied water sources
include stone spouts, rivers, ponds and springs in the study areas. Primary information were
gathered by visual observations, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and Key Informants
Interview (KII). Web based information, published reports and journals were sources of
secondary information. The main objectives of the study were i) to assess the status of water
resources (water quantity and quality), ii) to explore the associated impacts due to loss of
water resources and iii) to assess available protective measures/disaster preparedness with
regard to water resources.
The study revealed that most of the ponds, stone spouts and springs were affected. Although,
there lies other factors responsible for drying up of water sources, earthquake is equally
responsible for impacts on water sources. The quantity and quality of water was mainly
affected by earthquake. The flow of water was found increased, decreased and static. There
have been also reported pseudo-changes in the quantity of water in all the study sites. The
turbidity in the water resources was high soon after the earthquake. Locals have to face
adverse impacts due to the scarcity of water such as loss on agricultural production affecting
the Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS), problems in animal husbandry, hurdles in
daily activities, perturbation of social harmony and impact on aquatic ecosystem.
Unfortunately, locals are not practicing any protective measures to enhance water security
except in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality and Bagmati River Basin (BRB). The efforts of
locals in conservation of Daraune-Pokhari Pond (Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality) as
recharge pond is praiseworthy. Likewise, BRB in Kathmandu Valley is being managed by
High Powered Committee for the Integrated Development of the Bagmati Civilization
(HPCIDBC) to ensure water security in Kathmandu. The study recommends that the water
security in the areas can be achieved through rain water harvesting, restoration of
traditional spouts, identification and conservation of recharge ponds. Furthermore,
identification of water stress and water availability shall solve the water scarcity to some
extent. Likewise, improvement of water supply services are important to meet the water
demands. Public awareness is also important to secure existing resources.
It is mostly said that there is no problem of water availability in Nepal, the existing problems
are due to the socio-economic water scarcity. Socio-economic water scarcity is caused in
absence of infrastructures, coordination and implementation problems among institutions.
The water scarcity in study areas seems like a problem of management and human-induced
actions such as change in land-use patterns. Locals consume water from traditional water
sources such as stone spouts, ponds and springs. This has emphasized the need of
institutional framework to conserve and monitor these traditional sources.
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Acronyms
ADSR- Annual Disaster Statistical Review
BRB- Bagmati River Basin
BRBIP- Bagmati River Basin Improvement Project
CBS- Central Bureau of Statistics
DPCC- Daraune Pokhari Conservation Committee
FGD- Focus Group Discussion
FMIS- Farmer Managed Irrigation System
GDP- Gross Domestic Product
GFCF- Gross Fixed Capital Formation
GLOF- Glacial Lake Outburst Flood
GPS- Global Positioning System
HPCIDBC- High Powered Committee for Integrated Development of the Bagmati Civilization
KUKL- Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited
KMC- Kathmandu Metropolitan City
KII- Key Informants Interview
masl- meters above sea level
MHT- Main Himalayan Thrust
NPC- National Planning Commission
NPR- Nepalese Rupees
NSC- National Seismological Center
NTFP-Non-timber Forest Products
PDNA- Post Disaster Needs Assessment
VDC- Village Development Committee
WHS- World Heritage Site
WUA- Water Users Association
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Table of Contents 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Gorkha Earthquake and Its Impacts ........................................................................................ 8
1.2 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................................ 10
1.3 Objectives of the Study ......................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Limitation of the Study.......................................................................................................... 10
2. Study Area ..................................................................................................................................... 11
3 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 16
3.1 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Direct Field Observations ............................................................................................................ 17
3.3 Focus Group Discussion/ Key Informants Interview ................................................................... 17
3.4 Secondary Information ............................................................................................................... 18
4 Findings and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 19
4.1 Visual Status of Water Resources ............................................................................................... 19
A) Changes in Quantity of Water Level ......................................................................................... 19
B) Changes in Quality of Water Resources ....................................................................................... 23
C) Pseudo-changes in Water Level .................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Associated Impacts Due to Water Scarcity ................................................................................. 25
A) Loss on Agricultural Production .................................................................................................... 25
B) Problems in Animal Husbandry ................................................................................................ 25
C) Hurdles in Daily Activities ......................................................................................................... 25
D) Perturbation of Social Harmony ............................................................................................... 25
E) Impact on Aquatic Ecosystem ................................................................................................... 26
4.3 Protective Measures ................................................................................................................... 26
4.4 Identified Gaps ............................................................................................................................ 28
5 Conclusion and Way Forward ....................................................................................................... 29
Annex .................................................................................................................................................... 30
Annex 1: Glossary .............................................................................................................................. 30
Annex 2: Checklists ........................................................................................................................... 31
Annex 3: Photographs ....................................................................................................................... 33
References ............................................................................................................................................ 37
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1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Earthquake has been notoriously devastating Nepal since time immemorial. Nepal is ranked
on 11th in terms of relative vulnerability to earthquake. The first recorded earthquake was of
1255 A.D. which killed one-third population of Kathmandu Valley along with King Abhaya
Malla. Likewise, in the earthquake of 1260, many buildings and temples collapsed. Although
the exact number of fatalities cannot be confirmed, we know from the facts that there was a
heavy loss of live (1www.seismonepal.gov.np). Another earthquake of 1408, hit the valley of
Kathmandu and the surrounding areas. The temple of Rato Matchendranath was completely
destroyed while many other temples and buildings were damaged and collapsed causing
heavy loss of lives and property. In 1681 A.D., another major earthquake hit Nepal and the
valley. Although little information is available on this particular earthquake, heavy loss of
lives was reported including the destruction of buildings and temples. Similarly, earthquakes
were also recorded in the years 1767, 1810, 1832, 1834 and 1934. The earthquake of 1934 is
the biggest with the magnitude of 8.4 recorded. This earthquake is known as 'Great Nepal-
Bihar Earthquake'. The casualty figures were highest in the history of the region with 8,519
persons dead in Nepal only (2www.seismonepal.gov.np).
Earthquakes of more than 5.0 magnitude have occurred at least once every year in Nepal
since 1987. It has been seen that there were twenty-two earthquakes with magnitudes ranging
from 4.5 to 6.5 throughout the country from 1971-2007 (3www.nset.org.np). The studies by
Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements have confirmed the convergence of India
and southern Tibet at the rate of 20 ± 3 mm/year. In contrast, control points in southern India
and southernmost Nepal approach each other no faster than a few mm/year. In the Himalayas,
the potential slip accumulates almost entirely as elastic strain, which would permanently
deform the rock. Analyses of deformed river terraces in the foothills of the Himalaya
demonstrate an advance of 21 ± 3 mm/year in southern Nepal during the past 10,000 years
(Bilham, Gaur, & Molnar, 2001).
The recent earthquake of 25th April 2015 resulted from unzipping of the lower edge of the
locked portion of the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) fault. The earthquake ruptured a 140
km long segment of the fault. The MHT accommodates the convergence between India and
southern Tibet with a rate between 17 and 58 mm/yr. (Galetzka et al., 2015).
This study intends to evaluate visible impacts on water resources caused by the recent
earthquakes (named Gorkha earthquake) in selected disaster hit areas. The studied water
sources include stone spouts (Dhungedhara), rivers, ponds (Kuwa), springs (Muhan) and dug
wells (Inar) in the study locations. Rural societies depend upon these sources for domestic
water supply and other uses.
1 Retrieved on 21/09/2016
2 Retrieved on 21/09/2016
3 Retrieved on 21/09/2016
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1.1 Gorkha Earthquake and Its Impacts
The earthquake of M 7.8 was recorded by National Seismological Centre (NSC) Nepal, near
Barpak of Gorkha district, about 76 km northwest of Kathmandu on 25th April 2015
(Saturday) at 11:56 Nepal Standard Time. Due to its epicenter at Gorkha, the earthquake is
named as 'Gorkha Earthquake'. The main shock was followed by hundreds of aftershocks.
Aftershocks damaged previously shaken buildings and also caused terror and anxiety among
the survivors. There were over 8,790 deaths and 22,300 injuries affecting the lives of almost
one-third population from thirty-one districts of Nepal. In spite of these casualties, people
consider themselves lucky considering the day (Saturday) and time (11.56 NST) of Gorkha
earthquake. Most public offices/private business remain closed on Saturday due to public
holiday. The day time was helpful to locate safety areas which minimized the casualties.
The estimated value of total damages and losses is equivalent to about one third of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) for FY 2013- 2014 (NPC, 2015). Annual Disaster Statistical
Review (ADSR) has listed Gorkha earthquake as the costliest natural disaster in 2015 costing
US$ 5.7 billion loss to Nepal (Guha-Sapir D, 2015).
Generally, the impacts of earthquake is categorized in physical, social, geographic sectors
(Lindell & Prater, 2003), most of which are anthropological centered. The impacts on natural
resources such as air, water, land, mines, etc. have been less studied and documented in case
of Gorkha earthquake. In developed countries such impacts are better studied.
The other losses can be summarized as:
The losses caused by earthquake (adopted from NPC, 2015)
Primary impacts are the direct impacts caused by loss of human lives and property due to
collapse of old buildings. The loss of human lives are irreparable and can't be monetized.
Most of the historical sites enlisted under World Heritage Sites (WHS) have also been
collapsed or damaged. Secondary impacts refers to indirect impacts hampering the livelihood
of people. Loss of source of income, lack of food, clothing and other essential accessories,
collapse or damage of infrastructure such as electricity, water supply, roads, telephone, etc.
Primary Impacts
i) Human casualties
ii) Collapse/Damage of buildings (Residences, Industries, Institutions,
Hospitals etc.)
Secondary Impacts
i) Impact on livelihood-loss of income ,
Intermittent supply of food and other necessities
ii) Loss of livestocks
iii) Collapse of Infrastructures (water supply, access ways, electric supply, etc.)
Tertiary Impacts
i) Hurdles caused by water amd other scarcity induced
by earthquake.
ii) Psychological stress caused by loss of family
members/property.
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creates hurdles in sustaining life. Nepalese economy substantially depends upon agriculture
together with fishery, livestock husbandry, bee keeping, etc. Hence, loss of livestock also
hampered the livelihood.
Some of the tertiary impacts are hurdles caused to local population due to water scarcity
induced by earthquake and psychological stress faced by family members and their relatives.
However, no written records are available for the psychological impacts. Some of these
losses on humans, environment and other natural resources are tentatively mentioned by
National Planning Commission (NPC) under Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) study.
The impacts on environment and forestry includes destruction of forest, protected areas,
environmentally friendly technologies and community managed structures. The total damage
on forestry, watershed, biodiversity and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) was 29,344
million in Nepalese Rupees (NPR). The associated impacts include landslide, risk of Glacial
Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in Himalayan and Hilly districts (NPC, 2015).
The data from Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) showed that 3,067 water
sources of the 14 highly-affected districts have been completely dried up and 4,836 sources
were partially dried by the quake (Figure1). Over 325 water sources of 14 quake-hit districts
have dried up after the earthquake. Similarly, water production of 617 sources has shrunk
(DWSS, 2015).
Figure 1 Number of Water Resources Affected by Earthquake (source-Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, DWSS)
The overall impacts of earthquake are non-uniform as per the adaptive capacity of societies,
though, rural areas have been badly affected while compared to city areas. 'Gorkha
Earthquake' has reported for damaging 10,506 number of water and sanitation structures.
While, irrigation schemes worth 304 million NPR and hydropower generation of almost
12,134 million NPR were damaged (NPC, 2015).
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1.2 Scope of the Study
Water resources are an integral part of life and during disasters they become life saving
necessities. The preparedness for water security can lessen the direct impacts and associated
loss from natural disasters. This study has highlighted impacts of earthquake on water
resources including associated impacts due to scarcity of water resources in study areas.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The overall objective of the study is to identify the impacts of earthquake on water resources
in earthquake hit districts. The specific objectives are:
To assess the status of water resources (water quantity and quality through visual
observation and focused group discussion).
To explore the associated impacts due to loss of water resources.
To assess available protective measures/disaster preparedness with regard to water
resources.
1.4 Limitation of the Study
The study acknowledges following limitations:
It does not include geological study of the sites.
It does not include study of all earthquake affected water resources of the selected
areas and depends more on interviews than on field observation.
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2. Study Area
The study was carried out in selected sites of Kavre-palanchowk and Kathmandu districts
which were also hit by the earthquake. The Kavre-palanchowk district has an area of 1,396
sq. km. and a population of 381,937. The literacy rate of the District is 69.8% with the 58.7%
economically active population. The total households are 72,846 and 85.5% of local people
have safe drinking water facilities (CBS, 2011). It is situated in mid-hilly area having
subtropical climate with elevation range of 280m-3018m. It is bordered to the east by
Ramechhap and Dolakha, west by Kathmandu valley, north by Sindhupalchok and south by
Sindhuli and Makawanpur. It has 76 Village Development Committees (VDCs) and five
municipalities including two newly declared i.e. Panchkhal and Dapcha-Kashikhanda
Municipality. The study area is Ward No. 14 (comprising of five wards 2,6,7,8 & 9 from
Daraune Pokhari VDC) of Dapcha-Kashikhanda municipality (Fig.4). This municipality has
about 500 households.
The sources of water in Kavre-palanchowk district has been categorized in Table 1.
Table 1 Sources of water in Kavre-palanchowk District (CBS,2011)
S.N. Sources of water Percentage (%)
1 Tap water 79.1
2 Tube well 0.27
3 Covered well 6.18
4 Uncovered well 6.45
5 Spout 5.90
6 River/stream 0.67
The table shows that only 79.1% of the population has access to taped water supply while
0.27% of population uses tube well water, 6.18% uses covered well water, 6.45 % uses spout
water and 0.67% uses uncovered well (Table 1) (CBS,2011).
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Figure 2 Map of Nepal Highlighting Gorkha, Kavre-palanchowk and Kathmandu District
Figure 3 Map of Kavre-palanchok Highlighting Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Kathmandu
Dapcha-Kashikhanda is a recently declared municipality by merging six VDCs, namely
Puranogau Dapcha, Dapcha Chatra-bhanjhyang, Daraune Pokhari, Khanalthok, Methinkot
and Mathurapati Fulbari of Kavre-palanchok district.
Other study sites were in Kathmandu district. This is the most populated district in Nepal
(Figure 4) with population of 1,744,240 and 436,344 households in the area of 49.45 km2.
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The population density is 4,416 per sq. km. The literacy rate of the district is 86.3% with
45.5% of economically active population. Only 62% of the population has access to taped
water supply while 8.03% of population uses tube well water, 6.68% uses covered well water,
4.42 % uses spout water and 1.28% uses uncovered well (Table 2) (CBS,2011).
Table 2 Sources of Water in Kathmandu District (CBS,2011)
S.N. Sources of water Percentage (%)
1 Tap water 62.0
2 Tube well 8.03
3 Covered well 6.68
4 Uncovered well 1.28
5 Spout 4.42
6 River/stream 0.34
Figure 4: Built in Areas in Kathmandu Valley (BRBIP, 2016)
Water resources located at Kirtipur, Chandragiri and Dakshinkali Municipality of Kathmandu
district were studied including Bagmati River which is the main river that flows in the
Kathmandu valley. The Kirtipur municipality is situated almost 7 km south-west of
Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC). The altitude ranges from 1284m to 1524m above sea
level. It has 19 wards covering 14.76 km2
areas. It is encircled by Bagmati River in the East,
Chandragiri Municipality in the West, KMC in North and Dakshinkali Municipality in South.
The Chandragiri Municipality has a total population of 85,195. The Matatirtha water spouts
have been studied in this Municipality. The Dakshinkali Municipality is famous for religious
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tourism and recreational activities. It consists of six VDCs with historical temples and
beautiful landscapes. The Chandra Jyoti Hydropower Plant (500 KW) constructed in 1908-11
is second oldest in Asia, still operational but water from the reservoir is transferred for water
supply in Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City The reservoir including Saatmule, Naumule and
Sheshnarayan spouts were observed in Dakshinkali Municipality.
Bagmati River is the largest river in Kathmandu Valley comprising 7 rivers and rivulets as its
tributaries. It originates from Baghdwar, northern part of Kathmandu. The river is a part of
Bagmati River Basin (BRB). The basin has a total catchment area of 3,750 sq. km. and total
length of river in Nepal is 220km (BRBIP, 2016).
The BRB is divided into sub-basins. The area draining into the Karmaiya station is called
upper watershed area and below Karmaiya station, it is called the lower watershed area. The
upper watershed area which is 2720 km2 covers the Kathmandu valley as well (fig. 5)
(Sharma & Shakya, 2006).
Bagmati is one of the medium rivers in Nepal, fed by seasonal springs and monsoon rainfall.
The average annual rainfall in the basin is 1900 mm of which more than 80% occurs in
monsoon season. This is one of the most populated basin with a population density of 741
person/km2 (Pandey, Babel, & Kazama, 2009).
Figure 5: Bagmati River Basin (BRBIP,2016)
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Bagmati River is victim of massive urbanization and high population growth. The untreated
sewage are directly discharged into the river. The river bank is being used as waste disposal
site and the river is taken as cleanser of urban waste. The aquatic ecosystem in the river has
been affected and the river was considered as 'biologically dead' one. The direct impacts of
these activities can be seen in quality and quantity of water resources around Kathmandu
valley (BRBIP, 2016).
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3 Methodology
The study was carried in several planned stages. A desk study was done before conducting
the field survey and for identifying the possible sites for research. Information was collected
about the earthquake's impacts on water resources in earthquake hit districts. Research was
accomplished under scientific research design as given in the flow chart .
3.1 Research Design
Figure 6. Methodological Framework for Study
Data Collection
Primary Data Secondary Data
Published/Unpublished
Reports/Web Information,
Journals
Focus Group Discussion with
stakeholders/ Key Informants
Interview
Direct Field Observation/ Visual
Information on Water Resources
Data Management
Data Analysis & Report
Preparation
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3.2 Direct Field Observations
Field observations were done to gather visual information on water resources in study areas.
Checklists were used to collect data on previous and existing condition of water resources.
A Checklist for data collection is included in Annex 2 and Photographs are included in
Annex 3.
3.3 Focus Group Discussion/ Key Informants Interview
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was done in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Kavre-
palanchowk district. Stakeholders consisting of representatives from Water Users Association
(WUA), members from Women's Group, Youth Club and Chairman and other members of
Daraune Pokhari Conservation Committee (DPCC) had been consulted to obtain data on
water quality, quantity, associated impacts of water scarcity and protection measures for
water resources especially during disasters.
Key Informants Interview (KII) were done in Matatirtha (Chandragiri Municipality), Chandra
Jyoti Hydropower, Saatmule and Sheshnarayan areas (Dakshinkali Municipality).
Photos: Glimpses of Focus Group Discussion and Key Informants Interviews
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3.4 Secondary Information
The secondary information have been gathered by reviewing the published reports/booklets
and journal articles, etc. Data on BRB was obtained from High Powered Committee for
Integrated Development of Bagmati Civilization (HPCIDBC), Office, Guheswori,
Kathmandu.
Field data were analyzed based on their nature. The quantitative data were analyzed by
diagram whereas qualitative data were analyzed by description and discussion.
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4 Findings and Discussion
4.1 Visual Status of Water Resources
A) Changes in Quantity of Water Level
Locals revealed that the water sources have been drying-up in Dapcha-Kashikhanda
Municipality since last 5-10 years. Although, the associated reasons are of varied nature,
earthquake is substantially responsible for drying up of water sources in study areas. The
study found that almost twenty water sources out of thirty-five (Stone spouts, ponds and
springs) have been dried after earthquake in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality. The
information on level of water sources in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Ward 14 (Ward
No. 2, 6, 7, 8 & 9 of previous Daraune Pokhari VDC ) have been described in Tables 3 to 7.
Checklists were used for identifying water resources dried before and after the earthquake
(Annex). The flow of water has been either increased or decreased in almost all water sources
while some are completely dried. The water sources with stable water supplies are negligible
(Figure 6).
Table No.3 : Water Level Status of Ward No. 9
S.
N.
Name of
Water
Resource
Type of
Water
Resource
Completely Dried Increased
water level
after
earthquake
Decreased
water level
after
earthquake
Stable
Water
Level After
Earthquake
Dried
before
Earthquake
1 Kalikuwa Pond √
2 Nursery
Kuwa " √
3 Gotedanda
Ban Kuwa " √
4 Phalate
Kuwa " √
5
Thuldhara
Muhan
Mathillo
Spring √
6 Thuldhara
Muhan Spring √
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Water flow in Thulodhara
has decreased substantially
after the earthquake.
Thulodhara is the main
stone spout in Dapcha-
Kashikhanda Municipality
area. The locals from
surrounding areas also
collect the water from
Thhulodhara. The main
usage is for domestic
purpose. Kalikuwa pond
has been releasing less
water while Jimalbote
spring has been releasing
more since the earthquake
(Table No. 4).
Photo: Decreased Water Flow at Thulodhara stone spout, Kavre-palanchowk
Table No.4: Water Level Status of Ward No. 8
S.
N.
Name of
Water
Resource
Type of
Water
Resource
Completely Dried Increased
water level
after
earthquake
Decreased
water level
after
earthquake
Stable
Water
Level After
Earthquake
Dried
Before
Earthquake
1
Pandheraban
ko Kuwa
Upstream
Pond
√
2 Pandheraban
Kuwa
" √
3 Kafalbote
Kuwa
" √
4 Khadkole
Dhara
Stone
Spout √
5 Jaruwapani
Muhan
Spring √
6 Nattepani
Dhara
Stone
Spout √
7 Jimalbote
Muhan
Spring √
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Table No. 5: Water Level Status of Ward No. 7
S. N.
Name of
Water
Resource
Type of
Water
Resource
Completely Dried Increased
water level
after
earthquake
Decreased
water level
after
earthquake
Stable
Water
Level After
Earthquake
Before
Earthquake
1 Jogipani
Kuwa
Pond √
2 Simpokhari " √
The water levels at Simpokhari and Jogipani kuwa have been completely dried after the
earthquake (Table No.5). There is no stable supply of water in the area so locals have to
depend upon the neighboring water sources.
Table No. 6: Water Level Status of Ward No.6
S. N. Name of
Water
Resource
Type of
Water
Resource
Completely Dried Increased
water level
after
earthquake
Decreased
water level
after
earthquake
Stable
Water
Level After
Earthquake
Before
Earthquake
1 Kapikatte
Muhan
Upstream
Spring √
2 Kapikatte
Muhan
Downstream
" √
3 Dhap Dhara Stone
Spout
√
4 Sisnepani
Kuwa
Pond √
5 Saheleria
Dhara
Stone
Spout
√
6 Simkhoria
Dhara
Stone
Spout
√
Sisnepani Kuwa and Simkhoria Dhara has stable water supplies in ward no. 6 while
Kapikatte Muhan upstream has decreased water flow (Table 4) in contrast to Kapikatte
Muhan downstream. Bhundanda Muhan has increased water flow in ward no.2, while
Pandhero kuwa and Bhutkhoriya is completely dried. Bhalayo kuwa has stable supply of
water (Table No. 7).
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Table No.7: Water Level Status in Ward No. 2
S. N.
Name of
Water
Resource
Type of
Water
Resource
Completely Dried Increased
water level
after
earthquake
Decreased
water level
after
earthquake
Stable
Water
Level After
Earthquake
Before
Earthquake
1 Bhundanda
Muhan
Spring √
2 Padhero
Kuwa
Pond √
3 Bhutkhoriya Pond √
4 Maplekhor
Muhan
Spring √
5 Khichha
Kuwa
Pond √
6 Bhalayo
Kuwa
" √
7 Pithok Kuwa " √
8 Sapneswori
Muhan
Spring √
In Sheshnarayan pond,
(DakshinkaliMunicipality)
the water level has been
drastically reduced after
earthquake. Likewise, in
Matatirtha (Chandragiri
Municipality) the water
level in the natural spouts
decreased. The key
informant (Mr. Krishna
Bahadur Lama, local
resident) informed that the
level of water was high
after the earthquake for
some days. But, later it
diminished.
And again the amount of
water increased on the day of Bhadra Kushe Aaushi (Bhadra,16, 2073). The level of water
found decreasing in recent months. Likewise, another informant (Mr. Krishna Lamichhane)
also revealed the same information.
Photo : Decreased water in Sheshnarayan Pond, Dakshinkali Municipality
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Figure 6 Status of water level in water resources, Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality,Kavre-palanchok
Ponds have been adversely affected by the earthquake in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality.
Most of the ponds have been dried up after earthquake in Kavre-palanchowk while the water
level of some ponds have been decreased. The study showed that almost 36% of the ponds
and 14% of stone spouts have been completely dried. Similarly, almost 14% springs got
increased water flow (Fig. 6). Unlike to Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, most of the stone
spouts have dried in the Chandragiri Municipality, Dakshinkali Municipality and Kirtipur
Municipality in Kathmandu District. Though, the Matsyanarayan pond in Kirtipur
Municipality was dried before the earthquake. The drastic rate of increment in drying up of
water sources could also be the impact of urbanization and population growth.
Secondary information on water resource status have also described significant impact on
water resources in other areas of Kavre-palanchowk district. The water resources were also
dried and affected in Patlekhet, Chandenimandan, Mahadevsthan, Jyamdi, Koshipari,
Mangaltar and Nala VDCs of Kavre-palanchowk district.
B) Changes in Quality of Water Resources
Locals reported that there is not so much changes in the quality of water resources besides the
turbidity of water. The turbidity of water in water resources were high after the immediate
days of earthquake. For example, there has been seen high turbidity at Bhoondanda water
source (Ward No.2) of Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality after the earthquake. Likewise,
turbidity at Saatmule, Naumule and Sheshnarayan spouts were high after earthquake. In
Chandra Jyoti hydropower reservoir (Dakshinkali Municipality), the level of water was not
affected but the quality of the water was affected (Mr. Buddhi Basnet, employee at
Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), Pharping Pump House Section). The
water had high turbidity after the earthquake. The office of KUKL at Pharping collects water
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Completely Dried Increased Flow Decreased Flow Stable flow of water
Stone Spouts
Pond
Spring
24
from Sheshnarayan and Saatmule. The reason behind this could be the changes in the water
table. The turbidity can also occur due to leaking tube wells, stand pipes and septic tanks
(Blaikie, Cannon, Davis, & Wisner, 2014). Sometimes, wastes and silts are washed into
waterways, increasing the concentration of suspended sediment and causing impacts on water
quality. There have also been reported changes in the physicochemical parameters of water.
For example, Potter et al.(2015) found changes in quality of water with low dissolved oxygen
levels, high ammonia concentrations, and an accumulation of contaminant in river bed
sediments in Canterbury earthquake (Potter et al., 2015).
C) Pseudo-changes in Water Level
The changes which didn't last for long term with reference to water level and water quality
have been termed as 'pseudo-change'. Haleti Khola in Kavre-palanchowk has increased water
discharge for some time which didn't last for long. Thuldhara and Sangachowk in Dapcha-
Kashikhanda Municipality got increased flow of water immediately after the earthquake but
decreased afterwards.
The Key informants
also revealed the
increased water level
from stone spouts at
Matatirtha, Naumule
and Sheshnarayan in
Dakshinkali
Municipality
immediately after the
earthquake,
unfortunately, the
increased discharge
faded in due course of
time. These kind of
changes are of no
benefit to the locals as
they are not reliable
sources of water. Locals surrounding the areas are highly depended on these water resources.
Besides, the water is also distributed in Kathmandu. Water from Matatirtha has been traded in
most areas of Kathmandu. Chandrajyoti Hydropower Plant is multi-purpose hydropower
mainly used for drinking water, irrigation and hydropower generation. Although, the plant
was primarily established for hydropower generation in 1911 A.D. and the first hydropower
plant in Nepal, it is serving more for drinking water supply in Lalitpur district and local
irrigation and has been preserved as 'Living Museum' by Government of Nepal. Turbidity
level was high soon after the earthquake in hydropower reservoir.
Photo: Decreased Water Flow from Stone Spouts of Matatirtha
25
4.2 Associated Impacts Due to Water Scarcity
A) Impact on Agricultural Production
Locals of Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality revealed that the agricultural activity in the area
is directly affected by the water scarcity. People have left their lands barren or shifted
towards less water demanding crops. Locals depend highly on farming activities, mainly
vegetables, which is affected by inadequate water. More than 50 hectare of land is left barren
in Dapcha-Kashikhanda municipality due to scarcity of water. Cultivation of paddy and
wheat have been severely affected in the municipality. Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems
(FMISs) in Dakshinkali Municipality has also been affected due to water scarcity. Kudaliphat
in Pharping area receives irrigation water from Chandrajyoti Hydropower Plant since its
establishment time as per the agreement with local people. Although, the irrigation is limited
to one month in a year, it has huge impact on local agricultural production. Similarly,
Saatmule spring irrigates Simlephant in Dakshinkali municipality. These FMIS have been
affected by water scarcity and local agricultural production has been affected.
There has not been seen any damages in canals/irrigation structures in the study areas.
However, the irregular water flow has caused enormous problem for farming. Nationwide,
the earthquake destroyed irrigation canals in 31 hilly and mountain districts along with an
estimated 1877 number of small and medium scale farmer managed irrigation schemes.
PDNA reported damages on the infrastructure and functionality of about 290 of 1,877
irrigation schemes by the earthquake (NPC, 2015).
B) Problems in Animal Husbandry
Due to the scarcity of drinking water, people in quake-hit districts like Kavre-palanchowk are
facing problems in animal husbandry. The water requirement for cattle are huge so locals
have to compromise with their water requirements.
C) Hurdles in Daily Activities
Local people have to travel far for fetching water in distant areas for drinking water
collection due to the scarcity of water. The water scarcity has also affected the daily activities
of women and children. Children of school going age have to travel and wait for long hours
to collect water.
D) Perturbation of Social Harmony
Social harmony of local people have also been in dangerous situation due to scarcity of water
resources. There is limited water available for drinking and other activities. It has caused an
environment of disturbance. Locals in Dapcha-Kashikhanda were afraid of losing their
neighboring villagers due to occasional conflict caused in nearby water resources.
There was huge conflict caused by turbidity of water at Saatmule spring in Dakshinkali
Municipality. People were unsatisfied with KUKL and complained about the water quality.
26
Sheshnarayan Pond is a center of belief for Hindu devotees. The water is considered holy and
pure by Hindu believers. The decreased water level in the pond has also decreased the
number of visitors.
E) Impact on Aquatic Ecosystem
The aquatic diversity of Sheshnarayan pond is also affected by shortage of water. The
quantity of fishes have been noticeably reduced after earthquake.
4.3 Protective Measures
Locals are not adopting protective measures to save water resources from disasters such as
earthquake, landslide, floods and soil erosion in Dakshinkali and Chandragiri, Kirtipur
municipalities. Even, they lack self-realization to protect water resources from natural
disasters. In most of the cases, the soil erosion has caused turbid water. Some locals informed
that the water spouts have been covered with semi-circle wooden structures to protect from
soil erosion. But, it is not secure and reliable.
In Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, a committee is made for the protection of Daraune-
Pokhari pond. Daraune-Pokhari Conservation Committee (DPCC) has conserved Daraune-
Pokhari Pond with the aid from Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality and local people.
Villagers believe that Daraune-Pokhari is the heart of water resources in Dapcha-
Kashikhanda area which acts as a recharge pond and conservation of which will
automatically release more water in vicinities. This has been seen important for the protection
of associated water resources.
Photo: Fencing and Retaining Wall built around Daraune Pokhari, Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality
27
Likewise, the BRB is being managed by HPCIDBC under Ministry of Urban Development,
Government of Nepal. Under Bagmati River Basin Improvement Project (BRBIP), two dams
will be built in the downstream of Dhap within Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park with a
storage capacity of 850,000 m3 and Nagmati Dam with the potential capacity of 8 million m
3.
BRBIP has also planned to install rain water harvesting structures to 2500 households to
provide 45,000 m3 of safe water supply and recharge 135,000 m
3 groundwater. Another
important part is to stabilize 12.5 ha of outward sloping agricultural land prone by
community interventions to increase water retention and reduce soil erosion. BRBIP has
planned community afforestation, agro-forestry, agri-horticulture and agri-silviculture in
degraded as well as privately owned outward sloping agricultural lands. This is important as
the outward sloping agriculture lands are considered as the source of runoff and erosion. The
sloping agriculture technologies such as contour farming, regulated water draining channels
cropping with fast growing fodder, shrubs, fruit trees and grasses having low shading effects
to the undergrowth crops will increase the stability of soil (BRBIP,2016). This project is
intended to increase the water security in Kathmandu valley.
Not only this, the project has planned to establish system and capacity for integrated and
participatory river basin management, improve river bank environment in urban areas,
increase water availability in the basin during dry season and improve watershed
conservation.
Photo: View of Dhap Dam (BRBIP,2016)
28
4.4 Identified Gaps
The study has identified some gaps in the study areas:
There is a need to rehabilitate damaged water supply schemes such as drinking water
supply and irrigation water schemes. This may be possible with the help of
community, local institutions and Governmental bodies.
There has been increased trend of drying up of water resources since last 5-10 years.
The overall study of the water resources focusing on pattern of water flow and the
associated reasons shall highlight more evidence on the actual reasons.
The single water resource is being used for multiple purpose (drinking, irrigation,
animal husbandry and domestic). This has also caused water deficiency in study areas.
Reuse of available water can lessen the water scarcity.
Lack of disaster preparedness/water security has also worsened the problems of water
shortage in study areas.
Proper infrastructure management for water in the areas can also decrease the water
scarcity. For example, storage tanks can be used during dry periods to fulfill water
requirements.
More recharge ponds need to be identified in order to conserve other water resources
in study areas.
29
5 Conclusion and Way Forward
The study concludes that the water sources are highly affected by the earthquake in the study
areas. Mostly, ponds, springs, stone spouts and rivers are affected. The turbidity has also been
increased after the earthquake. Local people directly depend upon these sources which has
impacted daily life and overall activities. Mainly, the impacts have been seen in agriculture,
animal husbandry and domestic usage of water. Unfortunately, locals have no plan for
conservation of these resources neither for natural disasters nor for water security besides
Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality in Kavre-palanchowk and Bagmati river in Kathmandu
valley. Daraune pokhari (pond) has been conserved by local people. BRB in Kathmandu is
being managed under BRBIP for increasing water security which shall enhance the water
quantity of Kathmandu valley.
Consumption of water has been hugely affected with the drying up of water resources. In this
scenario, it will be quite imperative to study and identify water focused adaptation planning
and practices adopted by locals.
The study recommends that the water security in the areas can be achieved through rain water
harvesting, restoration of traditional spouts, identification and conservation of recharge
ponds. Furthermore, identification of water stress and water availability shall solve the water
scarcity to some extent. Likewise, improvement of water supply services are important to
meet the water demands. Public awareness is also crucial to secure existing resources.
It is mostly said that there is no problem of water availability in Nepal, the existing problems
are due to the socio-economic water scarcity. Socio-economic water scarcity is caused due to
lack of information, infrastructures, coordination and implementation problems. In spite of
wide coverage of piped water supply, locals still like to consume water from traditional water
sources such as stone spouts, ponds and springs. Nepal should make District Water Resources
Preservation Plan considering the fact that the country is facing a multitude of natural hazards
including earthquake, flood, landslides and debris flow that hugely impact water use of
people. There should also be institutional framework to conserve and monitor these
traditional sources.
30
Annex
Annex 1: Glossary
Muhan (Spring)- A spring is a place where groundwater naturally emerges from the Earth's
subsurface in a defined flow discharging fresh groundwater onto the ground surface.
Kuwa (Pond)- A well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging or
drilling to access groundwater.
Inar (Dug-well)- A dug well is a shallow hole dug down into the water table for accessing
water.
Dhunge-dhara (Stone Spout)- Stone spout is artificial channel made for easy collection of
water made up of crafted stones.
31
Annex 2: Checklists
Checklist 1: Information on Existing Level of Water Resources
S.N. Area
Sources of
Water
(Type)
Completely
Dried
Change in water level
Stable
Water
flow
Increased
flow
Decreased
flow
Checklist 2: Checklist for Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
1. Location:
2. Name:
3. Gender:
4. Ethnicity:
5. Age:
6. Type of Water Resources: Stone spout/ well/dug well/river/piped water
systems/pond/canal
7. Structure of Well/stone spout/dug well/river/piped water systems:
8. Discharge:
9. No of Households using the water resources:
10. Public/private/shared:
11. Level of water after earthquake: a) Increased b) Decreased
12. Usage of water :a) drinking b) domestic purpose c) agricultural purpose
13. Change in Physical appearance of water:
14. Water Quality Tested:
15. Trend of water level in last 5-10 years:
16. Alternative water sources in use if any:
17. Status of water resource at present: a) still in use b) Abandoned
18. Future plans and measures for improvement/conservation of water resources from
natural hazards:
19. Hurdles caused by water scarcity:
20. Protection measures adopted from disasters if any:
21. Other issues if any:
32
Checklist 3: Checklist Used for Key Informants Interview (KII)
1. Name-
2. Gender-
3. Type of Water sources: Stone spout/ well/dug well/river/piped water
systems/pond/canal
4. Structure of Well/stone spout/dug well/river/piped water systems
5. Discharge:
6. No of Households using the water resources:
7. Public/private/shared:
8. Level of water after earthquake: a) Increased b) Decreased
9. Usage of water :a) drinking b) domestic purpose c) agricultural purpose
10. Change in Physical appearance of water:
11. Water Quality Tested:
12. Trend of water level in last 5-10 years:
13. Alternative water sources in use if any:
14. Status of water resource at present: a) still in use b) Abandoned
15. Future plans and measures for improvement/conservation of water resources from
natural hazards/disaster preparedness:
16. Associated Impacts due to water scarcity:
17. Other issues if any:
33
Annex 3: Photographs
Photo: Teendhara Stone spout in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Kavre-palanchok
Photo: Dried Well with spider web in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Kavre-palanchok
34
Photo: Thulodhara stone spout water also used for sanitation purpose,Kavre-palanchowk
Photo: Decreased water level at Sheshnarayan pond affecting water supply in vicinity,
Kathmandu
35
Photos: (First) Stone spouts water used for sanitation & (Second) Reduced water flow from stone
spouts, Matatirtha, Chandragiri Municipality
36
Photo: Completely dried stone spouts at Matsyanarayan , Kirtipur Municipality
Photo: Stone spout water being lifted-up by local community, Naumule, Dakshinkali Municipality
37
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