Polymer Nanocomposite Matrices

Ihsan Flayyih Hasan AI-Jawhari

ContentsIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Biodegradable Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Polymer Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Polymer Matrices from Sustainable Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Eco-friendly Polymer Nanocomposite (EPN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Wood Polymer Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

AbstractIn this chapter, a review of several researches was done on the developmentand characterization of nanocomposites based on starch, cellulose, and wood.The discussion will be focused on structural, mechanical, and barrel properties aswell as on degradation and the role of polymer nanocomposite (PNC) in atreatment in the different fields, such as utilization of polymers in variousindustrial applications to obtain a product with essentially a new set of properties.Micro- and nanomaterials increase the surface area-to-volume ratio. It affectsthe properties of the nanomaterials when they react with other nanomaterials.Due tothe higher specific surface area of nanomaterials, interaction with othernanomaterials within the mixture becomes more intense. This consequentlyresults in positive properties, such as high-temperature capability, resistanceagainst corrosion, noise damping, low in cost, high specific stiffness andstrength, high thermal conductivity, and low coefficient of thermal expansion.Nanocomposites obtained by using eco-friendly materials and techniques, as wellas incorporating nanofillers to biopolymers, are extremely promising products

I. F. H. AI-Jawhari (*)Department of Biology, College of Education for Pure Sciences,University of Thiqar, AL-Nasiriya, Thi-qar, Iraqe-mail: dr.ihsan_2012@yahoo.com

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019C. M. Hussain, S. Thomas (eds.), Handbook of Polymer and Ceramic Nanotechnology,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10614-0_16-1

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because they provide better properties with conservation of the materialbiodegradability, environmental friendliness, easy processing, and impressivephysicomechanical properties, avoiding ecotoxicity. This assists in evolution ofsimpler chemical processes or innovative designed product for future generationsby the chemical industries that should create least environmental impact.An interest in naturally available renewable materials has been developed dueto the global environmental concern.

KeywordsEco-friendly · Polymer · Nanocomposite · Nanomaterials · Biopolymer ·Biodegradation

Introduction

Nowadays, petroleum-derived polymers are the most widely used materials inthe packaging industry. However, there are important problems related withtheir use, such as no renewability, high costs, and environmental pollution theycan create (Thakur et al. 2012). The extensive degradation time associated tothese materials, which takes hundreds of years and involves the production ofhigh CO2 levels, is the main cause of the environmental pollution and residuesaccumulation produced (Chaudhry et al. 2008; De Azedero 2009; Arora and Padua2010; Vieira et al. 2011; González Seligra et al. 2013). A new generation of materialsbased on biopolymers will reduce the polymers and plastics industry dependency onpetroleum, creating more sustainable alternatives (Thakur and Thakur 2014a, b;Thakur et al. 2014). Bio-based polymers are derived from renewable resourcessuch as plant and animal mass from CO2. They can be divided into two groups:natural or synthetic polymers. Natural bio-based polymers are polymers synthesizedby living organisms such as animals, plants, algae, and microorganisms (bacteria,fungi). The most abundant bio-based polymers in nature are polymers from (greenresources) polysaccharides: starches (Ma et al. 2008; Jiménez et al. 2013; Lamannaet al. 2013; Souza et al. 2013); lignocellulosic products (Pastor et al. 2013); others aspectin, chitosan/chitin, and gums (Elsabee and Abdou 2013; Rubilar et al. 2013);protein and lipids (Murillo-Martínez et al. 2011); and plants (Bertan et al. 2005).

It is expected that the transition from micro- to nanoparticles increases thesurface area-to-volume ratio (Thakur and Thakur 2014a, b). It affects the propertiesof the particles when they react with other particles (Yuan-Qing et al. 2008).Due to the higher specific surface area of nanoparticles, the interaction withother particles within the mixture became more intense (Dubois and Alexandre2006). This consequently results in positive properties, such as high-temperaturecapability, resistance against corrosion, noise damping, low in cost/manufacturer,ductility, high specific stiffness and strength, high thermal conductivity, and lowcoefficient of thermal expansion (Fig. 1).

Polymer composites are made up of a polymeric matrix with some physicallydistinct distributed phases called reinforcements or fillers (Xiaofeng et al. 2011).

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The polymeric nanocomposites consist of a polymer with nanoparticles ornanofillers dispersed in its matrix (Thakur et al. 2012).

Biodegradable Polymers

Biodegradable polymers or biopolymers are a specific type of polymer in whichat least one of the steps in the degradation process is through metabolism ofnaturally occurring organisms (Rhim et al. 2013). This process results in theproduction of gases (CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic salts (Bastioli 2011;Avérous and Pollet 2012). These polymers are naturally occurring and alsosynthetically made and generally consist of ester, amide, and ether functionalgroups. Their properties and breakdown mechanism are determined by theirexact structure. However, in order to attain complete biodegradability, properhandling of residual plastics needs to take place; that is, after they have beenused, the plastics should be disposed under certain conditions that enable theirbiological decomposition (i.e., composting).

Fig. 1 Advantages and disadvantages of polymeric nanocomposites (Julkapli et al. 2014)

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In general, biodegradable polymers can be grouped into two large groupsbased on their structure and synthesis (Fig. 2). One of these groups is natural oragro-polymers, which are derived from biomass (Bastioli 2011; Avérous and Pollet2012). The other consists of biopolyesters, usually derived from microorganisms orsynthetically made from naturally or synthetic monomers. Natural biopolymersinclude polysaccharides, like starch found in potatoes or wood, and proteins, suchas animal-based whey or planet-derived gluten, gelatin, collagen, and casein(Bastioli 2011; Avérous and Pollet 2012). Polysaccharides consist of glycosidicbonds, which take a hemiacetal of a saccharide and bind it to alcohol via lossof water. Proteins are made from amino acids, which contain various functionalgroups, which form peptidic bonds through condensation reactions. On theother hand, biodegradable polymers can be manufactured from natural or syntheticmonomers or synthesized by microorganisms. Examples of biopolyestersinclude polyhydroxybutyrate and polylactic acid (Bastioli 2011; Avérous andPollet 2012). A recent breakthrough in this class of bioplastics is the developmentof technology to synthesize polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, and nylonfrom biological resources.

Among the most important biodegradable polymers, we can specially mentionthermoplastic starch (TPS), polylactide (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and poly-hydroxybutyrate and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) due to their promisingproperties.

Fig. 2 Biodegradable polymers organization based on structure and occurrence (Avérous andPollet 2012)

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Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is an attractive source for the development of bio-degradable plastics. It is one of the lowest cost biodegradable materials currentlyavailable in the global market (Mathew and Dufresne 2002; Shen et al. 2009). It canbe found in the form of discrete semicrystalline particles, whose size, shape,morphology, and composition depend on the botanical origin (corn, potato, maize).

The simplest of the family of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) biopolymers is poly-R-3-hydroxybutyrate or PHB. This polymer was first discovered in 1925 byLemoigne and was initially described as a lipid inclusion in the bacterium Bacillusmegaterium. The technical challenges for PHA are its narrow processing windowand high brittleness.

Polylactide or poly(lactic acid), otherwise known as PLA, is biodegradablethermoplastic polyester that is manufactured by biotechnological processes fromrenewable resources (e.g., corn). Although other sources of biomass can be used,corn has the advantage of providing the required high-purity lactic acid. The useof alternative starting materials (e.g., woody biomass) is being pursued in orderto reduce process costs; however, the number of steps involved in derivingpure lactic acid from such raw materials means that their use remains much lesscost-effective at present.

Poly(e-caprolactone) or PCL is an oil-derived biodegradable and semicrystallinepolyester. PCL has good water, oil, solvent, and chlorine resistance, a low meltingpoint, and low viscosity and is easily processed using conventional melt blendingtechnologies (Nair and Laurencin 2007; Gross and Kalra 2002). PCL has low tensilestrength (approximately 23 MPa) but an extremely high elongation at break[>700%] (Ludueña et al. 2007).

Polymer Matrices

Polymers in general are classified into the three basic families of resins, namely,thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers.

Thermoplastic-Based NanocompositesMaterials are classified to metals, ceramics, or polymers. Polymers differ from theother materials in a variety of ways, but generally they exhibit lower densities.The lower densities of polymeric materials offer an advantage in applicationswhere lighter weight is desired. The packaging application area is a large area forthermoplastics, from carbonated beverage bottles to plastic wrap.

Polymer Matrices from Sustainable Renewable Sources

StarchStarch is the most abundant organic compound in nature after cellulose. It is anamorphous polymeric carbohydrate consisting of anhydrous glucose units linkedprimarily through α-D-(1–4) glycosidic bonds. Starch is generally extracted from

Polymer Nanocomposite Matrices 5

food products like potatoes, wheat, maize, rice, etc. Starch is composed of twotypes of alpha glucan, like the linear and helical, amylose and branched amylopectin(Fig. 3), which represent approximately 98–99% of the dry weight (Tester et al.2004). Amylose and amylopectin differ significantly in their properties and func-tionality. Amylose has a high tendency to retrograde and produce tough gels andstrong films, while amylopectin when dispersed in water produces soft gels andweak films (Perez and Bertoft 2010). Depending on their origin, starch generallycontains 20–35% amylose and 65–80% amylopectin by weight. The industrialutilization of native starches is limited because of inherent imperfect nature, suchas water in solubility and their tendency to easily retrograde. Pure starch is a white,tasteless, and odorless powder, which is insoluble in water. However, when heatedin the presence of water, their intermolecular interactions get affected, leading toan irreversible transition, which makes them soluble in water. Cold water-solublestarch can also be prepared by physical, enzymatic, or chemical treatment of nativestarch. Physical modification of starch improves its water solubility and reduces itsparticle size. The physical methods involve treating native starch granules underdifferent temperature/moisture combinations and pressures.

Fig. 3 Molecular structure of starch (Google website)

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Plasticized starch has been gaining substantial attention and is used as a substitutefor synthetic polymers where long-term durability is not required and degradationis a benefit (Tábi and Kovács 2007). Plasticized starch is also called “thermoplasticstarch.” It is obtained by disintegration of starch in water followed by plasticizationwith water and plasticizer (e.g., glycerol) using thermomechanical energy in aconstant extrusion process. However, plasticized starch-based compositespossess many drawbacks like water sensitivity, poor mechanical properties, etc., incomparison with conventional synthetic thermoplastic-based composites (Cao et al.2008a, b). Moreover, the properties of plasticized starch attain stability afterseveral weeks. These plasticized starch are coupled with other compounds toremove the disadvantages associated with their properties. These drawbacks canbe overcome by means of different physical or chemical means, including thechemical modification (Cao et al. 2005), graft copolymerization (Suda et al. 2002),blending with other synthetic polymers (Cao et al. 2008a, b), and incorporatingfillers such as clay (Chen and Evans 2005) and nanocrystalline cellulose.

Eco-friendly Polymer Nanocomposite (EPN)

EPN from CelluloseCellulose has been identified as a source of biopolymer that can be used as asubstitute for petroleum polymers. EPN has been successfully synthesizedfrom cellulose acetate, triethyl citrate plasticizer, and organically modified clay(Misra et al. 2004). The polymer matrix for nanocomposite contains 80 wt% purecellulose acetate and 20 wt% triethyl citrate plasticizer. Results show that betterexfoliated and intercalated structure was obtained from nanocomposites containing5 and 10 wt% organoclay compared with that of 15 wt% organoclay. Tensile strengthof cellulosic plastic reinforced with 10 wt% organoclay improved by 180%, andthermal stability of the cellulosic plastic also increased. Recently, an activeantimicrobial packaging material has been successfully synthesized usingmethyl cellulose (MC) as the matrix with montmorillonite (MMT) as reinforcement(Tunc and Duman 2011). Carvacrol was then added to the as-prepared MMT/MCcomposite material to form nanocomposites.

Wood Polymer Nanocomposites

Wood polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) are a novel class of wood products withsignificantly enhanced physical, biological, mechanical, and chemical properties(Deka and Maji 2011; Md. Islama et al. 2012). The impregnation technique is oneof the preferred methods for the preparation of WPNC. Composites prepared throughthis technique can attain the desirable properties of wood completely (Devi and Maji2011). In this method, the empty celllumens of wood are occupied by the appropriatemonomer or prepolymer, cross-linking agents, and nanoparticles under the influenceof vacuum or high pressure, which is then polymerized inside the pores of wood.

Polymer Nanocomposite Matrices 7

Wood polymer composites (WPC) have tremendous advantageous properties,and it rapidly improves the mechanical, physical, chemical, as well as otherproperties of the composite suitable for different outdoor and indoor applications.The properties of the WPC can be improved to the desired level throughthe application of nanotechnology, cross-linking agents, flame retardants, grafting,etc. Nano-based wood polymer composite provides versatile advantages in theirproperties compared to the conventional WPC.

Wood is one of the renewable resources with an outstanding strength-to-weightratio. It is one of the preferred construction materials because products manufacturedfrom wood require much less energy compared to those produced from competitivematerials like concrete, plastic, or steel. It has an extensive sort of applicationswhich include construction of materials, paper, pulp, and as source for energy(Wegner et al. 2010). Woods are of two types – hard- and softwoods. The softwoodsremain as a biowaste and are mostly used for fuel purposes because of their poorproperties, whereas the hardwoods are used for construction applications. Thesesoftwoods can be designed as a value-added product by forming wood polymercomposite (WPC) (Hetzer and Kee 2008; Ashori 2008). The natural fiber-likewood possesses certain advantages like low cost, low density, light weight,high specific properties, and corrosion protective, and the most significant are itsbiodegradability and nonabrasiveness (Raj et al. 1989).

The various properties of wood-like appearance, pulp quality, strength properties,resistance to penetration by water and chemicals, decay, etc., are influenced by thechemical and anatomic composition of wood (Haygreen and Bowyer 1982). Thecellular structure of wood consists of cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses (Fig. 4),and minor amounts (5–10%) of extraneous materials. The quantity and distributionof these constituents of wood lead to variations in the characteristics of wood,and the nonconformity in cellular structure causes wood to be hard or soft, bulkyor light, and stiff, rigid, or flexile. The major constituent of the wood cell wall iscellulose, normally 40–50% by mass of the dry wood. The cellulose is a polymer ofglucose residues attached by 1,4-β-glycosidic bonds.

Hemicellulose is a combination of nebulous branched-chain polysaccharidescontaining a few hundred sugar residues. Lignin is very difficult to separate in anatural state and is an insoluble, amorphous organic polymer. Chemically, lignin is amethoxy-substituted propylphenol moiety which is bonded asymmetrically by etherand carbon–carbon linkages (Rowell et al. 1997). It consists of 18–30% by weightof the dry wood. It is mainly centralized in the layered cell wall and compoundmiddle lamella of wood. The rigidness in the structure of the cell wall of woodoccurs due to the presence of lignin and imparts a woody, rigid structure to the cellwalls. It differentiates the fibrous plant of minor lignin content from wood. There ispresence of abundant free hydroxyl groups in the structure of cellulose that canform hydrogen bonds with the moisture present in the atmosphere without anydifficulty (Xie et al. 2011). The hydrophilic –OH group of wood participates inchemical bonding with the polymers on formation of wood polymer composites andthus gets converted to hydrophobic groups (Hill et al. 1998). This prevents woodfrom shrinking and swelling bacteria, and fungi can no longer recognize wood

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Fig.4

Cellularstructureof

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Polymer Nanocomposite Matrices 9

as their food source within their service life (Li et al. 2013). The use ofsynthetic polymer-based composites has led to disposable problems because oftheir nonbiodegradable nature. Naturally available water-soluble polymer can beused in the different application as a substitute of the synthetic polymers due toscarcity of petroleum resources and environmental awareness. Water is the bestsolvent among all the green solvents because it is nonpolluting, inexpensive, andrenewable.

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