IGCSE Chemistry 2011 Notes

7/21/2019 IGCSE Chemistry 2011 Notes

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IGCSE Chemistry 2011Notes

This is a blog to help those sitting the iGCSE exams with notes from 2011's

syllabus. Use at your emise! These are my own notes that "'#e mae an "

shall be sitting these exams #ery soon! Goo $u%&! "f you ha#e the time while

on your re#ision brea& feel free to %he%& out my personal blog ! ! ! ! ! .........

Stuents (ho)s Tea%hers *re Shit

Giant Covalent StructuresThere are 2 examples of Giant %o#alent stru%tures+ ,iamon - Graphite

They are both allotropes of %arbon meaning they are both ierent types of

the physi%al form of Carbon.

Diamond

Stru%ture+ Giant %o#alent latticeof %arbon atoms.

Ea%h Carbon atom is bone to / others whi%h tetraherally surroun the

atom.

They ha#e a high melting point as a large amount of heat energy is neee

to brea& their bons.

They are unable to %onu%t ele%tri%ity as they ha#e no free mobile ele%trons

to %arry the %urrent.,iamon is #ery hardas there are many bons within the substan%e. "t is the

harest natural substan%e an is often use in rilling.

Graphite

Stru%ture+ *rrange in layers of atoms.

Ea%h %arbon atom is oine to others lea#ing one outer shell ele%tron on

ea%h %arbon is free to mo#e an able to %ary the %urrent. Therefore they are

able to %onu%t ele%tri%ity.

Graphite also has a high melting point for the same reasons as iamon.

owe#er it is not har li&e iamon but in fa%t #ery soft.

There are wea& for%es between the layers of atoms. They are able to slie

o#er ea%h other an therefore able to a%t as a lubri%ant.

34oning

5 notes

anonymousas&e+

are you miss al%o%er555
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"f you want to &now more about me..%he%& my personal blog+

alo#efor#ogue.tumblr.%om

Oxides6xies are use to etermine whether an element is a metal or a non7metal.

8ost non-metalsare %lasse as acidic oxides. (hile most metals are

%lasse as basic oxies.

*%ii% 6xies

9ea%ts with water to form a%is

:eutralises al&aline solution to form salt ; water

4asi% 6xies

:eutralises a%ii% solutions to form salt ; water

*mphoeteri% 6xies

These are non7metals whi%h isplay both a%ii% an basi% properties

*l&aline 6xies

9ea%ts with water to form al&aline solutions

:eutral 6xies

,o not isplay either of the a%ii% or the basi% oxies) properties.

36xygen -amp< 6xies

4 notes

Covalent BondingDefnition:(hen an atom shares one or more pairs of ele%trons between

atoms to obtain the ele%troni% %on=guration of a noble gas.

Co#alent bons appear in non-metalsan %reate molecules.They %an e#en

appear in atoms of the same element H2.

Molecule:Two or more atoms chemically bone together.

The %o#alently bone atoms are hel together by strong attraction between

the bonding pair of electrons an the nuclei of the atoms.Co#alent bons %an be %lassi=e into two groups+ simple

molecularstru%tures - giant covalent stru%tures

Simple molecular Structures:

They ha#e low melting>boiling points ue to the fa%t

that there are weak intermole%ular for%es of attra%tion. *lthough they o

ha#e strong %o#alent bons. Therefore they nee less heat energy to

o#er%ome an brea& the wea& bons.

Some substan%es sumblimeuner heating. i.e. They turn ire%tly into a gas

from a soli.

Giant molecular Structures: ee post on giant Molecular structures34oning
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4 notes

Ionic BondingDenition:The transfer of one or more ele%trons between 1 atom to another

WhyTo obtain the ele%troni% %on=guration of a noble gas. This is be%ause

noble gases are inert>#ery unrea%ti#e.

"f an atom loses an ele%tron then the atom will form a positiveion. This is

be%ause there are now more protons than ele%trons in the atom.

"f an atom gains an ele%tron the atom forms a negative ion as there are

now more ele%trons than protons in the atom.

The charge of an ion is relate to where the element)s position is in the

perioi% table.

"f the element is in !roup "nethan the ion will ha#e a #$ %harge

"f the element is in !roup %wo than the ion will ha#e a &$ %harge

"f the element is in !roup %hree than the ion will ha#e a '$ %harge

"f the element is in !roup (ive than the ion will ha#e a '- %harge

"f the element is in !roup ix than the ion will ha#e a &- %harge

"f the element is in !roup even than the ion will ha#e a #- %harge

There is no %harge for group four as they ten to be bone by %o#alent

bons.

!oiling "oints# $elting "oints:

"oni% %ompouns ha#e high melting points as there are strong

intermolecular electrostatic )orces o) attractionbetweenthe oppositely chargedions. Therefore a large amount of heat energy is

neee toovercome an break the bons.

The higher the chargethe higherthe melting*boiling point. This is

be%ause a greater %harge has strongerele%trostati% for%es of attra%ttion an

so nee more heat energy to o#er%ome an brea& the bons.

Structure:

"oni% %rystals are arrange in a 'D lattice structure. They are hel together

by electrostatic )orces o) attraction.

%bility to &onduct:

"oni% %ompouns are unable to %onu%t ele%tri%ity as a soli ue to the fa%tthat there are no )ree moving ele%trons that are able to carry the

current.

owe#er if they are in their molten state or in an a+ueous solution then

the ions be%ome )ree to move.

34oning

5 notes
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How did Everybody's Chem. exam

go???4 notes

EXAM TOMORROW?ust realise my =rst %hem exam is T686996(!!!

G66, $UC@ 8A $6BE$A 6$$6(E9S!!!!!!!!

x

D.S. *nyone else got a %hem exam this wee&55

, notes

Reacting Metals With Cold Waterithium:

4ubbles seen

2 release

,isappearsodium:

8elts an forms a ball as the rea%tion is e'othermic.The heat %auses

the soium to melt.

Same as $ithium

otassium:

$ila% ame seen as the hyrogen burns.

Same as soium

/alcium:

4ubbles are seen

(hite pre%ipitate forms+ calcium hydro'ide or limewater

Magnesium:

9ea%ts #ery slowly with water

9ea%ts #igorously with steam

8agnesium burns with bright white ame if steam is passe o#er it

2 gi#en o

White8agnesium 6xie is forme

0inc 1 2ron:

,oes ()*rea%t with %ol water

9ea%ts with steam

/opper:


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,oes not rea%t with steam or water as it is belowhyrogen in the

rea%ti#ity series.

3 notes

Rates of Reactionur)ace rea o) a olid:

Darti%les are able to ma&e more fre+uent%ollisions when there is a higher

surfa%e area. This is be%ause the acti,ation energyis in%rease an so the

rate of rea%tion in%reases.

/oncentration o) a olution:

Darti%les in a gi#en #olume in%reases in a more %on%entrate solution.

Therefore the a%ti#ation energy - rates of rea%tion in%reases.

%emperature:Darti%les gain more energy an so the parti%les mo#e faster %ausing more

freFuent %ollisions. *gain the a%ti#ation energy in%reases.

/atalyst:

* %atalyst pro#ies an alternati,e routewith a lowera%ti#ation energy.

Therefore more parti%les will rea%t with less a%ti#ation energy than the

original %ausing there to be more freFuent su%%essful %ollisions.

' notes

Electrolysis Calculations(aradays /onstant: 1 araay HI000C

(aradays (irst aw:The mass of an element isproportionalto

the +uantityof ele%tri%ity that passes.

e.g. "f an element has a 2; %harge than 2 araays are neee.

"f an element has ; %harge than araays are neee.

/alculating the Mass o) 6ach 6lement )ormed in a /ertain mount o)

6lectricity:

ind the number of &oulombs that is used in the reaction

e.g. 0.12 x 000C I0C

ind the $r of an lement and that should e+ual how many aradays are

needed.

e.g. *luminium ; 2Jg

*hen di,ide the answer by the number of faradays to nd the mass per /&

e.g. 2J> Hg

$ultiply the answer by the number of coulombs that is used in the reaction.

e.g. I0C x Hg 2/0g3%al%ulations
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4 notes

Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid8anufa%ture by the contactpro%ess

ources o) ulphur:

:aturally o%%urs as an element

"n Crue 6il

6%%urs in Sulphie7 e.g. $ea Sulphie

Method:

1. Sulphur is rea%te with oxygen to form Sulphur ioxie

2. Sulphur ,ioxie is rea%te again with oxygen to form Sulphur Trioxie

Kan exothermi% rea%tionL

. Sulphur Trioxie is rea%te with water to ma&e Sulphuri% *%i.

H)W01 this rea%tion gi#es out a mist of 2S6/ whi%h %an be

extremely haardous.Therefore the sulphuri% a%i is rea%te again with the

sulphur trioxie to form fumingsulphuri% a%i 2S26J.

/. The 2S26J is rea%te again with water to form 2S6/ again.

/onditions:

/M0 egrees C

Banium KBL 6xie

2 *tmospheres

7ses:

,etergents

Daints ertiliNers

3Chemistry in So%iety

Manufacture of Ammonia8ae using the H%!1 "1)&SS3

8here are the 9itrogen 1 ydrogen obtained )rom;

:itrogen rom the *ir. "t is liFui=e an then separate by fa%tional

istillation.

yrogen Either by the %ra%&ing of hyro%arbons 69 from natural gas.

/onditions:

/M0 egrees C 7 9ea%tion is enothermi% so the higher the temp the

larger the yiel.

200 *tmospheres7 the high pressure fa#ours the forwar rea%tion as it

has W1mole%ules

Catalyst of "ron

Method:

1. 4oth gases pass through the rea%tion #essel2. 6nly 1MO of the : - 2 %ombine to ma&e :
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. 9ea%tion 8ixture is %oole so the ammonia condensesinto a liFui.

/. 6ther unrea%te : - 2 are re%ir%ulate into the rea%tor.

7ses o) mmonia:

8anufa%ture of :itri% *%i

8anufa%ture of *mmonium :itrate - *mmonium Sulphate whi%h are

fertiliNers.

4 notes

Dynamic EquilibriumDefnition: (hen the forwar an ba%&war rea%tions are o%%urring at the

same rate so that there is no fa#ourable sie.

The position of eFuilibrium %an %hange a%%oring to the conditions.

4(&1%S4(Gthe temp. will fa#our the yeil of the E:,6TE98"C

rea%tion

4(&1%S4(G the pressure will fa#our the yiel of the sie with $ESS

mole%ules.

e.g. :2 ; 2 PQ 2: The temperature in%rease fa#ours the 4*C@(*9,S

rea%tion. 4ut the pressure in%rease fa#ours the 69(*9, rea%tion as there

are / mole%ules on the left an only 2 on the right.

Catalysts D) ()* in%rease the yiel but the 1%* ) 1%&*4)(3

3Energeti%

< notes

Energetics6xothermic: * rea%tion that G40S )5*heat energy. Causes an 4(&1%Sin

temperature.

6ndothermic: * rea%tion that *%6S 4( heat energy. Causes a D&1%Sin

temperature.

Exothermi% - Enothermi% rea%tions %ause a changein temperature in the

solution.

/alculating 6nergy /hange: Cal%ulate the number of energy mae uring bon brea&ing

Cal%ulate the amount of energy mae uring bon ma&ing

Subtra%t the bon ma&ing from the bon brea&ing

Drawing an 6ndothermic Diagram:

9ea%tants are !7)Wthe prou%ts

Drawing an 6xothermic Diagram:

9ea%tants are%!)0 the prou%ts

/alculating the 6nergy /hange 2n 8ater:

1. in the eat gaine by the water. K8ass x /.1R x Temp. %hangeL

2. in the 8r of the solution. in :o. of mol from the 8ass - 8r
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/. Cal%ulate it to 1 mol. ,i#ie the eat gaine by the no. of mol to =n

the heat gaine for e#ery one mole.

# note

Making Insoluble SaltsMethod:

Drepare by using aprecipitation reaction

Two soluble solutions of the insoluble salt are mixe together. 6ne with

the %ation one with the anion

Stir the mixture until a pre%ipitate forms

ilter the mixture to obtain the insoluble salt

9inse with a little bit of istille water an pat ry with =lter paper

Methods for Making Saltsoluble alts:

9ea%t an ex%ess of the soli with an a%i to ma&e sure that all the a%i has

been neutraliNe.

cid $ Metal

Method:

1. 8easure out some a%i into a bea&er

2. * the soli metal in ex%ess into the bea&er

. ilter the mixture to remo#e the ex%ess magnesium/. eat the =ltrate to e#aporate some water

M. $ea#e to %ool an %rystalliNe

I. (ash with a little istille water - pat ry with =lter paper

9.=. 4f the metal is %luminium8 9inc or 4ron8 the acid must be heated before

they are added.

cid $ Metal "xide 1 cid $ Metal /arbonate

Method:

1. *%i must be warme beforesoli is ae

2. 9est is the same as the metho for a%i - metal

3*%is *l&alis -amp< Salts

General Rules for the Solubility of

Saltsoluble in 8ater:

*ll "otassium8 Sodium %mmonium salts

*ll (itrates

*ll common chloridesex%ept sil,er chloride lead chloride

*ll common sulphatesex%ept lead ;44< sulphate &alcium sulphate
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10/31

Drou%es H=D1)G( ions when rea%te with water

,e=ne by the sour%e of ; ions

=ases+

Drou%es H=D1)>4D ionswhen rea%te with water

Combines with ; ions to neutraliNe an a%i

Sour%e of 67 ions

*re either o'idesor hydro'ides

*l&ali is a soluble base

alts:

(hen the hydrogenin an a%i is replacedwith a metalfrom the al&ali

e.g. Sulphuri% a%i PQ .. sulphate

3*%is *l&alis -amp< Salts

The Reactivity Series4n )rder of Decreasing 1eacti,ity:

Dotassium

Soium

$ithium

Cal%ium

*luminium

K%arbonL

in%

"ron

Tin

$ea

KhyrogenL

Copper

Sil#er

Gol

Dlatinum

# note

IndicatorsDefnition:* substan%e that %hanges %olour epening on whether it is an

a%i or an al&ali.There are types of ini%ator we use in iGCSE+
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Dhenolphthalein

8ethyl76range

Uni#ersal "ni%ator

henolphthalein:

*%i &olourless

*l&ali 1ed#"in?

En point>:eutral "ale "in?

Methyl-"range:

*%i 1ed

*l&ali =ellow

En point>:eutral Salmon "in?

7niversal 2ndicator:

Strong *%i 1ed

(ea& *%i =ellow

Strong *l&ali "urple

(ea& *l&ali !lue

En point>:eutral Green

3Titrations3*%is *l&alis -amp< Salts

' notes

Acid Alkali Titrations7se:To =n the amount of a%i neee to neutraliNe a %ertain amount of

al&ali or #i%e #ersa.

6+uipment:

Set limit of a%i>al&ali in a &)(4&%7 7%S6

4urette to =n the amount to neutraliNe the a%i>al&ali

"ni%ator

Dipette

Method:

1. illthe burette with a%i>al&ali an ta&e note of the reaing. 9ea it to

the nearest 0.0M %m

2. Dipette 2M%m of the al&ali>a%i into a %oni%al as&

. * a few rops of ini%ator

/. * the a%i to the al&ali swirling the mixture %onstantlyM. The en point is etermine by the %olour the ini%ator rea%hes.

"fphenalphthaleinthan the en point %olour will be a lightpin?. "f uni,eral

indicator than the solution %olour will be green."f methyl-orangeis use than

the %olour will be salmon pin?.

I. 9e%or the reaing of the en point on the burette.

J. 9epeat without aing the ini%ator

3Titrations3*%is *l&alis -amp< Salts

# note
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Relative Masses & Molar Vol. Of

Gases Calculations@elative (ormula Mass:The sum of the 8ass numbers in a %ompoun.

e.g. 2S6/ 2K1L ; 2 ; /K1IL HR

ercentage o) an element in a compound:

8ust be gi#en the mass of the element in the %ompoun

Cal%ulate the 1elati,e ormula $ass

Di,idethe mass of the element by the relati#e formula mass an

multiply by 100

imple /alculations with Moles:

:o. of moles 8ass > 9elati#e ormula 8ass

e.g. 0./ mole of Carbon 12g K98L x 0./ /.Rg

/alculating 6mpirical (ormula:

in the massof ea%h element. This shoul be gi#en in the Fuestion

in the relati,e formula mass

in the no. of moleswith the %al%ulation of mass>98

9atio the no. of moles by di,idingthe two by the smallestno. of moles

9oun to a whole number

/alculating Molecular (ormula:

Use the same metho to =n the Empiri%al ormula

in the 98 of the empiri%al formula ,i#ie the 98 of the original %ompoun by the 98 of the empiri%al

formula

8ultiply the answer with the Empiri%al ormula

/alculations based on e+uations involving reacting masses:

(rite a !%7%(&DeFuation of the rea%tion

Unerline the substan%es that ha#e their mass gi#en in the Fuestion

Cal%ulate the no. of moles in the substan%es with their mass gi#en

Use the mole ratio to %al%ulate no. of moles the other substan%es ha#e

Cal%ulate the 98 of the %ompoun

in the mass of the substan%e by multiplying the no. of moles by the98 of the %ompoun

/alculating the 9o. o) Mol o) a GAS::o. of 8oles Bolume> 2/m or

2/000%m 9earrange the formula to =n the Bolume.

/alculating the /oncentration: Con%. 8oles>Bolume

"f in %m then times the whole thing by 1000.

3Cal%ulations

A notes

Physical test for PURE Water
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To see whether the water sample is pure measure the boiling - freeing

points of the sample.

"f they boil at exa%tly 100 egrees C - freeNe at 0 egrees C at 1 atmosphere

then the sample is pure.

3Tests for (ater

Colbalt Chloride Paper"riginal /olour without water: 4lue

/olour when water is added: Dale Din&

3Tests for (ater

Anhydrous Copper (II) Sulphatendydrous * substan%e that oes not %ontain water

7se:To test if a %hemi%al is water

nhydrous copper >22? sulphate white powder

ydrated /opper >22? ulphate blue powder

(hen water is ae the power turns from white to blue.

(hen the blue power is heate the power returns to its original white

%olour.

CuS6/ ; 26 PQ CuS6/ . M26

CuS6/.M26 PQ CuS6/ ; 26

3Tests for (ater

Reacting Metals with Dilute AcidsotassiumB odiumB ithiumB /alcium: Cannot be rea%te safely as they

are too rea%ti#e.

Magnesium:

9ea%ts 04G)1)5S7=

yrogen is gi#en o 4ubbling 8agnesium isappears

Colourless salt forme

8g ; 2Cl PQ 8gCl2 ; 2

8g ; 2S6/ PQ 8gS6/ ;2

luminium:

9ea%ts #igorously upon heating

Bery thin layer of%luminium )'ideforme on the surfa%e of the

aluminium pre#enting it from rea%ting at rtp. Upon heating the layer

isremo,ed. Slow to rea%t without heating
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14/31

2*l ; ICl PQ 2*lCl ; 2

0inc 1 2ron:

9ea%ts slowlywithout heating

9ea%ts rapidlywith heating

4ubbling seen 8etal slowlyisappears

n ; Cl PQ nCl2 ; 2

e ; 2S6/ PQ eS6/ ; 2

Metals below hydrogen in @:

D)S ()*rea%t with ilute a%is

Preparation of Carbon DioxideMethod # - "verwater: Same as the preparation for oxygen but using

ilute Cl a%i an marble %hips K%al%ium %arbonateL

Method & C %hermal decomposition o) a Metal carbonate:

1. Dut a large spatula of the metal %arbonate into a test tube

2. eat the metal %arbonate with a 4unsen burner

. Colle%t the C62 with a gas syringe or into a test tube =lle with

limewater

e.g. "f Copper Carbonate is forme it will turn from green to bla%& %opper

oxie.

%est )or /"&: * a few rops of $imewater. "f %arbon ioxie is present then

the solution will turn %louy.

7ses o) /"&:

7 ire extinguishers as it is $)1 ense than air - oes not support

%ombustion

7 To ma&e =NNy rin&s. The %arbon ioxie is =rst issol#e in air uner

pressure.

hysical roperties:

7 8ore ense than air

7 airly soluble in water

7 Colourless - oourless


15/31

3Dreparation of Gases in a $ab

Reacting Sulfur,Magnesium,

Carbon with Oxygen6xygen %ombines with most metals>non7metals to form oxies. (e use a

burning spoon =lle with a sample an heat it in a 4unsen burner for a

rea%tion to ta&e pla%e.

ulphur:

7 4urns with a !14GH* !75 ame

7 Sulphur ioxie is forme.

S ; 62V S62

7 "t is an acidicoxie an when issol#es in water rea%ts to form

a stronga%ii% solution.

S62 ; 26 V 2S6Ksulphurous a%iL

7 Sulphurous a%i rea%ts with an al&aline to form a salt - W%*1

Magnesium:

7 4urns with a !14GH* WH4*ame.

7 8agnesium 6xie is forme. 28g ; 62V 28g6

7 orms a basic oxie - al?aline oxie. (hen rea%te with water

a wea?al&aline solution is forme.

8g6 ; 26 V 8gK6L2 8agnesium yroxie

7 8agnesium yroxie rea%ts with an a%i to form a salt - W%*1

/arbon:

7 4urns with a 1D G7)W

7 orms C62whi%h is an a%ii% oxie. 9ea%ts with limewater an turns

the solution into a %louy %olour

7 (hen issol#e in water rea%ts to form a wea? a%i &nown as Carboni%

a%i.

C62; 26 V 2C6

7 Carboni% a%i forms salt - W%*1when rea%te with an al&aline

36xygen -amp< 6xies

Preparation of Oxygen
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7 Drepare by the decomposition of H=D1)G( "1)>4D

7 Catalyst of $anganese ;40< o'ide is use

Method:

1. yrogen Deroxie is slowly rippe onto the 8anganese K"BL 6xie

2. 4ubbles are seen as 62 is gi#en o

. 6xygen tra#els to the gas ar an %olle%te o,erwater

yrogen Deroxie V 6xygen ; (ater

2262 V 226 ; 62

3Dreparation of Gases in a $ab

Reacting Phosphorus with Air

7 9e phosphorus is use

Method:

1. eat a glass ro for se#eral minutes

2. (hen the ro glows re ue to the heat remo#e the bung an pla%e the

hot en of the ro onto the phosphorus

. 9epla%e bung when phosphorus starts to burn

/. The phosphorus burns with a white yellow @amean white fumes are

prou%e

M. The water le#el rises to %ompensate for the oxygen lost. "t shoul rise

by approximately 1>M of the original #olume

Dhosphorus ; 6xygen V Dhosphorus K"BL 6xie

3?ustifying the amount of 6xygen in the air

Reacting Iron with Air7 The same #olume of air is use for the #olume of water

Method:

1. Ta&e a note of the water le#el
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2. $ea#e the apparatus to 2 or ays

. 9epeat step 1

/. 9ust starts to form on the iron. (ater le#els rise to %ompensate for the

oxygen ta&en up .

M. Cal%ulate the per%entage of the in%rease in water. This shoul %ome to

21O

"ron ; (ater ; 6xygen V yrate "ron K"""L 6xie

Reacting Copper with Air7 Total #olume of air use 100%m

7 Use to etermine the amount of oxygen in the air

Method:

1. *ir is pushe ba%&wars an forwars o#er a pie%e of heate %opper

2. Copper rea%ts with the oxygen uner heat to form copper o'ide.

2Cu ; 62 V 2Cu6

. 4unsen burner always mo#es along the length of the heate %opper

/. The oxygen will then be all use up for %ombining with the %opper when

the %opper no longer turns bla%&

M. $ea#e the apparatus to %ool before measuring as gases expan when

they unergo heating

I. There shoul be only JH%m of air in the gas syringe at the en of the

experiment.

/olour change o) the copper: orange>re to bla%&

3?ustifying the amount of 6xygen in the air

Composition of Air

JRO of :itrogen

21O of 6xygen

0.HO of *rgon

0.0O 7 0.0/O of C62

38is%illaneous
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Filtration & Crystallisation7 Use to separate two solis + 6ne whi%h is soluble an one whi%h

isinsoluble

Method:

1. Stir the mixture with water to issol#e the soluble soli

2. ilter the solution to obtain the insoluble soli

. The resiue is rinse with istille water - left to ry

/. eat the =ltrate of the soluble soli to e,aporatesome of the water in

the solution

M. $ea#e the =ltrate to %ool an %rystalliNe

I. 9inse the %rystals of the soluble soli with a little istille water an pat

ry with =lter paper

3Separation Te%hniFues

Paper Chromatography7 Use two separate %olours in a soluble mixture

7 Sol#ent tra#els up the paper

7 ,ierent %olours tra#el up to ierent lengths epening on

thesolubility of a solute

7 $ength S)70(* 1)(*

7 Use to tell whether the sol#ent is pure

7 Starting line must be rawn in an insoluble meium e.g. graphite

7 (ater must be below the starting line

3Separation Te%hniFues

Differences between a Compound& a Mixture/ompound:

Contains elements in =xe proportions

"n orer to split the %ompoun a %hemi%al rea%tion must ta&e pla%e

,oes not ha#e all the properties of its elements

Mixture:

Contains elements in any proportions

Can be separate physi%ally e.g. fra%tional istillation
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Contains the properties of its %omponents

General Definitionstom:The smallest parti%le of an element. *ll atoms of the same elementha#e the same atomi% number.

Molecule:Consists of *W)or more atoms %hemi%ally %ombine. *ll

mole%ules are &)0%7(*7= bonded.

6lement: * substan%e that %annot be split into smaller substan%es

/ompound:Two or more elements %hemi%ally %ombine

Mixture: Consists of two or more elements ()*%hemi%ally %ombine

Diffusion in Gases@eactants:*mmonia : - Cl

Method:

1. Dla%e one en of a gas tube with %otton wool soa&e in concentrated

ammonia solution

2. "n the opposite en pla%e a %otton wool soa&e in concentrated

hydrochloric acid

. * white ring of ammonium chlorideforms in the tube towars the en

with Cl a%i as the ammonia is less ense than the Cl a%i. Therefore the

ammonia tra#els fasterthan the Cl a%i.

3Simple experiments leaint to the iea of the small siNe of parti%les an theirmo#ement

Demonstrating Diffusion in a

LiquidMethod:

1. Dla%e a %rystal of "otassium $anganese ;044< into water

2. The %oloure parti%les split o from the %rystal an mo#e aboutthrough the solution until they are e#enly sprea out.

. The solution turns from %olourless to purple

3Simple experiments leaint to the iea of the small siNe of parti%les an their

mo#ement

Dilution of Coloured SolutionsMethod:

1. ,issol#e somepotassium manganate ;044< in 10%m of water in a testtube. *purple solution shoul form
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2. * 1%mW of solution to a se%on test tube an =ll it with 10%mW of

water.

. 9epeat until no %olour %an be seen

@eason:*s the solution be%omes more ilute the parti%les be%ome further

apart. This experiment shows that the %olour parti%les must be #ery small as it

ta&es numerous tries until no %olour %an be seen.

3Simple experiments leaint to the iea of the small siNe of parti%les an their

mo#ement

# note

States of Matterolids:

*rrange regularlyto form a lattice

Darti%les are pa%&e closely together

Darti%les ,ibrate when heate

(hen heate the parti%les G%4( energy an #ibrate faster until they obtain

enough energy to brea& apart from the regularly arrange latti%e to a %ertain

extent.

i+uids:

Darti%les still pa%&e %losely together

ree to mo,e past ea%h other

:o longer in a latti%e shape

(hen heate the parti%les gain energy an mo#e faster until they are able to

brea& away from one another to form a gas.

!ases:

Darti%les ha#e no consistent shape

&onstantlymo#ing in a randommotion

7argespa%es between the parti%les

Defnitions

ublimationThe pro%ess when a soli turns into a gas without passing

through a liFui state

3States 6f 8atter

Test for Carbonate ions CO32-Method:

1. * ilute Cl a%i

2. Carbonate ions rea%t with yrogen ions to form water - %arbon

ioxie

. 4ubble C62 through 74$W%*1

@esults: $imewater turns &7)5D=

(ormula: CuC6 ; 2Cl PQ 26 ; C62 ; CuCl2

3Test for "ons
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Test for Sulphate ions, SO42-Method:

1. * ilute Cl a%i to the testing solution

2. Then a !%145$ &H7)14D solution

. * pre%ipitation forms

@esult: * WH4* pre%ipitation forms

3Test for "ons

Testing for Cl- , Br- & I- ionsMethod:

1. * (4*14& %&4Dto the solution in a testube

2. Then a S4701 (4*1%*solution to the testube

. * pre%ipitate shoul form

@esults:

Chlorie ion WH4* precipitate

4romie ion &1%$ precipitate

"oie ion =77)W precipitate

3Test for "ons

pradanonymousas&e+

"t's 8ia from s%hool no o&e this is helping me so mu%h! +L

hahah than&s +L this is the only way " %an ma&e myself re#ise $6$

Testing for Cu 2+, Fe2+, Fe3+Method:

1. Dla%e a small amount of the testing solution into a testube

2. * soium hyroxie solution until it is present in e'cess

8hy;The only hyroxies able to be soluble are soium potassium -

ammonium hyroxie. Therefore all other hyroxies form a "1&4"4*%*

@esults:

Copper K""L ion !75precipitate

"ron K""L ion G1( pre%ipitate

"ron K"""L ion )1%(G-!1)W( pre%ipitate

3Simple Tests for %ations3Test for "ons

Testing for Ammonium Ions NH4+Method:

1. Dla%e a small amount of soli ammonium salt into a testube
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2. * some a+ueoussolution of S)D45$ H=D1)>4D

. (arm the mixture

/. %mmonia gas shall be gi#en o

M. Dla%e a damp pie%e of litmus paper into the ammonia

@esult:The litmus paper turns blue

(ormula: :/Cl ; :a6 PQ : ; :aCl ; 26

3Simple Tests for %ations3Test for "ons

Flame tests for Li+ , Na+ , K+ &

Ca2+Method:

Cleaning the wire

1. Ta&e a platinum wire in a holer

2. Clean the wire by ipping it into %on%entrate Cl a%i

. ol wire in bunsen burner until no %olour is seen

Testing the %ation

1. ,ip the wire into some fresh %on%entrate Cl a%i

2. Then ip into the soli being teste

. Dla%e into the bunsen burner

/. * %olour shall be seen

@esults:$ithium ion 9e ame

Soium ion Aellow 6range ame

Dotassium ion $ila% lame

Cal%ium ion 4ri%& 9e ame

3Test for "ons3Simple Tests for %ations

Polymerisationolymer: * large mole%ule mae by the oining together of monomers Ksmall

mole%ulesL

There are T(6 types of polymerisation.

*ition Dolymerisation

Conensation Dolymerisation

ddition olymerisation

The monomer is *$(*AS an al?ene.The ouble bon is bro&en own to

enable the oining together of the other mole%ules.

e.g. DolyKetheneL - polyKpropeneL

roperties o) plastic:
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Easily molable

9esistant to %orrosion

,oes not %onu%t thermal energy or ele%tri%al energy

$ow ensity

lexible

"nsoluble

oly>ethene?:There are two types of polyKetheneL low ensity $,DE an

high ensity ,DE.

$,DE is use for ma&ing plasti% bags as it is exible.

,DE is use for ma&ing mil& bottles by ine%tion as it has a low melting point.

/ondensation olymerisation

"t is the lin& between simple mole%ules to form a large mole%ule. owe#er a

small mole%ule is is%harge from ea%h lin& mae. "t is usually Cl or water

eliminate.

9ylon #:

8ae from a ,"*8":E - ,"C*946A$"C a%i

,iamine group :2

,i%arboxyli% group C66 KC6 - C767L

26 is eliminate

9ylon &:

8ae from ,iamine - ,"*CA$ C$69",E

,i%yl %hlorie C6C$ KC6 - C7ClL

Cl is eliminate

36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety# note

Acid Rain8hat causes it; :itrogen 6xie - Sulfur ioxie.

ow can it be prevented;Cars %an be =tte with %atalyti% %on#erters. They

reu%e the nitrogen oxie into nitrogen.

8hat happens;The nitrogen oxie or sulfur ioxie ,"SS6$BES in the water

#apour in the air./onse+uences;

*lters the p of la&es so that =sh are unable to li#e in the new

%onitions

%orroes builings an statues mae of limestone K%al%ium %arbonateL

&ills trees

3Chemistry "n So%iety

Catalytic Cracking
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Defnition: The pro%ess of %on#erting $6:G C*":E, al&enes into S69T

%haine al&anes.

8hy:

To satisfy the eman for shorter %haine al&anes whi%h %an be mae into

polymers.

To satisfy the eman for extra gasoline.

/onditions:

I007 J00 egrees C

Catalyst of *luminium 6xie or Sili%on ,ioxie

9.=. 4t is an e'ample of *hermal Decomposition3 *he molecules are bro?en

up randomly

36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety

Crude OilCrue oil is a C68D$E mixturre of hyro%arbons. Crue oil is more useful in

its separate %ompouns.

eparation techni+ue:ra%tional ,istillation. This is be%ause the

%ompouns in %rue oil ha#e ierent boiling points.

Method:

Crue oil is heate - passe into the fra%tionating %olumn

The %olumn is 6TTE9 at the bottom an %ooler at the top

Compouns with less %arbon atoms ha#e a $6(E9 boiling point as less

energy is nee to brea& the %arbon atoms an so they ten to rise.

$arger mole%ules ha#e high boiling points an ten to fall.

Drou%ts are %olle%te at ierent le#els a%%oring to their boiling

points.

/ompounds sorted in ascending order o) boiling points:

1. 9e=nery Gases 7 fuel for omesti% applian%es

2. Gasoline KpetrolL 7 fuel for %ars.

. :aphtha 7 not use as a fuel

/. @erosine 7 fuel for air%raft

M. ,iesel oil 7 fuel for lorries buses - some %ars

I. uel oil 7 fuel for ships - inustrial heaters

J. 4itumen 7 use as tar for surfa%ing roas

hysical properties:The higher the boiling points of the %ompouns the

less #olatile they are. $iFui fra%tions be%ome 869E #is%ous on going ,6(:

the %olumn.

Eolatile substance:* %ompoun that turns easily into a gas.


Uses of Ethanol1. *s a Sol#ent for Cosmeti%s - Derfume
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2. *s a uel

#: Goo sol#ent for insoluble %omplex %ompouns

&: "t is mixe with DET96$ to prou%e G*S66$. "t is then burnt to %reate

energy. "t is in%reasingly use in %ountries that grow sugar%ane an that has

little %rue oil reser#es.

(ormula: &2HA)H B C)2 E 2&)2 B CH2)


Dehydration of EthanolDehydration:The remo#al of water from a %ompoun

roduct:Ethene KgasL - (ater

/onditions:

Catalyst of *$U8":"U8 6",E

eat(ormula: C2M6 PQ C2/ ; 20


# note

Ethanolomologous eries:Ethanol is the 2n member of the *$C66$S!

!eneral (ormula )or lcohols:CKnLK2n;1L6

tructural (ormula: C C2 6Manu)acture o) 6thanol:There are two ways of ma&ing ethanol. "t %an be

mae by the E98E:T*T"6: 6 SUG*9S or the A,9*T"6: 6 ETE:E.

(ermentation o) ugars

/onditions:

*Fueous solution of sugar

Dresen%e of yeast

:o presen%e of air Kotherwise the al%ohol will rea%t with the oxygen to

form ethanoi% a%i *@* #inegarL

e.g. Glu%ose PQ Ethanol ; Carbon ,ioxie

CI126I P7Q 2C2M6 ; 2C62

roducts+ *Fueous solution of Ethanol. "t is then 9*CT"6:*$$A ,"ST"$$E, as

the prou%t is HIO Ethanol - /O water.

ydration ") 6thene

/onditions+

00 egrees C

I07J0 atmospheres

* %atalyst of Dhosphori% *%i

roduct+ There is no nee to fra%tionally istill the ethanol as it is mu%h purer

than the prou%t from fermentation.36rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety
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# note

Addition of Bromine%ype o) @eaction:*ition 9ea%tion

7ses )or this reaction: Use to etermine whether a substan%e %ontains a

Carbon to %arbon ouble bon an al&ene an unsaturation!

Method:The organi% %ompoun is S*@E: with the 4romine water. "f the

%ompoun %ontains a Carbon to Carbon ouble bon then the solution will go

from 69*:GE to C6$6U9$ESS!

/onditions:*Fueous solution of 4romine i.e. 4romine (ater


Alkenes!eneral (ormula: Cn2n

*l&enes are 5(S%*51%*D H=D1)&%1!)(S333 K"f you on)t &now what an

unsaturate hyro%arbon is S*8E 6: A6U! $6$ &! "t)s in the e=nitions in

6rgani% Chemistry postL

ower Members o) lkenes: *H1 4S () S5&H *H4(G %S $*H(3 *he

al?enes rst member is *H(3

Ethene7 C2/

Dropene7 CI4utene 7 C/R K2 Straight "somers - 1 4ran%h Chaine "somerL

Dentene 7 CM10

hysical roperties: irst / members are G*SES at rtp Kroom temperature

- pressureL. The rest of the members are $"XU",S at rtp.

/hemical roperties: Combust in air li&e *l&enes

*l&enes unergo *,,"T"6: 9E*CT"6:S!

8hat is an addition reaction;(hen a ouble bon between %arbon atoms

brea& an oins onto another atom.

2 mole%ules oin for e#ery %arbon to %arbon ouble bon bro&en! Therefore

the al&ene be%omes S*TU9*TE,.


Reaction of Methane with Bromine%ype o) @eaction :Substitution rea%tion

(hen an *$@*:E rea%ts with a *$6GE: the halogen must repla%e a

A,96GE: atom in the al&ane. Therefore the repla%e yrogen will

%ombine with the halogen forming 2 new prou%ts. Ea%h time

A,96GE: 4968",E will be prou%e.
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27/31

/onditions )or the @eaction: 8ust ta&e pla%e uner UB light

There are / stages in the rea%tion of 8ethane an 4romine as there are 6U9

hyrogen atoms.

tage #: C/ ; 4r2 PQ C4r ; 4r K4romomethane an yrogen

4romieLtage &: C4r ; 4r2 PQ C24r2 ; 4r K,ibromomethane - yrogen

4romieL

tage ':C24r2 ; 4r2 PQ C4r ; 4r KTribromomethane - yrogen

4romieL

%age 4:C4r ; 4r2 PQ C4r/ ; 4r KTetrabromomethane - yrogen

4romieL

36rgani% Chemistry

# note

Complete & Incomplete

Combustion of Alkanes/omplete /ombustion:(hen al&anes 9E*CT with oxygen an &%1!)(

D4)>4D is forme

2ncomplete /ombustion:(hen al&anes rea%t with little oxygen

an &%1!)( $)()>4D is forme.

9ea%tions are BE9A exothermi%

=alancing the 6+uations:Aou are allowe to use hal#es for

balan%ing. *ip:4alan%e the %arbon atoms =rst

Dangers o) /":

C6 is T6"C or D6"S6:6US %olourless - oorless

"t bins with the haemoglobin in the bloo instea of the oxygen.

Therefore reu%es the %apa%ity of oxygen in the bloo.

6xample o) an e+uation )or /omplete /ombustion:

C/ KgL ; 262KgL PQ 220KlL ; C62 KgL

6xample o) an 6+uation )or 2ncomplete /ombustion:

C/ ; 1.M62 PQ C6 ; 22636rgani% Chemistry3Chemistry "n So%iety

Alkanes!eneral (ormula:Cn2n;2 &

ist o) the ower Members:

C/ 7 8ethane

C2I 7 Ethane

CR 7 Dropane
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C/107 4utane K%ontains a 4ran%h %haine "somerL

CM12 7 Dentane K%ontains 2 bran%h %haine isomersL

9.=. - !oiling points 4(&1%S along the series.

- Held together with co,alent bonds

- Saturated hydrocarbons

3organi% %hemistry3Chemistry in So%iety

Definitions in Organic Chemistryydrocarbon:Compouns whi%h 6:$A %ontain %arbon an hyrogen atoms

aturated /ompounds:Compouns with a Carbon to Carbon S":G$E bon

7nsaturate /ompounds:Compouns with a Carbon to Carbon ,6U4$E

bon

Molecular (ormulae: The number of atoms of ea%h element present in onemole%ule of a substan%e

Display (ormulae:Shows all the %o#alent bons in a mole%ule with

ini#iual lines

tructural (ormulae: Shows how the atom is oine

tructural 2somers: * %ompoun whi%h has the same mole%ular formulae

but ierent stru%tual formulae

36rgani% Chemistry3,e=nitions

# note

Homologous Series6rgani% %ompouns are i#ie into 686$6G6US SE9"ES.

Ea%h omologous Series has +

the same GE:E9*$ 698U$*

similar CE8"C*$ properties

show a G9*,U*$ %hange of DAS"C*$ properties on going along the

series

"n iGCSE %hemistry you are only permitte to learn 2 omologous series+*l&anes - *l&enes

9.=. &arbon atoms forms F co,alent bonds. Hydrogen atoms forms /

co,alent bond.

3Chemistry "n So%iety36rgani% Chemistry

Rusting (linked to the extraction of

Iron)
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9ame: yrate "ron K"""L oxie

ppearance: 9e7brown a&y eposit

ow is it made: 4y the rea%tion of "96: - (*TE9 - *"9

revention:

Gal#anising 7 Coating a layer of Nin% o#er the iron by ipping the iron

into molten Nin%.

Sa%ri=%ial prote%tants7 4lo%&s of Nin% atta%he to the surfa%e of the iron

8hy 0inc:in% is 869E rea%ti#e than iron an so rea%ts with the air before

the iron %an. Therefore the Nin% will %orroe rather than the iron.

3Chemistry "n So%iety3Ele%trolysis

## notes

Extraction of Iron using a Blast

Furnace!Metal "re:aematite 7 "ron K"""L 6xie

Materials )ed into the top o) the )urnace: Co&e K%arbonL $imestone

KCal%ium CarbonateL *ir an aematite

tep "ne:

The %o&e burns in the air to form C*946: ,"6",E ue to high temperatures.

"t is also an exothermi% rea%tion whi%h helps &eep the temp. up in the furna%e.

The high temps then decomposethe C62 into C*946: 86:6",E whi%h

reu%es the "ron K"""L 6xie into "ron.

The iron be%omes molten ue to the high temps an falls to the bottom of the

furna%e.

tep %wo:

"mpurities are forme uring the pro%ess an must be remo#e. This is where

the $"8EST6:E is use to remo#e the S"$"C6: ,"6",E.

The limestone is thermally e%ompose into &%7&45$ )>4D an &arbon

Dio'ide.

The %al%ium oxie then rea%ts with the sili%on ioxie to form &%7&45$

S474&%* CaSi6 whi%h then runs to the bottom of the furna%e abo#e the

molten iron.

The %al%ium sili%ate is *@* the 86$TE: S$*G! 9E8E84E9 TE S$*G *$(*AS

G6ES 6: T6D in a blast furna%e!

3Chemistry "n So%iety34last urna%e

# note
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Uses of Aluminium (linked in with

the Electrolysis of Aluminium)hysical roperties:

1. 8alleable

2. Goo %onu%tor of thermal an ele%tri%al energy

. ,u%tile

/. $ow ensity

M. 8oerate tensil strength

7ses o) luminium:

4uiling aeroplane engines 7 $ow ensity

4uiling briges 7 strong

8a&ing tin %ans 7 malleable - high resistan%e to %orrosion Coo&ing utensils 7 goo %onu%tor of heat

6#erhea %ables 7 goo %onu%tor of ele%tri%ity

9.=.%luminium often has a layer of %luminium )'ide on top of the

%luminium so that it ma?es the aluminium a lot less reacti,e and resistant to

corrosion.

3Ele%trolysis3Chemistry "n So%iety

A notes

Extraction of Aluminium throughElectrolysisluminium "re: 4auxite 7 impure *luminium 6xie *l26. "t is treate

before han to remo#e impurities.

8hy 6lectrolysis;The *luminium is *)) rea%ti#e to be reu%e by %arbon

K4last urna%eL.

The bauxite is mixe with C9A6$"TE to reduce its melting>boiling point to sa#e

money as less heat energy is neee. The %ryolite also a%ts as a sol,entfor

the *l26.

6lectrolyte: Solution of bauxite in molten %ryolite at 1000 egrees C.

t %he /athode:

*luminium ions gain ele%trons an are 1D5&D! K"2 @2!L 8olten

aluminium is prou%e - sin&s to the bottom of the %ell. rom time to time it

runs o. K"t being the molten aluminiumL

t the node:

6xygen ions lose ele%trons an are )>4D4SD36xygen is release 4UT ue to

high temps in the %ell it rea%ts with the C*946: ele%troes - forms carbon

dio'ide. This %auses the %arbon anoes to be burne away an must be

repla%e regularly.
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"perating %he /ell: $ow #oltage - high %urrents use. eat generate from

the huge %urrent &eeps the aluminium molten. "eally %arrie out in pla%es

with %heap energy supplies.

3Ele%trolysis3Chemistry in So%iety

3 notes

Electrolysis Of Brine To Produce

Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide!2ons present in =rineB odium /hloride::a; Cl7 ; 67

6lectrode Materials:%node-Titanium &athode-:i%&el

t the node: Chlorine ions is%harge7 %hlorine gas forme

t the /athode: yrogen isso%iates an forms hyrogen.

9emaining 67 ions rea%ts with the Soium ions in the Diaphragm %ell

an forms soium hyroxie ions

,iaphragm %ell+ @eeps the prou%ts apart by only allowing ions to pass

through the iaphragm an not the gases.

"f the %hlorine %omes into %onta%t with the hyrogen then it will rea%t with it to

form Cl. Something similar also happens when %hlorine %omes into %onta%t

with the soium hyroxie.

7ses o) odium ydroxide:1. 4lea%h 7 forme when rea%te with %hlorine

2. Daper 7 igests> brea&s own the woo into a pulp

. Soap 7 rea%te with animal fats or #egetable oils

7ses o) /hlorine:

1. SteriliNe water e.g. in swimming pools

2. 4lea%h 7 see abo#e

. 8anufa%ture of Cl a%i 7 rea%te with hyrogen an issol#e in water

3Chemistry "n So%iety3Ele%trolysis

Electrolysis Summary/athode: "f the metal ion is abo#e hyrogen then hyrogen will be prou%e

instea. This is be%ause yrogen is 7SSrea%ti#e.

node: "f a %on%entrate alie Ke.g. Chlorine 4romine or "oineL ion is

present than the halogen is prou%e. "f not then )>=G(is prou%e

8hen to use it: "f the metal is *46BE %arbon in the rea%ti#ity series!
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IGCSE Chemistry 2011 Notes

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