ID-158

Managing Steep Terrain for Livestock Forage Production

D.C. Ditsch, G. Schwab, J.D. Green, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences; J.T. Johns, R. Coleman, T. Hutchens, Department of Animal and Food Sciences;

L. Piercy, Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering

Introduction Kentuckyhasadiversifiedlandscapethatrangesfromlevelriverbottomstosteepmountainoussideslopeswithnarrowridgetops.Soilsthatformordeveloponeachoftheselandscapepositionsof-fervariouslanduseopportunitiesandlimitationsforagriculturalproduction. ManyofthegrassandlegumespeciesadaptedtoKentucky’sclimateandsoilscanbeused for livestockproductiononsteepterrain.However,theuniquecharacteristicsofsteepterrainoftenresult in soil productivity limitations that should be consideredwhenmanagingthesesamegrassandlegumespeciesforpastureand/or hay production. Decades of surface mining in the east-ern region of the state have created extensive acreages of steepreclaimed land.These landscurrentlysupportanabundanceofunderutilizedforagethatcouldbemanagedforhorses,beefcattle,andgoatproduction. Thispublicationaddressestheagronomic,economic,andhu-mansafetyaspectsofmanagingsteepterrainforlivestockforageproduction.

What Is Steep Terrain? Theslopeofafieldreferstothenumberoffeetofriseorfallin100feetofleveldistance(Figure1).Thisisaveryimportantland-scapecharacteristicbecauseitaffectstheproductivityofthesoilinmanyways.Ingeneral,asthepercentslopeofafieldincreases,productivitydecreasesbecausethesoil’serosionhazardincreasesandtheabilityofthesoiltosupplymoisturetoplantsdecreases.Steepterrainsoilsareoftenlowinnaturalfertilityduetothelossoftopsoilfrompasterosion. Soilscientistsuseslopeandother soil characteristics togroupsoilsintocapabilityclassestoindicatelimitationsinuseandrisksofdamagebyagriculturalpractices (Table 1). In general,soilsincapabilityclassesItoIV(0 to 20% slope) are favorableforrowcropproductionwhenappropriateconservationcrop-

50’ rise (50% slope)Very steep

30’ rise (30% slope)Steep

20’ rise (20% slope)

100’ run

Moderately steep12’ rise (12% slope)

Strongly sloping6’ rise (6% slope)

2’ rise (2% slope)Gently sloping

0’ rise (0% slope)Nearly level

Figure 1. Percentage of slope.

Table 1. Land capability classes for land use decisions in Kentucky.1

Slope Range Class

% of Total Land Area Description

0-2% I 0.7 Few limitations that restrict land use2-6% II 20.1 Require moderate conservation

practices6-12% III 13.8 Require special conservation

practices12-20% IV 10.2 Require careful management and

special conservation practicesV 0.3 Not likely to erode but have other

limitations impractical to remove (i.e., flooding, stoniness)

20-30% VI 14.4 Severe limitation, unsuitable for cultivation, limited to pasture and hay production

30-50% VII 26.4 Very severe limitation that restrict use to forest

Other 14.1 Water bodies, pits, quarries, and rock outcrops

1 Source: 1977 Natural Resource Inventory, NRCS.

pingpracticesareused.The“steepterrain”designationforlivestockforageproductioninthispublicationreferstosoils incapabilityclassVI(20to30%slope).Thesesoilshaveseverelimitationsthatare generally unsuitable for conservation row crop productionandshouldbelimitedtopastureandhayproduction.ClassVIIsoilshaveveryseverelimitationsthatrestricttheiruseprimarilytoforest.Table1indicatesthedistributionoflandineachofthelandcapabilityclassesforKentucky.

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Soil Acidity and Liming Aswithanyothercroppingsystem,limeandfertilizermanage-mentonsteepterrainshouldbeginwithacompositesoilsamplefromthearea.Soilcoresshouldbecollectedtoadepthof4inchesfollowingtheproceduresoutlinedinUniversityofKentuckyEx-tensionpublicationAGR-16,Taking Soil Test Samples.Soiltestresultsandfertilizerrecommendationswillletyouknowhowmuchandwhichfertilizerstoapply. ThemostcommonsoilfertilityproblemonsteepterrainislowsoilpH.LowpHindicatesthatthesoilisacidic,andplantgrowthwillprobablybereduced.AsecondaryeffectoflowpHisthatlessdesirablespeciesofplantsbegintodominatethelandscape.Forexample,soilswithpHintheoptimalrange(6.0to7.0)willgenerallyhaveagoodmixtureofgrassesandlegumes.AsthepHdropsbe-lowtheoptimalrange,thelegumeswilldisappear,andgrasseswilldominate.IfthepHisallowedtodropintoverylowrange(<5.4),thenweedspecieswithverylittlenutrientvaluelikebroomsedgewilldominate.SoiltestresultsfromthemountainareaofeasternKentuckyshowthat19%ofthesoilsamplessubmittedbetween1999and2001hadpHbelow5.4,and47%werebelowpH6.0. Agricultural limestone isusedto increasesoilpHbecause itneutralizessoilacidity,butknowinghowmuchacidity is inthesoilisonlyhalfoftheanswer.Itisalsoimportanttounderstandthatlimestonequalityvarieswidelyacrossthestateandespeciallywithintheeasternregion.Thepurityofthestoneandthefinenessofgrindarethetwofactorsthatdeterminetheeffectivenessor“rela-tiveneutralizingvalue”oflimingmaterials(refertoAGR-19andAGR-106).Twiceayear,theKentuckyDepartmentofAgricultureanalyzesthequalityofagriculturallimestonefromallquarriesinthestate.TheresultsaremadeavailabletothecountyExtensionagentssothattheycanadjustthelimeraterecommendedbythesoiltesttoaccountforthelocallimequality. Limecanbeappliedatanytime,andwithadequatesoilincor-porationandmoisture,ameasurablepHchangecanoccurwithinfourweeks.However,onsteepterrainwhereincorporationoflimeisnotfeasibleorrecommendedduetoahigherosionhazard,itmaytakesixto12monthsforasignificantamountofthesurface-appliedlimetodissolveandmakethedesiredchangeinsoilpH.Forthisreason,limeshouldbeappliedatleastsixmonthsbeforeseedingforagecrops.Fallisagoodtimetoapplylimesoitcanbedissolvingduringthewinter.Also,fallweatherisusuallybetterforgettingonslopinglandwithspreadingequipment. Oncecorrected,soilpHwillremainintheoptimalrangeforfiveormoreyears,soyoushouldlookatlimestoneasalong-terminvestment.ItisveryimportanttorechecksoilpHpriortopasturerenovationwithcloverorotherlegumes.LivestockproducersareoftendisappointedbypoorrenovationresultsthatcanfrequentlybetracedbacktolowsoilpHatthetimeofseeding.

Pasture Fertilization In addition to lime requirements, soil testing also indicateshowmuchfertilizerisrequiredtomaintainahighlevelofforageproduction(refertoAGR-1).Almostwithoutexception,nitrogen(N)isthemostlimitingplantnutrientbecausesteepterrainhasshallowsoilswithloworganicmatter.ThereareseveralwaysthatfarmerscanincreaseplantavailableN.

Themostobviousistousecommercialfertilizers,butNfertilizersonly increaseproductivity fortheyear inwhichtheyareapplied,andtheyaremoreexpensiveinthelongrun.Annualapplicationsofnitrogenfertilizersonsteepgroundarealsoasafetyhazardbecauseofthevolume(100to150pounds)requiredperacre,andmultipleap-plicationsperyeararerequiredtoobtainmaximumproductivity. AbetteralternativetoannualNapplicationsistorenovateusinglegumeslikeredorwhiteclover.Onceestablished,bacterialivingonthecloverrootswillfixenoughatmosphericNtomeettheNrequirementsofthepasture.Aslongasthereisatleast25%cloverinthepasture,thereisnoneedtoapplyNfertilizer.Infact,researchresultsshowthatgrass-legumemixtureswithoutNfertilizationproducehigheryieldsthanpuregrassstandswithmaximumNfer-tilization.Foragequalityisalsohigherforgrass-legumemixtures. AthirdwaytoincreaseplantavailableNistoapplymanureortobaccostalks(Table2).Whiletheseoptionsmightnotbefeasibleforsteepterrain,manureandplantresiduesareagoodsourceofNandotheressentialplantnutrientsandcanbeutilizedinforageproduction. Phosphorus(P)andpotassium(K)aretheothertwoplantnutri-entsthatarelikelytobelowinpasturesystems.Soiltestresultsshowthatabout37%ofeasternKentuckysoilsampleswereloworverylowinP,andabout50%werelowinK.Inthesesituations,applicationsofPandKfertilizerwillincreaseyieldonlyifsoilpHisoptimumandtheforagehasagoodsupplyofN.YieldincreasesasaresultofPandKapplicationsarenotassubstantialasforNapplications.ManureandtobaccostalksareagoodsourceofPandK(Table2). ResearchdataoveranumberofyearsindicatethatdrymattercanbeincreasedfromaboutatonperacreperyearwithnosoilpHornutrientmanagementuptofourormoretonsperyearwithimproved management. Proper fertilization can help increasetotaldrymatteryieldandproteincontentandcanminimizesea-sonalshifts inproduction.However,unlesstheincreasedyieldsareutilizedbygrazingorhayharvest,therewillbenoreturnontheinvestment.

Species Selection Thegrassandlegumespeciesavailableforpastureandhayuseonsteepterrainrepresentawiderangeinadaptationcharacteris-tics(Tables3and4).Evensignificantvarietaldifferencesmayexistwithingrassandlegumespecies.Forexample,theadaptationoftall fescue(Festuca arundinaceaSchreb.)variesdependingonthe presence or absence of an endophytic fungus. Tolerance to

Table 2. Typical nitrogen, phosphate, and potash content of some animal manures and tobacco stalks.1

Manure TypeN P2O5 K2O5 Moisture %

lb/tonBeef 11 7 10 52Horse 12 10 12 50Goat 22 12 24 52Sheep 21 9.4 19 52Dairy 11 9 12 60Poultry layers 30 40 30 40Tobacco stalks 30 10 701 All values on an “as-is” moisture basis.

Source: Rasnake et al. ENRI-136.

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heatanddroughtisanimportantcharacteristictoconsiderwhenselectingforagespeciesforminelandpasturesandhayland.Cool-seasongrassspeciesrangefromexcellentforendophyte-infectedtall fescue to poor for perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.).Orchardgrass(Dactylis glomerta L.)isconsideredtohavegoodtolerance to drought, while timothy (Phleum pratense L.) andendophyte-free tall fescue have only fair tolerance to heat anddrought.Therefore,foragespeciesselectedforuseonsteepterrainshouldhavesomeheatanddroughttoleranceandpersistunderrelativelylowsoilfertilitylevels. Tallfescueisthemostimpor-tantcool-seasongrassgrownintheUnitedStatesandprovidesthe primary ground cover onmost of our steep terrain pas-tures in Kentucky. Tall fescueis relatively easy to establish,persistent, and relatively freeof disease and insect pests. Itproduceshighdrymatteryieldswhen properly fertilized andcompares favorably to manyothercool-seasongrassesinitschemicalanalysis. Despite the many positiveattributes of this grass, severalfeaturesofKY31havebeenlessthanideal.In1976,Dr.JoeRob-bins, USDA, Athens, Georgia,

Table 3. Adaptation of some perennial and annual legumes for livestock production on steep terrain.

Legume Species

Tolerance

Bloat Risk

pH Range

Factors That Reduce

Quality for Ruminants

Heat/Drought

Wet Soil Conditions

Frequent Cutting

Frequent Grazing

PerennialsAlfalfa E1 P E F Yes 6.5-7.5Bird’s-foot trefoil G G G F No 5.0-7.5Crown vetch G P P F No 5.5-7.5 TanninSweet clover E P P F Yes 6.0-7.0 CoumarinRed clover F F E G Yes 5.5-7.0White clover P F P E Yes 6.0-7.0Alsike clover F G P F Yes 5.0-7.5Sericea lespedeza E P F G No 5.0-7.0 Tannin

AnnualsKorean lespedeza E P F E No 5.0-7.0Kobe lespedeza E P F E No 4.5-7.5Hairy vetch F P P F Yes 5.5-7.51 Species rankings: E = excellent, G = good, F = fair, P = poor.

Table 4. Adaptation of some perennial grasses for livestock production on steep terrain.

Grass Species

Tolerance1

pH Range

Factors That Reduce Quality for Ruminants

Heat/Drought

Wet Soil Conditions

Frequent Cutting

Frequent Grazing

Sod-Forming

Cool-SeasonTall fescue—infected E G E E G 5.0-8.0 Alkaloids, tall fescue toxicosisTall fescue—noninfected F G G F G 5.0-8.0Orchardgrass G P G F F 4.5-7.5Timothy F P P P P 4.5-8.0Matua prairie grass F P P P F 6.0-7.5Smooth brome F F P P G 5.0-8.0Reed canarygrass2 G E G G E 4.9-8.2 AlkaloidsPerennial ryegrass P P E E P 5.0-7.5 Alkaloids, ryegrass staggers

Warm-SeasonSwitchgrass E E P F F 4.1-7.6 Photosensitization in sheepIndiangrass E P F F F 5.6-7.1 HCN, prussic acid poisoningBig bluestem E P F F P 6.0-7.5Little bluestem E P F F P 6.0-7.5Caucasian bluestem E P E E F 6.0-7.5Bermudagrass3 E P E E E 5.1-7.5Weeping lovegrass E P P P P 4.0-8.0 Nutritional quality low1 Species rankings: E = excellent, G = good, F = fair, P = poor.2 Use only low alkaloid varieties of reed canarygrass.3 Must be established by sprigs or winterhardy seeded varieties.

andDr.C.W.Bacondiscoveredthatanendophyticfungus(Acre-monium coenophialum)andtheergotalkaloidsproducedwerethecausativeagentofsummersyndromethatoccurredinbeefcattlegrazingKY31tallfescue.Animalsconsumingfescuecontainingtheendophytehaveshownsomeorallofthefollowingresponses:(1)lowerfeedintake,(2)lowerweightgains,(3)lowermilkproduc-tion,(4)higherrespirationrate,(5)higherrectaltemperature,(6)increasedwaterconsumption,(7)roughhaircoat,(8)moretimespentinshade,(9)excessivesalivation,(10)greaterurinevolume,

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(11) reduced prolactin level, (12) reduced reproductive perfor-mance,and(13)nervousness.Theseresponseshavebeenshownwithanimalsconsumingpasture,hay,silage,green-chop,andseed.Thereislittledoubtthattheendophyteisassociatedwiththemajor-ityofqualityproblemslongobservedintallfescue. Researchsuggestsatleastthreeareasthatshouldbeconsideredtooffsetoreliminatetheendophyteeffectinanimalproduction(refertoAGR-119):1.Managefescueandanimalstominimizetheendophyte

effect.Maturefescueispoorfeed.Grazingand/ormowing,tokeep plants young and vegetative will result in better animalperformancethangrazingorfeedingmorematureplants.

2.Dilutetheendophyteeffect.Negativeeffectsonanimalper-formancecanbedilutedsubstantiallybythepresenceofotherfeeds in the diet. The most practical and economical way ofdilutingtheeffectisbygrowinglegumeswithinfectedfescue.

3.Replace infectedstandswith lowendophytevarieties.Determinethelevelofinfectionbeforedecidingtoreplaceanoldstand.YourcountyagriculturalExtensionagentcangiveyoucopiesofPPA-30,Sampling for the Tall Fescue Endophyte in Pasture or Hay Stands,andcanadviseyouhowandwhentotakesamplesandwheretosendthem.

Warm-seasongrassescanalsobeusedtosupplementcool-sea-songrassproductionduringdroughtandheatstresscommononslopeswithasouthernexposure.Ingeneral,mostnativewarm-sea-songrassareverydifferentinestablishmentrequirementsfromthecool-seasongrasseswithwhichmostKentuckyfarmersarefamiliar(refertoAGR-145).Becausethesegrassesareslowinbecomingestablished(onefullgrowingseasonisoftenrequired)andonlyafewoptionsexistforpost-emergentchemicalweedcontrol,itisimportanttostartwithaweed-freeseedbed.Onsteepterrain,atilledseedbedisrarelyanoption;however,warm-seasongrassescanbeno-tillseededifthesoilsurfaceisnottooroughandweedpressurenottooheavy.Itisalsoimportantthatherbicidesbeusedinaccordancewithlabeldirections. Researchhasshownthatspeciessuchasswitchgrass(Panicum virgatumL.),bigbluestem(Andropogon gerardii), indiangrass(sorghastrum nutans),andlittlebluestem(Schizachyrium sco-parium[Michx.]Nash)arewelladaptedtodroughty,steep,andshallowsoilscommonlyfoundonsideslopesandridgetops(Table7).Eitheraddinglegumesthroughpasturerenovationormaintainingexistinglegumesinwarm-seasongrassstandsincreasesforageyieldandqualityduringperiodsofdroughtandheatstresswhencool-sea-songrassproductionislow.Deeptaprootedlegumespeciessuchassweetclover(Melilotus officinalisLam.),alfalfa(Medicago sativaL.),andsericealespedeza(Lespedeza cuneata[Dum.-Cours.]G.Don)arealsoabletoavoidshort-termdroughtcomparedtotheveryshallowrootsystemofwhiteclover(Trifolium repensL.). Ingeneral,grass-legumemixturesproducehigheryieldsthanstandswiththesamespeciesgrowingalone.However,complexgrassandlegumeseedmixturescompeteforlight,moisture,andnutrients.Therefore,itisimportanttocarefullyevaluatethecom-patibilityofthesespeciespriortoseedingorrenovation.Renovat-ingwithdesirablegrassesandlegumesforlivestockgrazingcanbechallengingduetosteepslopes,rockyminesoils,andtheconstantthreatofsoilerosion.

Weed Control Pastures and hayfields often contain unwanted plants alongwiththedesirablegrassesandotherforagesutilizedforlivestockgrazing.Theseunwantedplantsorweedscanlimitthepotentialproductivity of the forages available to the animals. Because ofthetopographyandlandscapepositionsofsteeperslopesitcansometimesbemorechallengingtocombatproblemweedsthatoccuronthesesites. Overall,pasturemanagementpracticescanhaveamajorimpactonthepresenceofunwantedplants.Forexample,lowsoilfertil-ityandovergrazingpromotegrowthofweedyplants.Theidealapproachistoincorporateandutilizemanagementpracticesthataremoreadaptabletothegrowthofdesirableforagespeciesandlessfavorableforunwantedplants.Thesepracticesmayinclude:(1)maintainingpropersoilpHandfertilitylevelsbasedonsoiltestlevels,(2)usingcontrolledgrazingpractices,(3)mowingorclippingpastures(iffeasible)atthepropertimingandstageofmaturity,and(4)allowingnewforageseedingstobecomewellestablishedbeforetheyareaccessibletolivestock. When seeding new forage species, the time of year seedingoccurs can impact the type of weed species that will be mosttroublesomeduringtheestablishmentphase.Springseedingsarevulnerabletocompetitionfromwarm-seasonannualweedssuchasyellowfoxtailandcommonragweed,whereasforagesseededinthefallaremoreatrisktocompetitionwithwinterannualweedssuchascommonchickweedandhenbit. Apasturemanagementprogramthatintegratesseveraldifferentweedcontrolmethodsisgenerallymoresuccessfulthanrelyingononlyonemethod.Controlledgrazingcanbeaneffectiveweedmanagementtoolforsomeweedproblems.Thegreatestbenefitfromgrazingisobtainedwhenweedsaresmallandintheirearlyvegetativestagesofgrowth.Infact,manyweedyplantshavesomenutritionalvaluewhenutilizedbefore theybecometoomature(Table5).Goatsareevencapableofbrowsingwoodytypevegeta-tion.Ontheotherhand,animalsoftenselectivelygrazesomeplantsbecauseofdifferencesinpalatabilityorphysicalbarrierscreatedbytheweed.Forexample,weedssuchastallironweedandmultiflorarosebecomemoreprominentovertimeingrazedpastures. One consideration before allowing livestock to graze fieldsheavilyinfestedwithweedsisthepotentialforexposuretopoi-sonousplants.Thepotentialforlivestockpoisoningsdependsontheavailabilityandquantityofthepoisonousplantavailable,thestage of plant growth, the time of year, and the kind of animal.Most potentially poisonous plants (but not all plants) must beconsumedinlargequantitiestocauseanimaldeath.Manyplantshaveanundesirabletaste,andanimalsdonotconsumethematlevelsthataretoxicunlessotherforagesarelimitedduringperiodsofdroughtorlongwinterseasons.SeveralofthepotentiallytoxicplantsthatcanbefoundinKentuckyarelistedinTable6. MoreinformationaboutpoisonousplantscanbefoundintheUniversityofKentuckyExtensionpublicationID-2,Some Plants of Kentucky Poisonous to Livestock,orthefollowingWebsites:

• http://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-0975• http://vet.purdue.edu/depts/addl/toxic/cover1.htm• http://www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/publications/PDF/

FSA3025.pdf

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Timely mowing or clipping of pasturescanbeespeciallyhelpfultoreducetheeffectsof many erect broadleaf weeds. However,steep slopes are not always conducive foruseofheavymowingequipment.Therefore,someareasmaynotbeaccessible,andhandremovalpracticesmaybenecessary.Thekeytosuccessfulmechanicalcontroleffortssuchas mowing or clipping weeds is the use ofthesepracticesbeforeunwantedplantsarecapable of producing new seed. Therefore,mowingshouldbeginwhenweedsareinthestemelongationstagebutbeforeflowersandnewseedareproduced.Frequentmowing,repeatedoverathree-tofive-yeartimespan,canalsohelpdepleterootreservesofsomeperennialweeds. Clippingfieldsinlatespringorearlysum-merisbeneficialinfieldscontainingproblemweedsthatflowerinthespringsuchasmuskthistle,whereaslatesummeristhebesttimeofyeartomowsummerannualandperennialweedsthatflowerlaterintheyear.Itisalsoimportant to clip pastures that have beenselectively grazed by animals. This helpspreventorreduceseedproductionofweedyplantsleftbytheanimals. Itissometimesnecessarytoconsidertheuse of a herbicide for control of problemweeds.Mostherbicidesavailableforuseongrazedpasturescontrolbroadleaftypeweedsgrowing in established cool-season grassforagessuchastallfescueandorchardgrass.Cloversorother legumes interseededwiththegrasseswillbekilledorseverelyinjuredbyaherbicideapplication.Someherbicidesarealsoeffectiveforcontrolofwoodybrush,suchasmultiflorarose.Woodyplantsorbrushcanbetreatedwithherbicidesbymakingfoliarapplications,treatingdormantstemsduringthewintermonths,orasacutstumptreat-ment. Oneoftheprimaryfactorswhenchoosingaherbicideisthetypeofweedtobecontrolled.Otherfactorstoconsiderare:(1)applyingtheherbicideattheappropriatetimetobethemosteffective,(2)theeaseoftheapplication,(3)thewaitingperiodafterapplicationbeforethetreatedareacanbegrazedorharvestedforhay,and(4)thecostoftreatment.Young,activelygrowingplantsareeasiertokillwithherbicidesthanolderplants.Inaddition,waitingtotreatunwantedplantswithaherbicideaftertheyarematureorhavealreadyproducednewseedisveryunproductiveforsuppressingweedproblemsthenextseason. Herbicidescanbeappliedbyavarietyofmethods.Onlevelorsomewhatrollingtopography,boomtypesprayerscanbeusedtoapplyabroadcasttreatmentover largeareas.However,becauseofobstaclessuchastrees,aboomlesstypeofsprayercanbemoreadvantageousformanypasturesituationsforbroadcastapplica-

Table 5. Digestibility (IVDMD1) of cool- and warm-season weeds and seeded forage species at three stages of maturity (adapted from Auburn University and University of Minnesota2).

Species

Stage of GrowthVegetative Flower/Boot Heading

Digestibility (%)

IVDMDCrude

Protein IVDMDCrude

Protein IVDMDCrude

Protein

Cool-SeasonHenbit - - 78 20 75 16Virginia pepperweed 86 32 72 26 63 17Curly dock 73 30 54 19 51 16Chicory - 15 - - - -

Warm-SeasonRedroot pigweed* 73 24 71 17 64 11Ivyleaf morningglory 80 19 - - 78 11Jimsonweed* 72 25 66 21 59 17Common lambsquarters - - 68 25 - -Common ragweed - - 73 25 - -Fall panicum 72 19 63 9 54 7Yellow foxtail 73 18 66 12 57 14Crabgrass 79 14 72 8 63 6Goosegrass 75 17 - - 53 8Pennsylvania smartweed 47 9 - - 45 4Goldenrod 54 11 - - 53 8Common cocklebur* 76 11 - - 59 7Common pokeweed* 75 17 - - 57 12Horsenettle* 60 25 - - 55 13Kudzu - 14 - - - -Multiflora rose - 18 - - - -

Seeded ForagesAlfalfa - - 72 26 - -Tall fescue 78 22 73 17 67 13Ladino clover 81 27 85 22 83 23Winter rye 79 27 81 24 70 13Bermudagrass 58 16 51 7 43 71 IVDMD = in vitro dry matter digestibility. A measurement of the amount of dry matter lost

upon filtration following the incubation of forage in test tubes with rumen microflora.2 C. S. Hoveland, et al. 1986. Bulletin 577 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn

University, Alabama; S. C. Bosworth et al. 1980. Agron. J. 72:1050-1054; S. C. Bosworth et al. 1985. Weed Science 34:150-154; G. C. Marten and R. N. Anderson. 1975. Crop Science 15:821-827.

* Potentially poisonous plant to livestock.

tions.Conventionaltypesprayersarenotasconduciveonsteeperslopes,whereassprayersmountedonanATVmaybeabletoreachmoreremoteareas.ATV-mountedsprayersareveryusefulforspotspraying problem fencerows. Handheld backpack sprayers aregoodforspotsprayingindividualplantsorforapplyingdormantstemorcut-stumptreatments.Wickbarapplicatorsaresometimesconsideredforpastureuse.However,aheightdifferentialmustexistbetweentheweedtobecontrolledandthedesirableforageplants.Inaddition,wickbarapplicatorsarenotveryeffectiveonplantssuchas tall ironweedthathave leafsurfaces thatdonotreadilyabsorbtheherbicideapplied. Specific details on herbicides labeled for use on grazed pas-turesandhayfieldscanbeobtainedintheUniversityofKentuckyExtensionpublication,AGR-172,Weed Management in Grass Pastures, Hayfields, and Fencerows.

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Table 6. Plants potentially poisonous to livestock in Kentucky.Common Name Scientific Name Toxic Part of Plant Animals Affected

High RiskBuckeye, Ohio Aesculus spp. Young shoots and leaves; mature seed All animalsHorsechestnutMountain Laurel Kalmia latifolia All parts of plant, particularly the leaves Cattle, goats, sheepRhododendron Rhododendron maxiumRed Maple Quercus rubra Leaves, especially when fallen, damaged,

or wiltedHorses primarily

Wild Black Cherry Prunus serotina Wilted leaves Ruminants—cattle, goats, sheep are most often affected, although horses can also be affected

Yew, Japanese Taxus spp. Leaves, bark, wood, and seed Cattle, horse, goats, sheep

Moderate RiskCastor Bean Ricinus communis All parts of the plant Horses most susceptible, but all animals can

be affected Larkspur Delphinium tricorne Entire plant; young leaves most toxic Cattle most susceptible; other animals

include horses and sheepHemp Dogbane Apocynum cannabium All parts of the plant, either green or dried

in hayCattle, horses

Horsetail Equisetum arvense Aboveground foliage of plant Horses are more susceptible than cattle or sheepScouring Rush Equisetum hyemale

Indian Tobacco Lobelia inflata Leaves, stem, and fruit All animalsGreat Lobella Lobelia siphiliticaJohnsongrass Sorghum halepense All plant parts potentially toxic if plants are

drought stressed, wilted, or after frostCattle, horses, goats, sheep

Oaks Quercus spp. Young shoots and leaves, sprouts; new buds in the fall; acorns

Other animals may be affected, but primary risk to cattle

Perilla Mint Perilla frutescens Leaves, stems, seeds Most often in cattle and horsesPoison Hemlock Conium maculatum Entire plant—particularly roots and seed All livestock

Occasional RiskBlack Locust Robina pseudoacacia Inner bark, young shoots, leaves, flowers,

pods, and seedHorses most susceptible; cattle, sheep

Bracken Fern Pteridium latiusculum All stages of plant growth (green or dry) Sheep are less susceptible than cattle and horses

Buttercup Ranunculus spp. Stem and leaves; the flowering plant contains more toxin than younger plants

All animals

Kentucky Coffee Tree Gymnocladius dioica Leaves, seeds, and pulp Cattle, horses, goats, sheepMilkweed Asclepias spp. All parts of the plant, either consumed

green or dried in hayCattle, horses, goats, sheep

Jimsonweed Datura stramonium The entire plant, both green and dried; seed are the most toxic part

Cattle, horses, swine, sheep

Pokeweed Phytolacca americana All parts of the plant, especially the roots and seed

Cattle, horses, swine

Pigweed Amaranthus spp. Leaves and stem Cattle, sheep, other ruminants are most susceptible

Common Sneezeweed Helenium autumnale All parts of the plant are poisonous either fresh or cured in hay, particularly when in bloom

Cattle, horses, sheepBitter Sneezeweed Helenium tenuifolium

White Snakeroot Eupatorium rugosum Leaves, stems, and green flower heads Cattle, horses, sheep; other domestic animals

Star-of-Bethlehem All parts of the plants, especially bulb Cattle, horses, sheepSt. Johnswort Hypericum perforatum All parts of the plant, either fresh or dried

hayCattle, horses, sheep; goats to a lesser degree

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How to Renovate Steep Terrain Pasture and Hay Fields InKentucky,renovationusuallymeansaddinglimeandfertilizeraccordingtosoiltestresults,controllingundesir-ableweeds,andincreasingthelegumecomponentoftheforagebase(seeAGR-26formoreinformationonpasturerenovation).

Step1.Soiltestandapplyneededlimeandfertilizer.Le-gumesneedahighersoilpHandfertilitylevelthangrasses.However,nitrogenfertilizationshouldbeavoidedatseedingiflegumesandgrassesareplantedatthesametime.Addednitrogenstimulatesgrasses,whichincreasescompetitionwiththelegume.

Step2.Reducecompetitionfromexistingvegetation.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbyheavygrazing,mowing,lighttillage,orherbicideusage.

Step3.Selectthegrassandlegumesspecies/varietiesthatarebestsuitedforthesite(i.e.,fertilitylevel,droughttoler-ance,grazingversushay).

Step4.Usecertifiedseedandinoculatelegumes(refertoAGR-90)withtheappropriatestrainofrhizobiumbacteriatoensurenodulation.

Step5.Plantseedatrecommendedratesanddatessothatitmakesgoodcontactwiththesoil(Table7).Onnon-erodiblesites,thiscanbeaccomplishedbylightsurfacedisturbanceusingadiscorchaindrag.Broadcastseedfollowedbyasecondtripwithachaindragtoimprovesoil:seedcontact.Cloverscanalsobesuccessfullyseededonsteepterraininlatewinter/earlyspringusinganATVwithasmallbroadcastseedspreader.Asthesoilfreezesandthaws,theseedbecomescovered.Thismethoddoesnotworkwellforalfalfaandmostgrasses.Anothermethodistouseano-tillpasturerenovationseeder.Thesedoagoodjobofplacingseedingoodcon-tactwiththesoil,dispensingseedatthedesiredrateWhenoperatingano-tillpastureseederonthecontouroftheslope,keepseedhopperfullsoallseedcupsremaincoveredforuniformplanting,orinstallbafflestopreventseedfromshiftingtooneendofthehopper.

Grazing Management on Steep TerrainGrazing Beef Cattle on Steep Terrain Pastures Grazingsystemsonsteepterraintendtobeextensiveinnature,and large capital investments may not be justified. Therefore,carefulplanningofpasturesizeandlayoutiscriticalfortheeco-nomicsuccessofthegrazingenterprises.Whenpossible,produc-ers should work with mining companies during reclamation toestablishwatersourcesforlivestock.Topographyshouldalsobeconsideredwhenestablishingwatersources. Cattledonotuniformlygrazesteeppastures.Withinagroupofmixedcattle,arangeofslopeswillbeutilized.Researchhasshownthatmostcattlewillgrazemoderatelyslopingland,whichisclassifiedashavinga20to40%slope.Somecattlewillgrazesteeperslopes(>40%),whileothersprefertograzegentleslopes(<20%).Thisdifferenceinslopegrazingpreferenceoftenleadstoovergrazingonthemoderateslopesandundergrazingonsteepandgentleslopingland.

Table 7. Grass and legume seeding rates and dates for renovating hay and pasture fields.

Seeding Ratelb/ac

Seeding DateSpring Fall

Legume(s)Ladino white clover 1-3 Feb 1-Apr 15 Aug 1-Sept 10Red clover 6-12 Feb 1-Apr 15 Aug 1-Sept 10Alfalfa 12-20 Mar 1-Apr 15 Aug 1-Sept 15Sericea lespedeza 30-35 (unhulled)

60 (hulled)Mar 15-Apr 15

Annual lespedeza 15-25 Feb 15-Apr 1Bird’s-foot trefoil 6-12 (scarified) Mar 1-Apr 15 Aug 1-Sept 10Alsike clover 4-6 Feb 1-Apr 15 Aug 1 Sept 10Sweet clover 10-15 Feb 1-Apr 1Crown vetch 20 Apr 1-May 15Cool-Season GrassesTall fescue 10-15 Feb 1- Apr 15 Aug 20-Oct 10Orchardgrass 10-15 Feb 1-Apr 15 Aug 20-Sept 15Reed canarygrass 8-12 Feb 1-Apr 15 Sept 1-Oct 1Perennial ryegrass 15-25 Feb 1-Apr 1 Aug 15-Oct 1Timothy 3-6 Feb 1-Apr 1 Aug 20-Oct 1Warm-Season Grasses1

Switchgrass 8-10 May 20-June 10Big bluestem 10 May 20-June 10Indiangrass 10 May 20-June 10Little bluestem 7 May 20-June 10Eastern gamagrass 8 May 20-June 101 Warm-season grass seeding rates are expressed in pounds of pure live seed

(PLS) per acre.

Reasons for this difference in slope utilization within a herdincludeforagepreferenceandbreedcompositionofthecattle.For-agecompositionandqualitycanvarybyelevation,thusinfluencinggrazinglocationbasedonindividualcattlepreference.ResearchhasalsoshownthatbreedsofcattledevelopedintheEuropeanAlpsregionswillutilizesteeperslopesandtravelfurtherverticaldistancetowaterthanEnglishbreedsofcattle. Managementofcattlecanovercomesomeslopepreferenceandimproveforageutilizationonsteepterrain.Forcow-calfproducers,animalselectionshouldbeconsidered.Researchoveraperiodofyearshasshownthatcattleclassifiedassteepslopeusersutilizethesamepercentslopeyearafteryearandthattheircalvestendtousethesameslopes.Observationandcullingofcowsusingonlythemoregentleslopeswillleadtomoreuniformgrazing.CrossbreedingtoincorporatebreedsdevelopedintheEuropeanAlpswillalsoimprovegrazinguniformity. Fencingacrosstheslope(alongthecontour)andmovementofcattletodifferentgrazingareasarealsoeffective.Inacontinuousgrazingsystem,placementofwaterandmineralsourcesshoulden-couragecattletomoveintoandgrazethelessdesirablesteepslopeareasofthepastures.Researchhasshownthereisnodifferenceinthehorizontaldistancecattlewilltraveltowateronsteepslopes. Fencingpasturestoencouragelivestocktograzelessdesirableareascouldgreatlyincreaseoverallpastureutilization(refertoID-74).Cattletendtoavoidgrazingthesteepareasofapastureuntilreducedforageavailabilityforcesthemontotheseslopes.Theplantcompositionofapasturealsoinfluencesgrazingactivity.Sericealespedeza,whichdominatesmanymine landpastures,contains

8

significantamountsoftannins,whichreduceitspalatability.For-tunately, new low tannin varieties of sericea lespedeza are nowavailable.Althoughsericea’sfreshgrowthispalatableandnutritioustolivestockinthespring,itssuitabilityasaforagedeclinesasthegrowingseasonprogresses.Ifallowedtogrowabove8to10inchesinheight,sericeabecomesstemmyandlowinforagequality.Therefore,pastureswithlargeamountsofsericealespedezashouldbeheavilygrazedinthespringtomaintainitinavegetativestate.Researchhasdemonstratedthatsericea-dominatedpasturescanbeconvertedtomorefavorableforagesbycarefulandstrategicmanagementoveratwo-yearperiod(Doveandothers,1991;VCE460-119). Carefulplanningofpermanentfencingalongwiththeuseoftem-poraryfencingcanencouragelivestocktograzeareasofthepasturetheywouldnormallyavoid.Managinggrazingforthestockpilingoffescue-lespedezapasturescouldsignificantlyreducetheneedforstoredwinterfeed.IntheKentuckystudy,cattlecontinuouslygrazedatthe9-acreperhead(light)stockingratehadforageavailablewellintoDecember.Incontrast,continuouslygrazedpasturesatthe3-acreperhead(heavy)stockingrateduringthepeakgrowingperiodhadlessgroundcoverandsignificantlygreatergrazingactivityovertheentirepasturearea(Figures2and3). Producerswithlimitedlandresourcesshouldconsiderarota-tionalgrazingsystemoveracontinuousgrazingsystemifenoughgoodqualitywaterisavailable.Pasturesizeshouldbeadequatetoprovideonetotwoweeksofgrazing.Paddocknumbersintherota-tionshouldbesufficienttoallowforafour-tosix-weekrecoveryperiod,especiallyduringthedrysummermonths.Forageregrowthonsteepterraindoesnotoccurasquicklyasonmoregentlyslopingsoilsthathavemorefavorablesoilproperties.Also,forageonsteepterrainismorelikelytobeovergrazed,whichincreasesrecoverytimeormayevenreducegroundcover. Iffencingisnotpracticalbecauseoftractsizeorotherreasons,herdingandstrategicplacementofsupplementswillalsoimprovepastureutilization.Researchhasshownthatearlymorning(7a.m.)

a

a

a

b

a a

b

a

a

1997 1998 1999

70

75

80

85

Grazing Season

Gro

und

Cove

r (%

)

HeavyMediumLight

Figure 2. Percent cover as affected by beef cattle stocking rate on reclaimed mine land in southeast Kentucky. Bars followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to LSD (P<0.10).

Figure 3. Effect of stocking rate on grazing activity on reclaimed mine land in southeast Kentucky. Scale: 1 = none, 2 = light (<20% tillers defoliated), 3 = light+ (21-40% tillers defoliated), 4 = moderate (41-60% tillers defoliated), 5 = moderate+ (61-80% tillers defoliated), and 6 = heavy (>80% tillers defoliated). Bars followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to LSD (P<0.10).

a

b

c

a

bc

a

b

c

1997 1998 1999

3

4

5

6

Grazing Season

Gra

zing

Act

ivit

y

HeavyMediumLight

2

locationofcattleisagoodindicatorofwherecattlegrazedthepreviouseveningandwillgrazeduringthemorninghourspriortomovementtowater.Movementofcattleduringlateafternoonhourstoadifferentgrazinglocationcanallowcattletograzelongerinagivenlocation. Placement of minerals or low-moisture molasses blocks farfromwaterandherdingofcattletothesesiteshasalsobeenshownto increase forage use. This combination is more effective thanherdingalone.Itisalsomoreeffectiveinspringwhentheforageismuchlusher.

Grazing Horses on Steep Terrain Pastures Theamountofgrazingthathorseswilldoonsteeppastureswillbegreatlyaffectedbythepercentslopeofthatpasture.Horsesprefertograzealongthecontourofaslopeandmaybereluctanttograzeupanddowntheslope.Thisgrazingpreferencecanresultinpoorutilizationofavailableforage,lowerforageintake,andfailuretomeetthenutrientrequirementsoftheanimal. Forthehorseowner,theactualnumberofacresusedbythehorseneedstobetakenintoaccount.Areductioninusableacresmayleadtoovergrazingofthoseareas.Whilethelevelgroundcanbeovergrazed,hopefullytheareasontheslopethatarenotgrazedasheavilywillmaintainagoodstandofforageandhelptoreduceerosioninthepasture. Hoofdamagebyhorsesisaconcernregardlessofthetopographyofapasture.Routinemovementofthehorsesacrossthepastureduringnormalgrazingbehaviorwillresultinwell-wornareasasisthecasewithotherclassesoflivestock.Onsteeppastures,thisoftenresultsinsoilerosion.Inadditiontothosewell-wornpaths,horses can damage areas where they congregate such as shade,feeders,watersources,oraroundthegate.Horseownersneedtoconsiderusingmaterialthatwillprovidegooddrainageintheseareastokeepthemfrombecomingmuddy. Keepinghorsesonsteeppastureswillrequireaddedmanage-ment.Horseownersneedtoconsidernotonlythenutritionalneeds

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oftheirhorsesbutalsotheeffectsofanimalsonthepasture(refertoASC-120andID-147).Overgrazingcanbepreventedbyarota-tionalgrazingprogramtorestthepastureandallowforregrowth.Itisalsoimportanttoselectforagespeciesandvarietiesthatofferthemostgrazingtolerance(refertoPR-515)andarecompatiblewiththephysicalandchemicalsoilcharacteristicofeachfield(Tables3and4).Inaddition,itisimportanttohaveanareasuchasadrylottomovehorsesoffthepastureduringdroughtorextremelywetconditionswhereexcessivedamagecanbedonetothepastures.Table8liststheforagespeciesthataremostdesirableandthosethatarenotrecommendedforhorsepasturesinKentucky.

Grazing Goats on Steep Terrain Pastures Goatshaveaverydiversediet,muchmorediversethansheep,andhavebeendescribedbygrazingecologistsasbrowsers.How-ever, goats can also be opportunistic generalists because theyconsumethemostpalatableforagefirstandmoveontothenextlevelwithinthepalatabilityandnutritionalplane. Goatsprefertograzeuphillinazigzagmotionand,conversely,grazeverylittlecomingdownhill.Theyoftengrazesteepslopesandaroundrockoutcropsfirst,showingapreferenceforareasinacces-sibletocattleandsheep.Furthermore,goatsgenerallyapproachthefeedingareafromtheoutermostboundaryofthefeedingperimeterandeattowardthecenterandforwardtotheinitialstartingpoint.Goatsoftenreturntothestartingpointofthegrazingareaandcongregateforrestingandrumination.Thisgrazinghabitcreatesaconcavedgrazingpatternthatprovidesmaximumvisibilityofthesurroundingsfortheherd. Goatsgrazingsteepterrainwilloftenhaveahighernutritiverequirementthangoatsgrazingmorelevelpasturesbecausetheymustexpendmoreenergytogatherfeed.Therefore,iftheprimaryobjectiveisgrazingforbrushcontrol,lessproductiveormainte-nancegoatsshouldbeusedtoconsumelower-qualityforage. Goatsareresistanttomanyplanttoxinsandanti-nutritivefac-torscommonlyfoundinnon-agriculturalareas.Therefore,goatsarecapableofdefoliatingmostplantspecies,manyofwhichcattlewill not utilize. The primary anti-nutritive factors are naturallyoccurringplanttannins.Thetasteoftanninsisbitterandgener-allyunpalatableforcattle,andformostruminants,tanninsbindrumenproteinsandreducetheiruptake.Goats,however,favorthebittertasteandcanutilizetheboundproteinsasbypassprotein.Bypassproteinisnondegradedproteinthatpassesdirectlytotheabomasumortruestomachformoreefficientutilization.Therefore,goatscansustainthemselvesonlowproteinvegetationforsometimebyutilizingproteinmoreefficientlythancancattle. Giventheopportunity,goatsconsumeapredominanceofbrowse(73%)andlesseramountsofgrasses(23%)andforbs(4%),althoughtheproportionwillvarywithavailabilityofstandingforage.Timeofyearandweatherconditionsalsomaydictatewhatgoatseat.Goatstendtoeatvineyplantslikehoneysuckleearlyinthebrowseseason.As theweathergetswarmerandthesucculentplantsareeitherconsumedornolongerfavored,goatsturntoamorediverseplantpopulationincludinghardwoodseedlingsandbroadleaffoliagefromlowhangingbranches.Easternredcedarremainsuntouchedbygoatsuntilitbecomesmoredesirableforbrowsinginmid-tolatewinter. Thediversegrazinghabitofgoatshelpstherestorationoftheplant-soilnutrientbalancetodegradedanderodedsoils.Woody

plantspeciesstorelargequantitiesofplantnutrients.Thesenutrients(N,P,andK)remainboundinthewoodytissueforverylongperiodsoftime.Woodyplantsmustdieanddecomposebeforethenutrientsarereleasedtothesoil.Asgoatsconsumeavarietyofwoodyspeciesandassortedplantparts,plantnutrientsaremorerapidlyreleasedtothesoilbywayofgoatwastedegradationbysoilmicroflora.Thisprocesshasbeenobservedbymonitoringsoilnutrientchangesoc-curringfollowingthreeyearsofgoatsgrazingshinneryoak(Quercus havardii).SoilN,P,andKlevelsincreasedfrom1to21lb/acand5to23lb/acand119to312lb/ac,respectively. Similarly,goatsareabeneficialadditiontoamixedspeciesgraz-ingpastureenvironment.Goatspreferentiallyconsumeseedlingstemsofweedyplants,thusreducingthespreadandperpetuationofweedsbyseed.RangemanagementscientistshaveobservedthatgoatsreducetheseedbankofthistleswhenusedtocontrolthistlesandsericealespedezainthetallgrassprairieofthewesternUnitedStates. GoatscanbeusedsimilarlyinKentucky’scool-seasonpasturestocontrolweedyspeciesthattheypreferasbrowsesuchasblack-berry,greenbriar,sumac,wingedelm,poisonivy,ironweed,andkudzu.

Table 8. Forage species that are desirable and those not recommended for horse pastures in Kentucky.1

Desirable Species CautionsAlfalfaBermudagrassBig bluestemBird’s foot trefoilEastern gamagrassKentucky bluegrassOrchardgrassPerennial ryegrass May contain an endophyte that can cause

neurological problems in all classes of horses. To prevent this, request forage type perennial ryegrass endophyte free seed.

Red clover Horses grazing red clover may experience slobbers. If horses are slobbering excessively while on red clover pasture, they should be removed from the pasture.

Tall fescue Tall fescue that is infected with the endophyte fungus (Acremonium coenophalium) should not be used with broodmares in the last one third of gestation. Tall fescue seed that is endophyte free can be used, or seed bearing the novel endophyte can be used to prevent the problems associated with the endophyte infected tall fescue (refer to ID-144).

TimothyWhite cloverUndesirable Species CautionsAlsike clover May cause photosensitization and liver

problemsJohnsongrass Can cause cystitis due to cyanide

toxicosisSorghum sudan Can cause cystitis due to cyanide

toxicosis1 Assumes that growing conditions are favorable for the species

listed.

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Goatshaveamoderatepreferenceformultiflorarose,ragweed,hickory,hawthorne,andeasternredcedar.Theyhavealowprefer-enceforOsageorange,hackberry,buckbush,andgiantragweedbutwillconsumethesespecieswhenotherforageandbrowsearenotavailable. Finally,goatscangrazeincombinationwithcattle,horses,orsheep.Themainbenefitofmulti-grazingisthatgoatsutilizeandtherebysuppressplantspeciesthatarenotutilizedbycattle.Sci-entistshaveobservedthatpastureutilizationandcarryingcapacitywasimproved10to24%bygrazinggoatsincombinationwithcattleandsheep.Thebrowsingandtopgrazinghabitofgoatsincreaseddesirablegrassandlegumepopulationswithinpasturesettingsbyreducingcompetitionfromundesirableplantspecies.

Tractor Safety on Steep Sloping Terrain Farmingsteepslopingterrainpresentssomeuniquehazardsfortractoroperatorsandrequiresbothknowledgeandexperiencetoperformsafely.However,evenknowledgegainedfromyearsofex-periencedoesnotguaranteethatatractoroverturnorotherseriousinjurywillnotoccur.ThelargestsinglesourceofagriculturaldeathsinKentuckyistractoroverturns,andactivitiesonsteepandruggedterrainwillonlyincreasethepotentialriskforaseriousincident.Thus,thefirstruleforoperatingtractorsandequipmentonslopingorsteepterrainisalwaystousetractorsequippedwitharolloverprotectivestructure(ROPS)or“rollbar,”asitiscommonlycalled.Itisessentialforsafeoperationonsteeporslopingterrain.

General Safety Considerations• Noextraridersonequipmentisalwaysagoodpolicyandshould

bestrictlyenforcedonsteepslopes.Extraridersmaydistracttheoperatorandareatgreaterriskofbeingthrownfromthetractorinanoverturnorifroughterrainisencountered.Evenextraridersinacabareatriskunlessthecabhasanapprovedtrainingseatwithaseatbelt.

• Avoidtheuseofanysubstancethatwouldimpairtheoperator’sfunction.Operationofequipmentonslopingterrainrequiresfullattention.

• Only those who are well rested, mentally alert, and in goodphysicalconditionshouldoperateequipmentonsteepslopingterrain.Avoidoperatingequipmentwhentired.

• Onlyoperatorswhoareexperiencedandknowledgeableofthehazardsassociatedwithoperatingonsteepslopingterrainshouldbepermittedtodrive.

• Scoutsteepslopesinadvanceandflagormarkallknownhazardsorobstacles.

• Alwaysbeonthealertforwashoutsorotherobstaclesorobstruc-tionsthatcouldcauseahazardouscondition.

• Plantheworkprocedureinadvance,andstartoutonthemoregentle areas of the slope and work toward the steeper areas.Constantlybealertforanysignsofreducedstabilityortractionwiththeequipment.

• Donotexceedthecapabilityoftheequipmentbeyondthelimitsofsafeoperation.

• Allequipmentshouldbeingoodrepairandproperlymaintained,includinggoodbrakes.

Preventing Side Overturns• Becauseoftheincreasedriskofoverturnswhenoperatingon

slopes,onlytractorsequippedwithapprovedrolloverprotectivestructures(ROPS)shouldbeusedonsteepslopingterrain,andtheseatbeltshouldalwaysbeworn.Theuseofaseatbeltwhenoperatingonslopesincreasescomfortanddecreasesfatigue.

• Lowprofileorutility-typetractorsaremorestableandpreferredforuseonsteepslopesbecausetheyhavealowercenterofgravity.

• Tricycle-typetractorsandsmalloffset-typetractorsshouldnotbe used on steep sloping or uneven terrain as they are morepronetosideoverturns.

• Addingwheelweightsorfluidtothereartireshelpsstabilizethetractorbyloweringthecenterofgravity.

• Wideningthewheelspacinggreatlyincreasesthetractor’slateralstabilityandiscriticalforsafeoperationonslopes.

• Alwaysreducespeedwhenoperatingonsteepslopestoreducethetippingmomentumfromhittingunseenholes,bumps,orotherobstacles.

• Alwaysslowdownandmakegradualturnsonsteepslopes.Avoidsuddensteeringchangesoranyquickorsharpturnsespeciallywhentraversingacrossorgoingdownslopingterrain.

• Ifa tractorstarts to feelunstableonaslope, turndownhill ifpossible.

• Ifpullingaheavyloadsuchasafertilizerspreader,turnuphillifpossible.Turningdownhillcanleadtolossoftractionandpos-siblejackknifing.

Preventing Rear Overturns• Add weights to the front of the tractor anytime fluid or rear

wheelweightsareaddedtothereartirestomaintainthetractor’sweightdistributionof30%oftheweightonthefronttiresand70%ontherear.

• Ifequipmentismountedonthethree-pointhitch,addweightstothefrontofthetractortomaintainsufficientweightonthefronttiresforsteeringstability.

• Alwayshitchloadstothetractordrawbar.Hitchingtoanypointabovetherecommendeddrawbarheightincreasestheriskofarearoverturn.

Case example: An experienced farmer, who had farmed hill farms all of his life, was mowing a pasture with a batwing rota-ry field mower on a summer

evening. It was nearly dark as he made the last pass up a sloped area with the mower. Suddenly, the right rear tractor tire dropped in a washed-out cow path

causing the batwing mower to dig into the dirt. Before he could react, the tractor flipped over backward onto the mower. Fortunately, he was using a tractor retrofit-

ted with a ROPS and was able to walk away without any serious injuries. He had never flipped a tractor before and did not think it would happen to him.

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• Always back up a steep sloped area. The wheel torque fromdrivingupasteepslopemaycausethetractortooverturnback-ward.

• Avoidpullingheavyloadsupasteepslopeduetotheincreasedriskofarearoverturn.

• Usingtwo-wheeledimplementsthatplaceexcessiveweightonthetractordrawbartransfersweightfromthefrontaxletotherearaxleandincreasestheriskofarearoverturn.

• Suddenbrakingwhilecoastingbackwarddownaslopeoranyquickengagementoftheclutchwhiledrivingupaslopegreatlyincreases the risk of a rear overturn and should be avoided.Downshift to the appropriate gear before proceeding up aslope.

Loss of Traction and Jackknifing• Two-wheeldrivetractorsareatspecialriskof losingtraction

when pulling loads down slopes. On steep slopes with poortraction conditions, this can even occur without a load. Lossof traction can occur when driving downhill because weightistransferredfromthereartirestothefront,resultingin lesstractionwiththereartires.Thiscanleadtojackknifingandthepossibilityofasideoverturn.

• Ifavailable,usetractorswithfrontwheelassistwhich,ifthefrontwheelsareengaged,willprovidefour-wheeltractiontocontroltheforceoftheload.

• Usea larger,heaviertractor,orreducethesizeof loadswhenoperatingonslopes.

• Useadditionalwheelweightstoensurebettertractionfordrivingupanddownslopes.

• Avoidpullingloadsupordownslopeswhentractionconditionsarepoorsuchasfromheavydew,rain,dryhardsoilconditions,lushgreenplantmaterial,frozenorthawinggroundconditions,etc.

• Geardownandthrottlebackbeforeheadingdownaslopeusingthesamegearasrequiredtopulltheloaduptheslope.

• Onlyusetractorswithgoodtiresthatareproperlyinflatedwhenpullingonslopes.

• If lossoftractiondoesoccurwhendrivingdownaslope,theonlycourseofactionistoattempttosteerinthedirectionoftherearwheelskidandkeepthetractorinalignmentinfrontoftheimplementuntiltractionandcontrolareregained.

All-Terrain Vehicle and Utility Vehicle Safety on Steep Sloping Terrain All-terrainvehicles(ATVs)andmorerecentlyutilityvehicles(UTs)havelongbeenknownfortheirgeneralutilityinagriculturaloperations.Bothofthesevehiclesoffermanyadvantagesforopera-tiononsteepslopingterrain,butbothhavethepotentialforcausinginjuries.Forexample,thenumberofdeathsassociatedwithATVshasclimbeddramaticallyinrecentyearstoahighof40deathsin2002and2004.Overthelastfiveyears,thestatehasaveraged36ATVdeathsperyear.AlthoughmostoftheseATVdeathsarearesultofrecreationalactivitiesandnotworkrelated,contrastthatnumberwithanaverageof22totalagriculturalwork-relateddeathsperyearinthestateoverthesamefive-yearperiod. While the number of deaths associated with the use of util-

ityvehiclessuchastheMule,Gator,RTV,Ranger,Bobcat,etc.isunknown,theyaredesignedasaworkvehiclewiththefollowingcharacteristics: (1)awiderwheel treadwidthand longerwheelbaseformorestability,(2)largerloadcarryingandtowingcapacity,(3)typicallymaximumspeedsoflessthan25milesperhour,(4)seatingforanextrapassenger,and(5)arolloverprotectivestruc-ture(ROPS)andseatbelts,whichareavailableonsomemodelstoprovideoperatorprotectioninanoverturn.Thesedesignfactorsmaketheutilityvehicleaviablealternativeforuseinagriculturalwork,andtheROPShelpsensureoperatorandpassengersafetyonsteepslopeswherethereishighriskofanoverturn.However,donotbedeceived:Both the ATV and the utility vehicle can pose a serious threat to operator safety and require specific precautions when being used on rough terrain and steep slopes.

Safety Tips for Operating on Steep Slopes• OnlyexperiencedoperatorswhoarefamiliarwithusingATVs

orutilityvehiclesandhaveusedthemwithmountedortowedequipmentinagriculturalactivitiesshouldoperatethisequip-mentonsteepslopingterrain.Remember:• ATVsare“rideractive”machinesthatrequireoperatorskill

in shifting weight while riding to maintain balance of themachine.Thisoperatorskillwillbecriticalforsafeoperationonsteepslopes.

• Utilityvehiclesaredesignedforworkpurposesandprovidemorestability;however,formaximumoperatorprotectiononroughterrainandsteepslopes,onlythosevehiclesequippedwitharolloverprotectivestructure(ROPS)andseatbeltsthatmeetcurrentrolloverprotectionstandardsarerecommended.Brushguardtypeframesthathavenotbeentestedshouldnotbetrustedtoproviderolloverprotection.CheckwithyourdealerregardingavailabilityofROPSonneworexistingutilityvehicles.

• IfusinganATVorautilityvehicle,heavy-duty,four-wheeldrivemodelsarepreferredforuseinagriculturalactivities,especiallyonsteepslopes.CheckwithyourlocalATVdealerregardingthemodels,suspensionsystems,andotherfeaturesmostappropriateforyourworkrequirements.

• Regardless of the type of ATV or utility vehicle used, alwayschecktheoperator’smanualfortowingandloadcarryinglimita-tionsorrestrictions.Neverexceedthemanufacturer’srecom-mendations.Alsocheckforotherrecommendationsregardingthe use of towed or mounted equipment. Any mounted ortowedequipmentwillaffectthestabilityand/orthehandlingcharacteristicsonsteepslopingterrain.

• Goodmaintenanceofthebrakesandbrakingsystemiscriticalforsafeoperationonsteepslopes.

• Tireswithgoodtreadandproperairpressureareimportantforgoodtractiononsteepslopes.Replaceworntiresandmaintaintire air pressures as recommended by the manufacturer. Im-properoruneventirepressurescanleadtolossofcontrol.

• Alwaysfollowthemanufacturer’srecommendationsandspecifi-cationswhenmountingequipmentontheATVorutilityvehicle.Donotaltertheheightofthemountingpointsorincreasethetowingcapacitybeyondthoseindicatedbythemanufacturer.

• AlwaysobservetheATVmanufacturer’sspecificationsregard-

ingloadratingsforfrontandrearcarrierracks.Attachmentsorloadscarriedonthefrontorrearrackscanraisethecenterofgravityanddecreasethestability.Likewise,heavyorhighloadson utility vehicles can decrease the stability. Secure all loadsand mounted equipment to prevent shifting when operatingonroughorslopingterrain.

• Withutilityvehicles,avoiddrivingacrosssteepslopesormak-ingsharpturnsonslopes.Driveupanddownsteepslopes,andmaketurnsonmorelevelareasatthetoporbottomoftheslopeifpossible.

• Alwayshitchloadstothedrawbaraccordingtotheinstructionsintheowner’smanual.Hitchingloadsabovethedrawbarheightgreatlyincreasestheriskofarearoverturn.Theshorterwheel-baseandlighterweightoftheATVmakeitmorepronetorearoverturnsthantheutilityvehicle.

• TowingloadsuphillorheavyattachmentsontherearoftheATVincreasestheriskofarearoverturn.SuddenaccelerationoftheATVthrottlewhengoingupinclinesorsuddenbrakingwhenback-ingdownaslopewillalsoincreasetheriskofarearoverturn.

• Descendingsteepslopeswithtowedloadsincreasesstoppingdistancesandcanresultinlossoftractionandpossiblejackknif-ing.Reducethesizeoftowedloadsonsteepslopes,andavoidconditionssuchasheavydew,harddryorloosesoil,lushgreenplantmaterial,etc.,thatreducetraction.Tomaintaincontrol,usetheassistanceoffour-wheeldrive,shifttothelowrange,andusethebrakesasnecessary.Ifthevehicle’stiresstarttoskid,releasesomeofthebrakingpressuresothevehiclecanbesteeredinthedirectionoftheskidtohelppreventjackknifing.

• SomeslopesmaybetoosteepforsafeoperationforeitherATVsorutilityvehicles.Considertheconditionsoftheterrainandthetypeoftowedormountedequipmentbeingused,andthenusegoodjudgmentandcommonsenseindeterminingiftheactivitycanbecarriedoutsafely.

• ATVsaredesignedforoff-roaduse,andoperationonhardsur-facesathighspeedscanadverselyaffecthandlingcharacteristics.Althoughuseonpublicroadsisnotrecommended,KentuckylawdoespermittheuseofanATVonatwo-lanepublichighway“iftheoperatorisengagedinfarmoragricultural-relatedactivi-ties.”Ifusedonapublicroad,thelawrequiresthattheoperatormusthaveavaliddriver’slicense,thevehiclemusthaveatleastoneheadlightandtwotaillightsthatareilluminated,andtheycan only be operated on public roads during daylight hours.ChecktheKentuckylawforrestrictionsonthecrossingofpublicroadsfornon-workrelateduses.

• The use of a helmet is recommended anytime an ATV is inoperation since severe head injuries are a common result inseriousATVinjuriesanddeaths.WhiletheKentuckylawdoesnot require the use of a helmet when the ATV is being usedforagriculturalpurposes,theuseofahelmetishighlyrecom-mended. Other recommended protective clothing includesover-the-ankle boots with heels, long-sleeved shirt or jacket,longpants,gloves,andgogglesorfaceshieldsifusedathigherspeeds.

• Useofahelmetwhenoperatingautilityvehicleisnotascriticalbecausethespeedsaregenerallymuchslower,butahelmetisrecommendedforoperationonroughterrainandsteepslopesbecauseoftheincreasedrisksofoverturnsorotherincidentsandwhenusedathigherspeeds.

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Educational programs of Kentucky Cooperative Extension serve all people regardless of race, color, age, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, M. Scott Smith, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Lexington, and Ken-tucky State University, Frankfort. Copyright © 2006 for materials developed by University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension. This publication may be reproduced in portions or its entirety for educational or nonprofit purposes only. Permitted users shall give credit to the author(s) and include this copyright notice. Publications are also available on the World Wide Web at www.ca.uky.edu.Issued 7-2006

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