IBE, LEONARD O. - University of Nigeria LEONARD O..pdf · 2015. 8. 29. · iv CERTIFICATION PAGE We...
Transcript of IBE, LEONARD O. - University of Nigeria LEONARD O..pdf · 2015. 8. 29. · iv CERTIFICATION PAGE We...
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IBE, LEONARD O.
PG/M.SC/12/63966
Ogbonna Nkiru
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES IN
NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF LOCAL
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TITLE PAGE
POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES IN NIGERIA: A CASE
STUDY OF LOCAL EMPOWERMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT PROJECCT (LEEMP) IN IMO STATE
BY
IBE, LEONARD O.
PG/M.SC/12/63966
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT STUDIES,
FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS
OF SCIENCE (M.Sc) DEGREE IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
SUPERVISOR: DR. T.O. ONYISHI
JUNE, 2013.
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APPROVAL PAGE
This report topic has been approved for the Department of
Public Administration and Local Government, Faculty of Social
Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN).
BY
………………………..... ....…………………………
Dr. A. O Onyishi Dr. Mrs. S Agu (Supervisor) (Head of Department)
………………………..... ....…………………………
Prof. C.O.T. Ugwu External Examiner Dean of Faculty
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CERTIFICATION PAGE
We the undersigned certify that Ibe, Leonard Oguguo, a Masters student in
the Department of Public Administration and Local Government, Faculty of Social
Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka with the registration number
PG/MSC/12/63966 has satisfactorily completed the requirement for the research
report for the award of Masters (MSC) degree in Public Administration and Local
Government.
………………………..... ....…………………………
Dr. A. O Onyishi Dr. Mrs. S Agu
(Supervisor) (Head of Department)
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DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated
To
God Almighty for His love and mercy upon me
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The successful completion of this research work is as a result of a
combination of efforts, handwork, willing and sincere moral, financial and material
support of many people. My special thanks go to my project supervisor Dr. T.O.
Onyishi whose co-operation, constructive criticisms and intellectual guidance
helped to sharpen my technical skills and for putting this research work into an
academic shape. I am also grateful to my Head of Department, Dr. (Mrs.), S.U.
Agu whose effort also contributed to my success story. I am also indebted to my
other lecturers like Prof. Fab. O. Onah, Professor (Mrs.) Chika Oguonu, Professor
C. Ofuebe, Professor F.C. Okoli (Osisi Oma I of Akpu), Professor (Mrs.) R.C.
Onah, Dr. O. Ikeanyibe, Dr. Anthony Onyishi, Dr. Godwin Okafor, Dr. U.C.
Nnadozie, Dr. C.U.Agalamanyi, Dr. (Mrs.) A. O.Uzuegbunam, Dr. (Mrs.) M.A.O.
Obi, and others whose lectures and deep spirit of thoughts became a guide for me.
I also wish to immensely appreciate the efforts of my parents Mr. and Mrs.
M.A. Ibe, for their contributions financially and also for being there for me.
I am highly indebted to Mr. Okey Chine, J.C. Akponye, Tochukwu
Ezenwajiaku, and Ibe-Onyekwere Juliet Chidinma.
I must also appreciate my friends Chioma, Onyeka, Chidinma and all my
classmates whom I could not mention their names. Sincerely I thank you people
for always being there for me, and may the Almighty continue to bless you people
for me.
Finally, I thank God, the author and finisher of my faith for His goodness
and favour upon my life. To You Father, I owe my praises.
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ABSTRACT
This research work assessed the poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria: Local Empowerment and Environmental Project Management (LEEMP) in Imo state as a case study. The study contends that the poverty rate has indeed become a pandemic national disease with systematic effects of high unemployment rate, poor healthcare, poor accessibility to water, food, good housing, low human development, low per capita income, among others. The data used in this study are collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary method or sources of data collection include the use of a research instrument (the questionnaire) and oral interview. Some research questions serve as guide to the respondents in order to elicit first hand information on the subject matter. The questionnaire contained twenty one structured questions design to elicit vital information from the respondents on the issue of poverty in Imo state. In addition, the questionnaire is validated and administered accordingly. Secondary sources of data collection on the other hand, include textbooks, journals, and government documents. The study used simple percentage and chi-square in analysis method for data analysis. The data analysis reveals the following findings: poverty rate in Imo state is on the increase inspite of government’s poverty alleviation programmes in the state. Also poverty alleviation programmes serve as conduits for the embezzlement of public funds. Corruption and politicization affect effective implementation of poverty alleviation programmes in Imo state. Based on these findings, we recommend that government should tackle the problems of corruption and politicization in the implementation of poverty alleviation programmes in order to make these programmes effective in poverty reduction.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page - - - - - - - - - - - i
Approval Page - - - - - - - - - - ii
Certification - - - - - - - - - - iii
Dedication - - - - - - - - - - - iv
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - v
Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - vi
Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - - vii
List of Tables - - - - - - - - - - ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - - 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - - 4 1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - - - 7 1.4 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - - 8 1.5 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - - 9
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL
FRAMEWORK
2.1 Literature Review - - - - - - - - 10 2.1.1 Understanding Poverty in Nigeria - - - - - - 11 2.1.2 Poverty: A Multi-Dimensional Concept - - - - - 13 2.1.3 Types of Poverty in Nigeria - - - - - - - 15 2.1.4 Causes of Poverty in Nigeria - - - - - - - 20 2.1.5 Poverty Reduction in Nigeria - - - - - - - 27 2.1.6 The Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP) as a Poverty Alleviation Programme - - - 33 2.1.7 Institutional Structure of LEEMP - - - - - - 34 2.1.8 Gap in Literature - - - - - - - - - 34 1.2 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - - 35 2.2.1 Application of the Theory - - - - - - - 37 2.3 Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - - 39 2.4 Operationalization of Key Concepts - - - - - - 39
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2.5 Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - - 40 2.5.1 Research Design - - - - - - - - - 40 2.5.2 Sources of Data Collection - - - - - - 40 2.5.3 Target Population of Study - - - - - - - 41 2.5.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 42 2.5.5 Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - - 44 2.5.6 Reliability and Validity of Instrument (Questionnaire) - - - 45
CHAPTER THREE: ETHNOGRAPHIC SETTING OF THE CASE STUDY
(IMO STATE)
3.1 Historical Background of Imo State - - - - - - 48 3.2 Geographical Location of Imo State - - - - - - 48 3.3 Socio-Cultural Organization of Imo State People - - - - 49 3.3.1 Ethnic Composition and Culture - - - - - - 50 3.3.2 Festivals: - - - - - - - - - - 50 3.3.3 Population Distribution of Imo State - - - - - - 57 3.4 Economy of Imo State - - - - - - - - 62 3.4.1 Tourism in Imo State - - - - - - - - 63
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Presentation and Analysis of Data - - - - - - 65 4.2 Test of Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 89 4.2.1 Discussion of Findings - - - - - - - - 93
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary - - - - - - - - - - 96 5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - 98 5.3 Recommendations - - - - - - - - - 100 Bibliography - - - - - - - - - -102 Appendix
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4:1 Sex Distribution of Respondents - - - - - - 65
Table 4.2: Age Distribution Respondents - - - - - - 66
Table 4.3: Academic Qualification of Respondents - - - - 66
Table 4.4: Respondents Marital Status - - - - - - 67
Table 4.5: Local Government Origin of Respondents - - - - 68
Table 4.6: Occupational Distribution of Respondents - - - - 69
Table 4.7: Respondents Assessment of Poverty Level in Imo State - - 69
Table 4.8: Respondents Opinions on whether Government Efforts in the Fight
against Poverty in Imo State are Encouraging - - - 71
Table 4.9: Respondents Awareness on Government Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Imo State - - - - - 73 Table 4.10: Respondents Evaluation of Government Poverty Alleviation
Programmes in Imo State - - - - - - 74
Table 4.11: Respondents’ Assessment on the Performances of LEEMP in
Reducing Poverty in Imo State - - - - - - 76
Table 4.12: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether LEEMP has Recorded Success
as Poverty Alleviation Programme in Imo State - - - 77
Table 4.13: Assessment of Individual and Community Benefits from LEEMP
Programmes in Imo State - - - - - - - 79
Table 4.14: Assessment of how Many Times the Respondents or their Communities have benefited from LEEMP Projects in Imo State - - - - - - - - - -80
Table 4.15: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether the Actual Beneficiaries of these Programmes are the Poor - - - - - - 81
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Table 4.16: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether Non- Participation of the Targeted Groups in the Programmes Contributes to the Exclusion of the Poor from Benefiting in these Programmes - - - 82
Table 4.17: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether the Implementation Processes of LEEMP are Efficient towards Achieving the Target Objectives - - - - - - - - - 83 Table 4.18: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether the Performance of LEEMP as a Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Imo State is Encouraging 84 Table 4.19: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether Government Poverty Alleviation
Programmes in Imo State have enhanced the Standard of Living of the Poor - - - - - - - - - - 85
Table 4.20: Factors Militating Against Successful Execution of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria Particularly in Imo State - 86
Table 4.21: Respondents’ Suggestions on the Identified Problems of Poverty Alleviation Programmes - - - - - - 88 Table 4.2.1: Chi-Square Value for Test of Hypothesis 1 - - - - - - 90
Table 4.2.2: Chi-Square Value for Test of Hypothesis 2 - - - - - 91
Table 4.2.3: Chi-Square Value for Test of Hypothesis 3 - - - - - 92
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Poverty far from being a condition in which a person or people cannot afford
the basic material necessities, without which life becomes virtually unlivable, is a
multidimensional and multifaceted phenomenon. Politically, it goes back beyond
income inequality as it includes rights, power relations and access to and
distribution of resources. Socially, it involves the question of human dignity, social
relationships and opportunities. Thus poverty has become a social reality and a
global affliction which virtually seems to have defied a permanent solution. This is
why Onah (2006:314) emphasized that:
The issue of poverty has provoked concerns and debates among scholars and organizations in the world. It has become an issue of global interest. It is a socio-economic epidemic affecting majority of the people in the world, including Nigeria.
Poverty as the Central Bank of Nigeria (2004) and Word Bank (1991:1)
stressed is one of the symptoms and manifestations of underdevelopment.
Nigeria’s poverty rate over the years has continued to grow unabated. According
to the United Nations Reports (1999-2001) Nigeria’s Human Poverty Index (HPI)
was 41.6% which places the country among the 25 poorest nations in the world.
The HPI for some other African countries as indicated in the reports indicated
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that Zimbabwe, Botswana, Kenya Burkina Faso and Niger has 17.3%, 22.9%,
26.1%, 58.3% and 66.0% respectively.
Additional data from the Federal Office of Statistics (FOS, 1999) cited in
Nwatu, (2006:295) further indicated that the life expectancy for Nigeria was 51
years, literacy rate was 51% and 70% of the rural population do not have access
to potable water, healthcare facilities and electricity. The adult illiteracy rate for
Nigeria is also increasing at a galloping rate while the infant mortality rates for
Nigeria were 82 and 191 by 1995 Soludo (2004).
Based on the data also from Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) , the state by
state poverty incidence in Nigeria between 1980 to 1996 shows clearly high
varying poverty levels among the states of the federation which simply tells us
that the issue of poverty affects every nook and cranny of Nigeria (Soludo, 2004).
In the post colonial epoch of Nigeria, poverty has intensified by the many
years of military rule and political instability and failure of civilian government
since over 50 years, of independence from the British colonial era, coupled with
poor policy and programme implementation, fiscal neglect, mismanagement, lack
of investment to create employment opportunities that trickle down economic
opportunities, corruption, and misappropriation, are the root causes of poverty in
the country. Although, poverty in Nigeria has colonial inducement but there are
still no holistic policy approach to tackle the problem in the post-colonial era.
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Despite of the above, the Nigerian state through her government has
expressed determination and effort at uplifting the living conditions of Nigerians,
especially the poor. All of Nigeria’s National development plans since 1970,
have emphasized poverty eradication as a key area of every government in
power. Since 1970, Nigerian governments- military and civilian rules have
created virtually tantalizing array of policies, plans, programmes and projects to
eliminate poverty. These include, Operation Feed the Nation (OFN); Green
Revolution (GR), Directorate for Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI);
National Directorate for Employment (NDE); Family Economic Advancement
Programme (FEAP); Go Bank to Land Porgamme (GBLP); Better Life for Rural
Women Programme (BLRWP); Federal Urban Mass Transit Authority
(FUMTA), Nigerian Agricultural Corporative and Rural Development Bank
(NAPCRDB); National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) and others
which billions of Naira and Dollars have been invested in by both governmental
and non-governmental agencies especially the donor agencies such as World
Bank, International Monetary Fund, United Nations Children’s Fund,
International Development Association, among others.
Apparently, these policies, plans, programmes and Projects initiated by the
government as its efforts to reduce poverty have explicitly failed to in their
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objectives to reduce poverty as it is more evident that poverty is still a chronic
national problem.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Poverty has indeed become a pandemic national disease with symptomatic
effects of high unemployment rates, poor health care, poor accessibility to water,
food, housing, low human development, low per capita income, and poor
infrastructural development. This has no doubt made poverty alleviation
programme a recurring decimal in Nigeria’s public policy either in the military or
the civilian rule as no administration has come to power without initiating a
poverty alleviation package. In contrast, there are no empirical evidence or
justifications to show for the enormous resources put into these programmes, as
the rate of poverty has been progressively on the increase with each new poverty
alleviation porgramme being implemented. Many people particularly in the rural
areas are not aware of various government programmes on poverty alleviation.
Those that are aware also hardly benefit from such poverty alleviation
programmes due to some problems which one could describe as poor
implementation and evaluation of programmes. The truth is that the beneficiaries
of these poverty alleviation programmes are mainly people far above the poverty
line or the rich. This situation has always present these programmes as illusive
and deceit on the view of poor population (Nwatu, 2006).
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Also in a situation, where the programme pays off, the situation is such
that while in some areas governments addresses some of their community needs,
in some other areas, there are no adequate provisions of government social
amenities to better their lives. Hence such communities resort to self- help
community development projects in addressing some of their community needs.
This has been a recurring decimal in Imo state especially in the rural
communities. Most communities in Imo state exist with virtually no good roads,
portable drinking water, security, health care clinic, electricity and good
education due to absence of primary and secondary schools in the areas. For
instance, the report of the Imo State SEEDS 2009, gave that about 40 per cent of
rural communities lack electricity, good motorable roads, standard health centres
and good water supply.
Evidence from the Imo State Economic Empowerment and Development
Strategy SEEDS (2009:1 ) put that:
“Poverty has become endemic in Nigeria with almost 70% of the population below the poverty line. Imo state suffers its own share of the problem as available figures show the incidence of poverty in the state to be almost 60%. Poverty implies all the associated problems of low incomes, poor education and health, malnutrition, as well as social and political exclusion.
The failure of previous anti-poverty programmes is partly because of lack of
involvement or participation of the people and politicization of the programmes.
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As carefully demonstrated by some scholars like (Nwatu, 2006:295; Onah,
2005:67 and Ukwedeh, 2003:245), this is true of such national initiatives on
poverty alleviation like National Accelerated Food Production Programme
(NAFPP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Nigerian Green Revolution (NGR),
Directorate for Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), National Directorate
Employment (NDE), Better Life for Rural Women Programme (BLRWP), Family
Support Programme (FSP), Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP),
Former Poverty Alleviation Programme and now National Poverty Eradication
Programme (NAPEP). As a matter of fact, the initiation of these programmes as
Abdullahi (2006:2) has strongly argued do not take into consideration, the
environmental impact analysis (EIA) and social impact analysis (SIA) to give the
problem a holistic approach.
Apparently, poverty alleviation progammes fail to achieve their objectives in
the face of high incidence of corruption and lack of accountability of the
implementing agencies. In most cases, at the implementing stage, the resources and
funds allocated for the poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria are diverted to
private purse leaving the objectives of the programmes totally unachievable. In
other words, programmes monitoring and evaluation are given less attention. In
this condition, it becomes difficult to clearly ascertain who actually benefits from
the programme, and the targeted population groups are not in most the true
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beneficiaries. Poor programme monitoring and evaluation hinders the progress and
success of poverty alleviation programmes.
Therefore, it is against this background that the researcher tends to
investigate on the topic: poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria: a case study of
Local Empowerment and Environmental Project (LEEMP) in Imo state. In view of
the foregoing, the study raises the following questions:
i. Is there a correlation between the nature of poverty alleviation programmes
and the rate of poverty in Imo State?
ii. To what extent has poor participation of the people affect the
implementation of poverty alleviation programmes such as LEEMP in Imo
State?
iii. To what extent has poor accountability of LEEMP official’s affected the
government targeted goals in poverty reduction programmes in Imo State?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The broad objective of this study is to assess the relationship between
LEEMP in Imo state. The specific goals of the study are therefore to:
i. To determine the correlation between the nature of poverty alleviation
programmes and the rate of poverty in Imo State.
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ii. To examine how poor participation of the people in programmes affect the
implementation of poverty alleviation programmes such as LEEP in Imo
State.
iii. To examine how poor accountability of LEEMP officials has hindered the
achievement of government’s targeted goals in poverty reduction
programmes in Imo State.
1.4 Significance of the Study
This study has both academic and empirical significance. Academically, the
study has the potential of contributing greatly to the growth of existing literature in
social sciences particularly in public administration by helping to enrich the bank
of knowledge through its findings on the activities of the Local Empowerment and
Environment Management Project (LEEMP) in Imo state. This is to say that our
study would assist in improving the frontiers of knowledge especially in managing
public programmes in Nigeria particularly as it concerns the evaluation of the
poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria. The study will be of immense
significance in ascertaining the progress so far made by LEEMP in reducing
poverty in Imo state. On the other hand, the study will assist in unveiling the
challenges or factors militating against effective implementation of poverty
alleviation programmes in Nigeria and will make useful suggestions towards
ensuring the achievement of goals of government poverty alleviation programme.
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Empirically, this study is considered significant because it will contribute in
providing the decision makers and other key actors in the government only the
road- maps that will help prompt, responsive and efficient policy making in
Nigerian poverty alleviation programmes. It will also suggest the panacea for
frequent failures in Nigerian poverty alleviation programmes.
1.5 Scope of the Study
Every study must have a scope and therefore must be pinpointed. This study
therefore focuses on poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria but narrowed
down to Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP)
in Imo state as a case study.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Literature Review
This chapter has attempted to review relevant literature. The essence of
literature review is to ascertain the relevance of major contributions in an area of
study and also provide indications about existing gaps that need to be filled. In this
regard, the study shall review some relevant literature that relate to the subject
matter of this research work and for simplicity and understanding, the literature
review is organized under sub-headings as follow:
• Understanding Poverty in Nigeria
• Poverty: A Multi-Dimensional Concept
• Types of Poverty in Nigeria
• Causes of Poverty in Nigeria
• Poverty Reduction in Nigeria
• The Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP)
as a Poverty Alleviation Programme
• Institutional Structure of LEEMP
• Gap in Literature
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2.1.1 Understanding Poverty in Nigeria
In recent times, ideas about poverty conception increasingly broadened
beyond the original conception in terms of incomes. There are essentially two
reasons for this broader conception of poverty. In the first place, it has been
increasingly recognized that the experience of poverty is a multi dimensional one.
To be poor is often to suffer ill-health, to be socially excluded and to be vulnerable.
Also, as understanding of the causes of poverty have developed, there is now a
greater perception of how economic, social, cultural, political and geographical
factors tend to reinforce, one another to keep the poor entangled in a vicious cycle
of poverty.
Definitions of poverty based on a minimum income levels however continue
to be essential to poverty measurement, partly because they are quantitative, and so
can be compared over time and between groups, and be subject to the vigour of
statistical testing. Measuring poverty in this way requires the definition of poverty
line that is a standard of living that separates the poor from the non-poor. There are
a number of ways of setting this line for example as a minimum income or as a
certain level of consumption or expenditure. In most surveys carried out on
Nigeria, the approach taken has typically been to fix two lines relatives to the
standard of living, a moderate poverty line equivalent to two thirds of mean per
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capital expenditure, and a core, or extreme poor, moderately poor, and non-poor
Imo State Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (SEEDS, 2004:52).
Health and Education (human capital in economic terms) are as essential to
wellbeing as incomes. In a significant step towards broader definitions of poverty,
UNDP in 1990 introduced the Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI
combines as single index gross domestic product (a measure of average income)
measures reflecting three basic components of human development: longevity (life
expectancy, knowledge) adult literacy mean years of schooling and standard of
living, purchasing power, based on purchasing power parity (UNDP, 1994:20).
Well-being has thus increasingly become recognized as a broad
phenomenon, encompassing the whole range of factors which influence human
capabilities the capacities, the person to be, and to do. These include the social and
institutional environment within which people live: levels of social autonomy,
empowerment, political representation, access to justice and physical security.
Thus, poverty, or the lack of well-being, may take the form of physical isolation,
vulnerability and powerlessness as well as lack of income and assets. Some of
these attributes may be measured and are the emendable to quantitative analysis.
Other aspects of poverty, such as its institutional or cultural dimensions, or its lived
experience, are more subjective analysis thus best captured by the participatory
method of research in which the opinions of the poor are sought about their own
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conditions and experiences. This method is now generally accepted as the best way
of lessening about the subjective experience of poverty, and of acquiring local
insights into its causes and remedies.
2.1.2 Poverty: A Multi-Dimensional Concept
Any study of poverty must begin with a conceptualization of poverty. A
search of the relevant literature shows that there is no general consensus on any
meaningful definition of poverty, because poverty affects many aspects of the
human condition, including physical, moral and psychological. According to
Anyanwu (1997) a concise and universally accepted definition of poverty is
elusive. Different criteria have been used to conceptualize poverty. As Anyanwu
rightly observed, most analyses follow the conventional view of poverty as a result
of insufficient income for securing basic goods and services. The concern here is
with the individual stability to subsist and to reproduce himself as well as the
individual stability to command resources to achieve this (Sen, 1981; Amis and
Rakodi 1994). Many other experts have conceptualized the poor as that portion of
the population that is unable to meet basic nutritional needs (Ojha, 1970,
Reutlinger and Selowsky, 1976). Others view poverty, in part, as a function of
education, health, life expectancy, child mortality, etc. However, Tamuno and
Alapila (1995:1) hold that despite the complex nature of poverty, social scientists
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have been able to identify, describe and analyze poverty, as well proffer solutions
to alleviate poverty.
According to Fields (1994:69) poverty “is the inability of an individual or
family to command sufficient resources to satisfy their basic needs”. Ekong (1991)
says that poverty is one’s general inability to attain or enjoy given social, cultural
or economic benefits. The significant issues in the views of Fields and Ekong are
inability, basic needs and individuals or groups, which states clearly, the
incapability state of the poor. No wonder, Ekpe (2000:121) states that the central
theme of poverty is the state of inadequacy of essential needs of life. In a similar
view, Sen (1987:12) stated that poverty is “the lack of certain capabilities such as
being able to participate with dignity in society”. Demonstrating the dynamism of
the concept further, Engelama and Bamidele (1997) see poverty as a state of
individual not being able to cater adequately for his/her basic needs of food,
clothing and shelter,… meeting social and economic objectives, lack of gainful
employment, skills, assets and self esteem, education, health, portable water and
sanitation, which reduces the opportunity of advancing his/her well being to the
limit of his/her capability. The above definition of poverty explicitly poverty is not
only the inability of individual to afford the basic needs of life, but reduces the
strength and prestige of such individual to participate in any given activity in the
society. In a strict economic sense, Ekpo (2000:49) states that poverty is a situation
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whereby income and consumption are low. Obandan (1997:61) explains that the
poor are those whose standard of living are measured in terms of income or
consumption and is below the poverty line, which separates the poor form the rich.
In a broader term, Chambers (1995:71) sees poverty as the lack of physical
necessities, assets and income. It is a general condition of deprivation, which
comprises poverty itself, social inferiority, isolation, physical weakness,
vulnerability powerlessness and humiliation. The poor earn below the international
measurement of one US Dollar per day (World Bank, 1996), which affects their
purchasing power to acquire their basic needs. It is on that note that Achor
(2001:35) states that the poor lack cash income that is sufficient to cover their
minimum standard of living. On the other hand, the literature explains that poverty
is not only a situation of poor standard of living, but also a state of severe
deprivation in the society.
2.1.3 Types of Poverty in Nigeria
Poverty as we know exist in different types and poverty is geographically
relative. This is why Onah (2006:72) carefully stated that “different types of
poverty exist at different times and stages in different parts of Nigeria, based on the
socio-cultural, economic and political environment”. However, the dividing line
between types of poverty is thin because of overlapping factors and sometimes it is
the pre-fixing adjective that makes the difference, but the need to classify poverty
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for whatever value is still founded. The common types of poverty in Nigeria are:
Absolute Poverty: This is a kind of poverty in which the poor a severely
deprived of basic needs of life. Haralambos and Heald (2001:140) view it as the
situation where the poor live below the poverty line. It is a state of not having
enough resources for basic needs of life, such as good health, cloths, shelter, good
water and food etc. This is one of the most prominent types of poverty in Nigeria.
The poor are unable to afford the required resources to acquire the elements
necessary to sustain life and health. The World Bank Report (1996) states that
greater percent of Nigerians are living below the universal poverty line of US one
Dollar per day, which makes life meaningless to the poor. Majority of Nigerians
are unable to afford the required resources to acquire elements necessary to sustain
life. They find it difficult to afford at least one balanced meal out of the required
three per day. Today, many Nigerians struggle for shelters that are not even worthy
of accommodating domestic animals. They have turned under the bridges and
watersides better alternative shelters in absence of any. Good health care is now a
strange issue to majority of Nigerians, due to their inability to afford the resources
for it. The high unemployment rate has worsened the matter even those who are
working, due to the higher inflationary trend, suffer a lot of inadequacies. Indeed
this type of poverty has eroded the dignity of Nigerians and increased dependency
unabated.
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Relative Poverty: Poverty in this case is measured based on conventional
standard of living in the society. According to Townsend (1974) in Haralambose
and Heald (2001:124) “individuals, families and groups in the populations can be
said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the type of diets,
participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are
customary, or at least widely encouraged and approved in the society to which they
belong. Their resources are below those commanded by the average individual or
family that they are, in effect, excluded from ordinary living patterns, customs and
activities”. It is a kind of poverty experienced by different people at different
stages.
The standard of living of individuals differs and they experience the poverty
whenever there is a fall below the standard. In Nigeria, the socio-economic
inequality has induced relative poverty, resulting to creation of different classes of
people (the rich, middle and poor) in the country. The standard of living of various
classes varies, as what may be seen as convenient and accommodating by one
class, might not be by the other class. Therefore, the deficiency or inconvenience
in the standard of living of any class makes that class poor in such a giving period.
For example, the acceptable standard of living of successful Nigerian politicians
may be different from that of civil servants. What could be seen as luxury by one
class could be seen as necessity by others.
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Subjective Poverty: This type of poverty is experienced due to some
circumstances. People graduate into it based on the available circumstance and
perception of the individual. It arises due to shift or reduction in income and status
from a particular level to the other. For example, a retired civil servant that lives on
pensions sees himself or herself as a poor individual due to retirement. He/ she
earns income, but in a reduced capacity compared to what he/she was earning
before. At that point, the perception and status of the individual change Amuguo
(2003). The individual is subjected to poverty due to the circumstance.
Direct Poverty: This poverty is common among Nigerians and seriously
increasing. It involves inability to afford good portable water for drinking,
inadequate food and shelter due to the activities of the rich who have taken over
the control of the state resources. In the Niger Delta Region of the country, access
to portable water had become difficult as virtually all the natural sources of
portable water have been polluted by the activities of multinational and oil
exploration companies, who are also reluctant to provide alternative water sources
Onah (2006:75). He further explained that in the North, the source of water supply
is very low, due to their desert environment. Some part of the South-West and
virtually all the South-East suffer same. The government has not taken adequate
measure to correct the problem. Accommodation is a basic problem in many cities
and rural villages of the federation. Basic amenities generally are scarce in our
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communities and towns, thereby causing high rate of urban migration to the few
cities where they are found. At the end, it results to overpopulation of the few
urban towns and severe hardship on the citizenry.
Subsistence Poverty: This poverty is common among the villagers.
Sometimes they could have access to safe water, adequate food, good shelter,
based on their level, but poor because they lack resources to maintain other sectors
such as good health, access to good education, social amenities etc. The
consequences are constant rural-urban migration in search of resources to maintain
other sectors.
Socio- Cultural Poverty: According to Obadan (1997), poverty at this level
is influenced by the activities of the culture of the people. In the traditional,
Hausa/Fulani communities, women are not given equal opportunities like their
male counterparts when it comes to formal education. They are deprived due to the
ethics of their culture. This results to a good number of the women being poor at
the end of the day. He also explained that before now, first sons in Ibibio and
Ikwere tribes of Akwa Ibom and Rivers states respectively were not given equal
opportunities like other children in terms of formal education. They are rather
preferred to be farmers to enable them be good custodian of their father’s farm
lands. These men are deprived of formal education on account of cultural practices
(Obadan, 1997). Culturally, driven discrimination of various dimensions against
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women observable all over Nigeria also leads to this variant of poverty (Ozigboh,
1998).
Urban Poverty: From the view point of Umoh (2001) and Onah (2006), the
poverty at this level is common and associated with the urban areas. Poverty exists
due to absence or inadequate presence of the required basic needs of life in the
urban area. In this case, there could be shelter, portable water, good food etc. but
these are inadequate due to the level of demands, the high demand after the few
supply results to high cost of living in the area, thereby making the low income
earners to suffer miserably in the urban areas. This results in forcing people to seek
for accommodation in urban slum, ghettos and under flyovers, eating unbalanced
diet etc. Urban poverty is usually caused by high rural-urban migration.
Endemic Poverty: This is a type of poverty caused be low productivity and
income, and poor nutrition and health Onah (2006). Many Nigerians today suffer
from endemic poverty. The productivity and income of many individuals are low.
Since their income is low, they lack sufficient resources to afford adequate food,
good health and shelter.
2.1.4 Causes of Poverty in Nigeria
Literatures on the causes of poverty in Nigeria are indeed enormous as there
are authors. Many different factors have been attributed to be responsible for the
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national poverty rate. These factors or causes will be holistically examined before
proceeding to poverty reduction programmes in Nigeria.
2. Macro- Economic Distortions: Poor macro-economic and monetary policies
resulting in low economic growth rate and continuous slide in the value of the
Naira which depreciated from N 1.0 to N138.0 to $1.0 between June 1986 and
January 2002 in the parallel markets Nwatu (2006:304). In this respect, for any
poverty eradication/reduction to succeed, government must ensure low inflation
rate, low interest rate, stable national currency, and high GDP Growth rate
coupled with balanced income distribution. These are usually difficult to
achieve.
3. Effect of Globalization: The process of globalization which started about a
decade and half ago, caught Nigeria in the throes of political instability (Nwatu,
2006:305). The main features of globalization process include liberation of
trade, free movement of capital and accelerated development in information
technology. Globalization provides windows of opportunity if the indices of
development (interest and exchange rates, terms of trade, tariffs, etc) are on the
positive and favourable scale. In Nigeria, however, by the middle of the
eighties, public infrastructure and utility had gone into serious dilapidation. The
road networks were in bad shape, schools and hospitals deteriorated seriously to
increase poverty among Nigerians. Telecommunication and power supply
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became very erratic. According to Anyanwu (1997) and Nwatu (2006) “as a
result of petroleum related activities, agriculture was relegated to the
background and those that remained in it, were operating at subsistence level”
and characterized by the following:
(i) Collapsing and uncompetitive industrial sector activities (30% surviving in
the last 10 years).
(ii) Rapid growth in unemployment, under-employment and poverty (about
60% among the youths aged 14-25 years) translating into 3 million jobless
persons entering the labour market annually;
(iii) Social instability and intolerance (ethnic nationalists and religious friction);
(iv) Hyper inflation (averaging 50% between 1985-1995).
(v) Unstable interest and exchange rate (from $ 1 = N1.0 in 1985 to $ 1 to N
100 in 1990 interest rate of 35% per annum as the September 2000);
(vi) Low productivity of Nigerian economic sectors; and
(vii) Endemic corruption, greed and avarice among Nigerian leaders.
Given the Nigeria’s political and socio-economic disposition, globalization
presented more challenges to the country as it lacks what it takes to be relevant or
event adapt and/or cope with it. Until the country can achieve certain level of good
governance and revamped industrial base to enhance modest economic growth and,
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fairly efficient public infrastructure and utilities, Nigeria shall remain at the
receiving end of globalization (Nwata, 2006:306).
3. Governance: Bad governance over the years had deprived Nigerians of the
ideals and dividends of democracy. It is objective of the government of Nigeria to
tap through democratic process, the energy and creative talents of the people and
harness the nation’s resources to enhance the welfare of the citizenry. This is with
a mission to create a dynamic economy and establish a free, democratic and just
society through the pursuit of people centred programmes. The process will
facilitate and consistently cultivate a style of governance that places premium on
openness, transparency and accountability, probity and effective leadership.
Without any fear of contradiction, we can rightly say that governance with
aggressive instinct towards poverty had not been achieved in Nigeria. The
assessment of different regimes in Nigeria, right from the epoch of colonialism and
post colonial period of military and civilian administrations, there are no pragmatic
policy commitment to tackle poverty from its root causes (absence of basic needs
to the people). Ake (1987) and Nnoli (1986) noted that in the colonial
administration, efforts were only made to build and construct facilities that would
aid the exploitation and exportation of natural resources for the British
development. No infrastructural development was initiated for the economic
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survival of Nigeria. This undoubtedly left Nigeria’s on economic dependency and
widened the gap of poverty unabated.
4. Corruption: Corruption comes in different forms and differs from country to
country. Corruption has been variously approached by scholars, Lipset and Lenz
(2000:112) defined it as “effort to secure wealth or power through illegal means,
and it is usually for private gains at public expenses; or a misuse of public power
for private benefit”. In Nigeria, illegal takeover of government, through military
coup, embezzlement, nepotism, looting, bribery, vote buying abuse of office
powers, etc. are very common. The manifestation of corruption in Nigeria
progressed among individuals, and there after assumed an institutional and later
national dimension. In Nigeria, corruption has contributed immensely to poverty
and misery of a large segment of the population (Onah, 2006:78). He further
observed that corruption exacerbates poverty and disproportionately affects those
of lower income because it pulls resources from the national treasures, placing the
money into the accounts of few individuals, who are politically powerful. This has
devastating effect on developing economy that needs the money for poverty
alleviation and development.
5. Debt Burden: Debt burden has been one of the drawbacks to Nigeria’s
developmental efforts. The debt portfolio which was slightly above 14.28 billion
US dollars in 1980 rose to about 30 billion US dollars in the year 2000 (Nwatu,
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2006). In a similar note, Business Times (1993:14) noted that the serving of the
debt has encroached on the volume or resources needed for socio-economic
development; as it is estimated that around 40 per cent of Nigeria’s national
incomes goes to debt payments. The high debt service ratio translate into resources
constant needed for such public infrastructure and utilities as: hospitals schools,
roads (urban and rural); and supply and portable water.
6. Low Productivity: Productivity sectors of the economy like agriculture,
industry, manufacturing etc. are equally constrained leading to low productivity,
low capacity utilization, underemployment and low purchasing power thereby
throwing majority of Nigerians into object poverty.
7. Unemployment: Unemployment in Nigeria assumed crisis level in the late 80s
and early 90s especially among school leavers and graduates in tertiary institutions.
A survey carried out by the centre for Investment Sustainable Development,
Management and Environment in 1998 gave the features as follows:
(i) Over 70% of the unemployed are relatively unskilled primary and secondary
school between age 13-25 years;
(ii) Graduates unemployment which hitherto was un-noticed, started to emerge in
the 1980s, the following influences the rising graduate unemployment;
a. Nigeria had a total enrolment of about 600,000 students in 149 tertiary
institutions 1996/97 academic year,
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b. There were 123,000 graduates in the 1995/96 session and about 130,000
graduates in 1996/97;
c. Commutatively, Nigeria produced a total of 1,110,000 graduates form
tertiary; and
d. About 10 per cent i.e. 100,000 got formal jobs over one million might be
openly unemployed or under-employed.
The unemployment situation was further worsened by the primary schools,
secondary schools and college dropouts and retrenched workers due to the closure
of many industries. Although there are no reliable data for all these unemployed, it
has roughly been estimated to be over 5.0 million Soludo (2004) cited in Nwatu
(2006). All these unemployment worsened the high level of poverty recorded by
Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) in 1999.
8. High Population Growth Rate: Statistics show that in 1980, Nigeria’s
population was about 65 million, it rose to 88 million in 1991 and further increased
to 102.3 million in 1996. It is estimated that the Nigeria’s population is currently
about 140 million (National Population Commission Census 2006). This increase
in population has over stretched the basic social and infrastructural facilities as
well as public goods in the face of dwindling national resources. A situation in
which population growth average of 2.83 against GDP growth rate of 2.7% meant
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that resources meant for investment are consumed with little left for development
thereby reinforcing the vicious cycle of poverty.
2.1.5 Poverty Reduction in Nigeria
Poverty reduction is the most difficult challenge facing Nigeria and its
people and the greatest obstacle to pursuit of sustainable socio-economic growth
(NEEDS, 2005:28). Poverty reduction or eradication has appeared as most priority
of every regime in power in Nigeria and its emphasis as the top most priority or
objective of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) “to eradicate extreme
poverty” makes news approach in the government programmes on poverty.
Poverty reduction is a global and national task. Globally organizations like
United Nations International Children’s Emergency/Fund (UNICEF) United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO), and United Kingdom Department for
International Development (DFID), United States Agency for International
Development (USAID), International Development Association (IDA), Joint
United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), to mention but a few have
taken the lead on poverty reduction especially on developing countries like
Nigeria. Nationally, agencies and establishment, such as Nigerian Agricultural
Cooperation and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB), National Empowerment
and Economic Development Strategy (NEEDS), National Poverty Eradication
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Porgramme (NAPEP), Partnership for Transformation of Health System (PATHS),
National Action Committee on Aids (NAC), State Empowerment and Economic
Development Strategy (SEEDS), Stated and Local Government Programme
(SLGP), Local Empowerment and Economic Development Strategy (LEEDS),
Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP),
Community Development Co-coordinating Council (CDC), etc. have also taken the
challenges of poverty reduction in Nigeria.
The establishment of these agencies has been necessitated due to high
poverty level in Nigeria for instance, the establishment of poverty
alleviation/reduction strategy by each state under the State Empowerment and
Economic Development Strategy (SEEDS). Poverty reduction constitutes measures
taken by the government to address the problems of poverty. These measures
include improving delivery of basic social services, improving basic
infrastructures, supporting entrepreneurship and self help human development and
empowerment, etc. This is why Nnanna (2003) cited in Imo State Empowerment
Economic and Development Strategy (2005:37) that “to achieve sustainable
poverty reduction by the enhancement of livelihood and human capabilities
through board based wealth creation and employment generation”.
The awareness on poverty reduction and actions on poverty alleviation
programmes are both global and national efforts. We shall proceed to examine the
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various efforts of the federal environment to cub poverty in Nigeria and other
component programmes in Imo state.
Before the creation of Nation’s Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) in
2002, there had been various efforts by the Federal Government or Nigeria to
attack national poverty Ukoha (2003: 15). Ukoha further noted that by 1999,
eighteen (18) Federal Ministries and 30 Agencies and Extra-ministerial
Department were involved in poverty alleviation activities at the federal levels.
Although national efforts to tame poverty in Nigeria can be traced to the
nation’s fourth national development plans which were indirectly aimed at tackling
people’s poverty Ukaoha (2003). Observations from and Anyanwu (1997), Onah
(2006) and Ukaoha (2003) showed that the most serious poverty reduction
programmes of the Federal Government of Nigeria took place in the post 1980s era
following the consequences that followed the introduction of the structural
adjustment programme (SAP) by the Babangida military regime in 1986.
Ukoha (2003) for instance noted that “the austerity measures contained in
SAP were believed to have worsened the poverty situation in Nigeria. Indeed, even
today, many economists do argue that the present socio-economic situation which
is receiving the present administrative economic reforms is still as a result of SAP
(UNNP 2000).
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By 1997, Nigeria was ranked as the 5th poorest nation among 78 developing
nations in recent times; poverty has become pervasive in the country. According to
the World Bank report of 2000 “the poverty situation has aptly been described as a
paradox, the paradox is that the high level of poverty in Nigeria contradicts the
country’s enormous wealth. Among other things, Nigeria is endowed with
immense human agricultural, petroleum, gas and solid mineral resources, much of
which have not been harnessed, yet Nigeria’s remained poor (Ogwunike, 2005:94).
He further stated that “it is important to note that the country’s has earned over 300
billion U.S dollars from its natural resources during the last decade of the 20th
century. But instead of making progress in the national socio-economic
development, the country retrogressed to become the 25th poorest country in the
world at the beginning of the 21st century where as she was among the richest 50
countries in the early 1970 (Ekhator, 2003:73).
In the light of the above, Federal Government has apparently concern its
policy directives mainly for poverty reduction in Nigeria, numerous policies and
programmes have been designed at one time or the other to solve the problem of
poverty in the country. It is important to emphasize that the advent of Structural
Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986 brought out more forcibly, the need for
policies and programmes to alleviate poverty and provide safety nets for the poor.
Indeed, since after the introduction of SAP there have been conscious efforts by
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various governments towards the alleviation of poverty situation in the country has
been worsening over the years.
Consequently, when the former President Chief Olusegun Obasajo came to
power as an elected President of Federal Republic of Nigeria on May 29, 1999, the
first step taken in solving the county’s poverty problems was creation of Poverty
Alleviation Programme (PAP) under which the regime intended to create 200,000
jobs within the first year of his tenure, that is by the year 2000 Aliyu (2003:24).
His wife, the then first Lady, Chief (Mrs.) Stella Obasanjo (now late),
followed suit the introduction of the Child Care Programme for the disabled
children of the indigent people. The wife of the former Vice President, Chief (Mrs)
Titilayo Atiku Abubakar complemented this with the WOTCLEF, a programme
designed to fight against abuse of poor women and prostitution. Ezeonu (2011)
also attributed that the objectives of Child Care Programme and WOTCLEF have
been carried over in the new programme by the wife of incumbent President Mrs.
Dim Patience Jonathan in her “Women for Change Initiative” programme.
Ekhator (2003:74) asserts that “if the only success determinant for
measuring the performance of the various programmes so far implemented is the
degree of poverty in the country, it would not be difficult to conclude that they
have all failed woefully since the number of the poor people has been on the
increase”.
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Asiodu (2000) cited in Ekhotor (2003:74) further stated that “the United
Nations and its Development Report of 1998 indicates that about 48% of Nigerian
population live below the poverty line”. According to Ekhator (2003), Asiodu who
made the statement in his address at the annual directors conference held in Ibadan
on 28th June, 2000, asserted that the United National Report provided the basis
upon which the present administration formulated its poverty alleviation
programme to attest for poverty and improve the standard of living of Nigerians.
A sum of N 10 billion was voted for this programme (Ekhator, 2003). No
sooner did the programme started that public outcry began to trail it. Beneficiaries
of the earmarked N3,500 monthly stipends were believed to be more the relations
and friends of politicians in the ruling Peoples’ Democratic Party (PDP)
(Ogwumike,2005:54). Following the recommendations of the Technical
Committee on the Review of Alleviation Programme (TCRPAP), the Obasanjo’s
administration re-designed the programme and again came up with another term”
name- National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) to carry on the
objectives of the government from where the Poverty Alleviation Programme
(PAP) stopped.
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2.1.6 The Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project
(LEEMP) as a Poverty Alleviation Programme
LEEMP, a World Bank assisted poverty alleviation programme in
partnership with the Nigerian government is being executed in nine states of the
country (LEEMP, 2007). Its components include multi-sectoral community-driven
investments, local government assessment and capacity building as well as
protected areas and biodiversity management, Strengthening environmental
institutional framework and programme management.
The policy instrument establishing LEEMP was signed between the federal
government and World Bank on December 3, 2003 while the implementation took
effect on April 29, 2005 Papka (2007). Furthermore, Papka, the national co-
ordinator of LEEMP, explained that the participating states are Adamawa, Bauchi,
Bayelsa, Benue, Enugu, Imo, Katsina, Niger and Oyo states. Three local
government areas are selected from each state, while 10 communities were chose
from each local government. Chief (Mrs.) Helen Esuene, the former Hon. Minister
of Environment, at the 6th National Council on Environment held in Katsina in
November 2006, acknowledged the success of LEEMP, adding it was a
justification of the federal government’s intervention in poverty alleviation. The
Minister who represented the President at the occasion said reports from where
LEEMP projects were being executed were encouraging.
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2.1.7 Institutional Structure of LEEMP
LEEMP, has a national representative chaired by the President while the
Minister of Environment is usually the Vice-Chairman. There is also a national
coordinator. At the state level, the Executive Governors of nine states which are
under the implementing states of LEEMP namely: Adamawa, Bauchi, Bayelsa,
Benue, Enugu, Imo, Katsina, Niger and Oyo states are the state chairmen while the
Commissioners in State Ministries of Environment are the Vice-Chairmen. Beside
this, there are state coordinators of LEEMP in the nine states and at the local
governments and communities, LEEMP has the Local Government Chairmen as
representatives while the community-leaders are also representatives.
2.1.8 Gap in Literature
Explicitly, this study has unveiled some salient literatures that have some
degree of relevance to the subject matter under study. These literatures have
concentrated mainly on general notes on issues of Nigerian poverty problems and
government poverty alleviation programmes with little emphasis on Imo state. The
past studies on poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria by many scholars
reviewed here tend to focus mainly on poverty as a systemic problem without
holistically diverting their views on multidimensional approach of poverty and the
possible solutions to problem. This study therefore, intends to cover this lacuna by
examining in detail the LEEMP’s efforts in alleviating poverty in Imo state.
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3.2 Theoretical Framework
For the purpose of this study, efforts have been made to incline on a theory
that has holistic view on the subject matter of public policy making and analysis
and such that can explain the present scenario of the poverty in Imo State.
Therefore, the study adopted elite theory because of its significance to the problem
under study. Elite theory is supported by Karl Marx (1873), Frank Gunder (1967)
Feldman, H (1967), David Easton (1971), among other scholars, who see society
from the class/ social class perspectives. The elite class theory, being one of the
most popularly advocated theories for public policy making and analysis conceives
public policies and programmes as the initiatives of the elites and not the masses
(the people). This is why Ikelegbe (1996:53) states that “the elite theory postulates
that public policy reflects the values and preference of the elites rather than the
demands of the masses. It is the elites that make policies, while administrators and
public officials carry out the elites’ policy decisions. The elites have common
interest in the preservation of societal status quo, policies are bound to be
conservative, non innovative and marginal rather than those with bold and high
change potentials. Policies might sometimes be in the masses interest, even though
the long term interests may be that of the elites, but this happens as concessions to
or reactions by the elites to threats to the status quo by the masses. The elites are
few in the society but they wield power and influence, allocate values and rules.
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36
The majority (i.e. the masses only obey and are guided, controlled and governed by
the few). The elites consist of those who hold leading positions in the strategic
aspects of society and who wield power in the strategic groups. There are thus
military elites, business elites, bureaucratic elites, political or governing elites,
religious and traditional elites. Many of the elites do not hold formal or legal
authoritative powers but are rather behind the scene, tele-guiding and manipulating
overt political and policy actions. The elites owe their positions to the control of
the productive resources of the society and of the social or religious values held by
the society such as wealth, economic influence, social status and education.
In summary, the theoretical tenets of the elites’ theory attempt a realistic
explanation of the source of public policy by predicating it on the elites rather than
the masses. In the reality, however, the masses of the population hardly have any
considerable influence on public policies. Again, elite theorists however have
tended to see elite power as cumulative and pervasive in all aspects of society. To
them, the same few wield power in all areas. This enables the elites to maintain and
preserve the societal status quo where the rich get richer and the poor get poorer
with unemployment, poor healthcare, poor housing, malnutrition, and other
problems of poverty becoming the order of the day.
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2.2.1 Application of the Theory
The elites’ theory has much significance to the continuous rise or increase of
poverty in Nigeria. Ordinarily, in Nigeria, it may be assumed that public
preferences articulated by representatives are the main source of policy flow. In
reality, however, the masses of population hardly have any considerable influence
on public polices made or initiated by government judging from the elites theory.
In other words, poverty reduction programmes such as the National Poverty
Alleviation Programme (NAPEP), National Directorate of Employment (NDE),
National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS), Local
Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP), among others,
are considered as the policy actions and programmes to maintain and control the
society’s status quo. In common sense, these create more avenue for the
exploitation of the masses and as well create more poverty among the masses
thereby creating more poverty. This is why the true beneficiaries of poverty
alleviation programmes deviate from the poor to the rich.
Demonstratively, the practical tenets or postulations of the elite theory show
that Nigerian society is controlled by the elite who have the control of economic,
social, cultural, political, and religious powers. In other words, the elites view
poverty as a normal economic phenomenon that must exist and should be
maintained, if the society must grow (Onah, 2006:80). The elites also look at poor
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as a normal economic class that must exist and need not to be allowed to leave
their status quo. Poverty, on the other hand, is created by the elites through seizing
up the opportunities to create and liberate the poor. In Nigeria, however, poverty
alleviation programmes are structurally designed to enrich the elites and create
more poverty to the masses who are majority of the poor group of the societal
population. For instance, certain jobs are structurally designed for the poor such as
small-scale entrepreneurial empowerment; Keke-Napepe business, training of the
poor ones in agriculture without any land and financial empowerment, petty trade
training, and other occupations without adequate empowerment to stand on their
own. By so doing, the elites continue to deprive the poor from having access to
grow and liberate themselves from the shackles of poverty which usually
associated with problems such unemployment, poor access to healthcare, good
drinking water, housing, good income, among others. This is achieved by the elites
through authoritative allocation of values to the poor ones in the society. Judging
from the institutional structure of LEEMP, one can also see the exclusion of the
people participation in the implementation or programme management. There is a
top-bottom structurally management. This may likely affects the impact of the
people in initiating projects based on felt-needs of the communities.
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2.3 Hypotheses
The following hypotheses have been formulated to guide this study:
1) There is a significant relationship between the nature of poverty alleviation
programmes and the rate of poverty in Imo State.
2) Poor participation of people is partially responsible for poor benefits of the
rural communities from LEEMP poverty reduction programmes in Imo
State.
3) Poor accountability of LEEMP official is a major factor militating against
targeted goals of the government objectives in poverty reduction
programmes in Imo State.
2.4 Operationalization of Key Concepts
The operationalization of key concepts present the contextual use of terms in
this research study. These concepts includes:-
Policy:- Policy is governmental actions or course of actions or proposal actions or
course of proposed actions directed at achieving certain goal.
Programme-: A programme is a set or package of decisions, rule and regulations,
activities and structures designed to implement a particular policy.
Standard of Living:- Standard of living here refers to the state of economic well-
being of the people.
High Incidence of Corruption:- High incidence of corruption is seen as any form
of official miss-conduct to breach the official protocols or bend some rules and
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regulations governing the implementation of government poverty alleviation
policies or programmes to achieve personal interest or that of others.
Weak Implementation Strategies:- Implementation strategies are measures map-
out framework to be followed in administering policy actions. In other words,
weak implementation strategies are defaults in implementation of poverty
alleviation policies or programmes.
Poor Accountability: Poor accountability is state of no stewardship of those who
manage the resources of the government in implementation of the LEEMP
programmes.
2.5 Method of Data Collection
This sub-section of the research deals with ways, approaches, or steps followed
in carrying out the research study. Methodology according to Behling (1984.50) is
the authority base for the research. The following steps were taken in this study.
2.5.1 Research Design: A research design, according to Odo (1992: 42) relates to
the general approach adopted in executing a study. This research is a fact-finding
one and is designed to examine the poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria
mainly narrowed down to LEEMP in Imo State.
2.5.2 Sources of Data Collection
The researcher made use of two types of data. These include primary and
secondary sources of data.
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Primary Source of Data: This includes all methods adopted by the researcher to
gather relevant information through interview, personal observation and
questionnaire administration.
Secondary Source of Data: The secondary data were sourced from relevant text
books, government annual publications, official, records and magazines and
journals.
2.5.3 Target Population of Study
The term population is defined by Odo (1992:26) as “the entire number of
people, objects, events and things that all have one or more characteristics of
interest to a study”. The population of this study is drawn from the 26 local
governments in Imo State namely are: Aboh Mabaise, Ahiazu Mbaise, Ehime
mbano, Ezinihitte, Ideato North, Ideato South, Ihite/Uboma, Ikeduru, Isiala mbano,
Isu, mbaitoli Ngorokpala, Njaba, Nkwerre, Nwangele, Obowu, Uguta,
Ohaji/Egbema, Okigwe, Onuimo, Orlu, Orsu, Oru East, Oru West, Owerri
Municipal, Owerri North and Owerri-West Local Government Council. In
addition, the staffs of the Local Empowerment and Environmental Project
Management (LEEMP) who serve as local and community coordinators in the
local governments are also included in the target population of the study.
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2.5.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique
By definition and according to Odo (1992:26) sample size is a process of
selecting a proportion of the population considered adequate to represent all
existing characteristics within the target population for the purpose of generalizing
target population and or any other population having similar characteristics with
the target population.
The researcher considered the largeness of this population and decided to
apply stratified random sampling to enable us group the local governments
according to their political zones. From the stratification, we have three senatorial
districts namely; Owerri, Okigwe and Orlu from where we selected only six local
government areas, two each from the three senatorial districts of the state.
Therefore the population is drawn as shown below:
Target Sample of the Study
Senatorial District Areas No. of Persons/Respondents
Owerri Senatorial Zone
Ahiazu Local Government 50
Ngor Okpala Local Government 50
Okigwe Senatorial Zone
Obowo Local Government 50
Okigwe Local Government 50
Orlu Senatorial Zone
Nwangele Local Government 50
Ideato South Local Government 50
Total 300
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The study adopted sample size formula by Yamani (1964:280). The formula
was applied thus:
n = N 1+N (e)2
Where N =Sample size
N =Population
E= Level of significance or error allowable
I=Constant
The researcher chose 5% (percent) as level of significant or margin of allowable
error. The translation of the formula has been stated hereunder:
)05.0300(1
300
x
n
+
=
151
300
+
=n
161
300
+
=n
n =18.75 to the nearest whole number n = 19. Then since the population was drawn
from six local governments, we therefore multiply 19 by 6 to get our sample size n
=113. In addition the use of simple random sampling would be adopted to enable
the researcher to select respondents from all the six local government areas.
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2.5.5 Method of Data Analysis
In analyzing the data collected, the researcher would be guided by the
objectives of the study and the research questions. Also items on the questionnaires
would be spread out in order to capture the qualitative and quantitative responses
expected from the respondents.
The study adopts the use of tables, simple percentage and descriptive content
analysis to analyze our data gathered from the primary and secondary sources of
data. However, in presenting the tabulated data, the use of simple percentage
would be adopted. It is worthy to mention that the simple percentage will enable us
to assess the proportional percentages of the respondents’ opinions in the questions
asked while the descriptive content analysis will enable us assess the variables in
our research questions. Hence, the researcher would be guided by the following
formulas:
For the calculation of simple parentage, we shall use
n x 100 N 1
Where, n = Number of the Respondents’ opinions in a particular options;
N = Total number of the Respondents = 100
100 = Percentage Constant Factor 1
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Hypothesis was tested using the statistical test known as Chi-square
The value of the chi-square is computed using the formulae:
∑(Oi-Ei)
Ei
Where
Oi = observed data
Ei = expected data
= chi-square
Df = degree of freedom
The degree of freedom is calculated using the formula df = (N-1)
Where N is the number of observation in a particular table.
The researcher assumed a 0.5% level of significance in testing the hypothesis.
2.5.6 Reliability and Validity of Instrument (Questionnaire)
According to Obasi (2000:103); Black and Champman and Nachinias and
Nachimas (1981), the success of any research lies to a large extent on the
dependability of the data employed in analysis. This then raises the question of
validity and reliability.
Validity as the name implies is the appropriateness of an instrument in
measuring what is intended to measure. According to (Odo, 1992:50) validity is
the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity
therefore, occurs when a careful attempt has been made to ensure that an
instrument adopted measures achieve the desired results by applying the theoretical
knowledge in the filled about what is being studied and by convincing oneself
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common-sensically, that the items, in the instrument has been logically validated
Obasi (2000:104).
In validating our instruments for data collection, we shall be concerned with
establishing their content validity. We are doing this first, to ensure that they
measure what they are expected to measure and more importantly, because content
validity comprises of face validity, predictive and concurrent validity, construed
validity or criterion related or empirical validity, Black and Champion (1976:91).
We shall therefore, ensure that the questionnaire we shall use will be appropriately
structured; well worded and covers a good representation of some experts in
government policy analysis or public programmes managers from government
organizations and non-governmental organizations.
We shall ensure validity by insisting that our empirical measure adequately
reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration. We shall employ
content or face validity method which will enable us to ensure that the instrument
we shall use will be valid. To ensure this, we must ensure that the questions in our
instruments are good ones. We must equally ensure that they are logically and
relevantly measuring what the instruments are set out to measure.
Reliability, on the other hand, refers to the ability of an instrument to
produce the same results consistently over some time when applied to the same
sample, Good and Hart (1952:86). The reliability of our instruments will be
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assured by our consistency in our question and interview models. According to
Odoh (1992:54) reliability means consistency and it is the consistency of the test in
measuring whatever it purports to measure. We shall ensure reliability of our
instruments by ensuring that the question we shall pose in both questionnaire and
personal interview shall be in simple, good, precise and understandable form to the
respondents.
To ensure reliability, we shall use internal consistency method whereby
cross-checking questions are built into the questionnaire and oral interview. We
shall further ensure reliability by cross-checking our information against many
sources and by ensuring that facts and figures collected from various sources
earlier stated shall not only be accurate and authentic but would remain same if the
collection is repeated again and again.
In addition to the above measures aimed at ensuring validity and reliability
of the study, we shall employ external criterion to check how correct the findings
of a particular instruments are. We shall do this by comparing the result with
existing knowledge as well as our findings from field work, questionnaire, oral
interview, participant observation and content analysis. With the above processes,
the validity and reliability of the instruments as well as the study will be assured.
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CHAPTER THREE
ETHNOGRAPHIC SETTING OF THE CASE STUDY (IMO STATE)
3.1 Historical Background of Imo State
Imo State was created on February 3, 1976 out of the old East Central State
by the then regime of General Murtala Mohammed. Abia State was carved out of
Imo State in the state creation exercise of 1991. It has Owerri as it capital and
largest city. Other major towns are Okigwe, Oguta, Nkwerre, Orlu, Mbaise, Mbano,
Mbieri, Ideato, Awo-Idemili, Ohaji, Obowo, Ngor-Okpuala, Uzoagba, Emekuku,
Orodo, Mgbidi.
Situated in south eastern Nigeria, Imo State covers an area of 5,530 square
kilometres. Imo State shares boundaries with Enugu and Ebonyi States to the north,
Anambra State to the west, Rivers State to the south and in the North and Rivers
State to the South, Cross River and Akwa Ibom States to the east.
The inhabitants of Imo State are Igbo. The official language of the state is
Igbo alongside English. Imo State has a rich cultural heritage. This is manifested in
dressing, music, dance, festivals, arts and crafts.
3.2 Geographical Location of Imo State
Imo State derives its name from Imo River, which takes its course from the
Okigwe/Awka upland. It lies within latitudes 4°45'N and 7°15'N, and longitude
6°50'E and 7°25'E. Imo State has many rivers. The main rivers in the state are Imo,
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Otamiri and Njaba. The major lakes are in Oguta and Abadaba in Obowu local
government area.
The main streams draining the state are Imo, Otamiri, Njaba and Orasi
rivers, all of which have very few tributaries. With the exception of Imo River, this
runs through the area underlain by the Imo Shales, other rivers rise within the
coastal plain sands. Generally, river valleys constitute the major physical features,
which are often marshy. Imo State is bounded on the east by Abia State, on the west
by the River Niger and Delta State; and on the north by Anambra State, while
Rivers State lies to the south. Imo State covers an area of about 5,100sq km.
Relief and Drainage: Imo State is underlain by the Benin Formation of coastal
plain sands. This formation, which is of late Tertiary age, is rather deep, porous,
infertile and highly leached. In some areas like Okigwe, impermeable layers of clay
occur near the surface, while in other areas, the soil consists of lateritic material
under a superficial layer of fine-grained sand. Rivers are few with vast inter fluxes
which are characterized by dry valleys that carry surface drainage in periods of high
rainfall. The phenomenal monotony of the terrain may be accounted for by the
absence of any tectonic disturbances and by the homogeneity of the rock structure.
3.3 Socio-Cultural Organization of Imo State People
Cultural is the social life of the people. This covers their religion, way
dressing, music, food, housing, marriage, burial rites, child naming, among others.
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Cultural is therefore the totality of people’s way of life. Imo State people are known
for their cultural life and values just like in every part of Igboland. This is Duru
(2010), opined that part of the culture of the state is the lgbo traditional hospitality
to visitors, which begins with the presentation of kolanuts to the visitor. The kolanut
signifies that the visitor is heartily welcomed. The ritual of the presentation of the
kolanut is consummated with the offering of prayers and thanksgiving or petition to
the supreme God and other deities, for the protection of the visitor and the host.
Other aspects of the socio-cultural lives and values of Imo State people are
discussed below.
3.3.1 Ethnic Composition and Culture: The inhabitants of Imo State are lgbos, a
culturally homogeneous group. The lgbo language is spoken throughout the state
with minor differences in dialects. The official language of the state is however,
English. Imo State has a very rich cultural heritage. This is manifested in dressing,
music, dance, festivals, arts and crafts, and the traditional hospitality of the people.
3.3.2 Festivals: There are many traditional festivals observed in the State. Each
community has different festivals celebrated in honour of ancient deities or to mark
an important event in the history of the area. There are different festivals to usher in
the Eyiri-eyi Obohia; Iwakwa of Ihitte Afor Ukwu – Every 3 years; Inunkwu of
Oparanadim; Iriji Mbaise (New yam festival) – August 15th every year; Iwa –Akwa
performed by Okponkume community; Ituaka of Ahiara Ofiri, among others. Most
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of these festivals take place within the last quarter of every year. Below are some
local government and their major festivals.
Obowo LGA
Iwa Akwa festival – celebrated every three years by all the communities.
Mbomuzo festival- (community sanitation & cleanliness)
Ntumamka festival – (emphasizes ancestral lineage)
Egbenkwu festival – September
Okonko Masquerade
Igbu - Ewu Ukwu festival (glorifies fertility in the female folk)
Nwangele LGA
Okorosha dance - Amigbo community - December
Owu festival - Isu and Abajah communities - December
Ekpukele - during the new yam festival
Nta Cultural festival - last week of August - New cropping season.
Ngor Okpala LGA
New yam festival
Mbom - Uzo festival
Nwokorobo and Abigolo Dance
By all the Communities
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Aboh Mbaise LGA
New yam festival-unanimously celebrated by all the communities-August
15th yearly
Itu Aka festival