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Lawrence Kok

Tutorial on Acid Base, pH scale and Ionic Product

Constant of Water Kw

Brønsted-Lowry Acid - substance that donate proton/proton donorBronsted-Lowry Base – substance that accept proton/proton acceptorOne species donate proton – one species accept proton

Arrhenius acid - substance dissociate in water produce H+ ion.Arrhenius base – substance dissociate in water produce OH- ion.All Arrhenius acid are Bronsted Lowry acid and water must be present

HCI → H+ + CI-

HCI + H2O ↔ H3O+ + CI-

NaOH → Na+ + OH-

NH3 + H2O ↔ NH4+ + OH-

CO32- + H2O ↔ HCO3

- + OH-

Water/aqueous medium

Water/aqueous mediumOther solvent medium possible

Definition of Acid and Bases

Arrhenius acid Arrhenius base H+ OH-

2

1

gain H+

Acid + Base ↔ Conjugate Base + Conjugate Acid

lose H+

HCI (acid) - CI- (conjugate base)

lose H+

H2O (base) - H3O+ (conjugate acid)

HCI + H2O ↔ CI- + H3O+

gain H+

Lewis Acid - substance that accept electron/electron acceptor, empty orbital/electron deficientLewis Base – substance that donate electron/electron donor, lone pair electronLewis Base - donate electron pair forming dative/coordinate bond with Lewis acid

3

HCI + H2O → CI- + H3O+

H2O donate e-HCI accept e-

Lewis acid Lewis base

Conjugate acid base pair differ by one proton

Physical properties of Acid

• Substance dissolves in water produce

hydrogen ion/H+ or hydronium /H3O+

• HCI → H+ + CI-

• Conduct electricity – free moving ions• Sour, pH < 7• Turn blue litmus red

• Turn phenolphthalein colourless

• Turns methyl orange to red

Properties of Acids and Bases

Acid + Metal (above H) → Salt + H2 gas2HCI + Mg →MgCI2 + H2

Acid + Base → Salt + Water + product.Bases are - Metal Hydroxide, Metal Oxide, Metal CarbonatesAcid + Metal Hydroxide → Salt + Water

Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water

Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Acid + Ammoniaaq and Amines → Salt + waterHCI + NH4OH → NH4CI + H2O

HCI + CH3NH2 → CH3NH3 + CI-

Chemical properties of Acids / Bases

Physical properties of Acid

Physical properties of Bases• Substance dissolves in water produce hydroxide/OH- ion

• NaOH → Na+ + OH-

• Conduct electricity – free moving ions• Bitter, pH > 7• Turns red litmus blue

• Turns phenolphthalein pink

• Turns methyl orange to yellow

Physical properties of Base

Physical Properties Chemical PropertiesPhysical Properties

Chemical Properties

Hydronium/Hydroxonium/Oxonium

Physical properties of Acid

• Electrolytes, produce H3O+, hydronium ion

• Conduct electricity• Sour, pH < 7• Turn litmus red• Turn phenolphthalein colourless• Turn methyl orange to red

Physical properties of Base

• Bitter, pH > 7

• Turn litmus blue• Turn phenolphthalein pink• Turn methyl orange to yellow

Physical/Chemical Properties of Acids and Bases

Chemical properties of Acid / BasePhysical properties of Acid/Base

Bases

Acid + Metal Hydroxide (Alkali) → Salt + WaterLiOH + HCI → LiCI + H2O

NaOH + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2O

KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + H2O

Acid + Metal Hydroxide (Insoluble) → Salt + WaterCa(OH)2 + 2HCI → CaCI2 + 2H2O

Fe(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Fe(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Mg(OH)2 + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + 2H2O

Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + WaterCaO + 2HCI → CaCI2 + H2O

CuO + 2HCI → CuCI2 + H2O

Acid + Alkali

Acids + Metal Oxide

Acid + Metal Hydroxide

Acid + Metal Carbonate

Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt, Water + CO2

CaCO3 + 2HCI → CaCI2 + H2O + CO2

CuCO3 + 2HCI → CuCI2 + H2O + CO2

Acid + Metal (above H) → Salt + H2 gas2HCI + Mg →MgCI2 + H2

Acid + Base → Salt + Water + product.Bases are - Metal Hydroxide, Metal Oxide, Metal CarbonateAcid + Metal Hydroxide → Salt + Water

Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water

Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Acid + Ammoniaaq and Amines → Salt + waterHCI + NH4OH → NH4CI + H2O

HCI + CH3NH2 → CH3NH3 + CI-

CH3COOH ↔ H+ + CH3COO-

(1 mole) (0.01 mole)

Strong Acid / Base Weak Acid / Base

Strong acid – ionise/dissociate completely producing H+ ionStrong base – ionise/dissociate completely producing OH- ionAll are in ions state, NO molecule leftStrong electrolyte with high conductivity ↑

Weak acid – ionise/dissociate partially producing H+ ionWeak base – ionise/dissociate partially producing OH- ionMost in undissociated molecule formPoor electrolyte with low conductivity ↓

HCI → H+ + CI-

HBr → H+ + Br−

Monoprotic acid - 1 mole H+ ion

Diprotic acid - 2 mole H+ ion

H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42-

(1 mole) (2 mole)

Strong Acid - HI, HBr, HCI, HNO3, H2SO4, HCIO3, HCIO4

Strong Base - LiOH, KOH, NaOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

Weak Acid - CH3COOH, HF, HCN, H2CO3, H3BO3, HNO2, H3PO4

Weak Base - NH3, C2H5NH2 , CH3NH2, (CH3)2NH, C3H5O2NH2

Weak acid dissociate partially produce few H+ ion

NH3 + H2O ↔ NH4+ + OH-

C2H5NH2 + H2O ↔ C2H5NH3+ + OH-

CO32- + H2O ↔ HCO3

- + OH-

Weak base dissociate partially produce few OH- ion

Vs

Example of Strong Acid/Base Example of Weak Acid/Base

Ba(OH)2 → Ba2+ + 2OH−

(1 mole) (2 mole)

(1 mole) (1 mole)Dissociate completelyNo molecules left

All ion form Few ions form

Dissociate partiallyMolecules left

Monoprotic base - Accept 1 mole H+ ions by 1mole OH-

Na(OH) → Na+ + OH−

(1 mole) (1 mole)

All ion form Dissociate completelyNo molecules left

Few ions form

Dissociate partiallyMolecules left

H3PO4 ↔ H+ + H2PO4-

H2PO4- ↔ H+ + HPO4

2-

HPO42- ↔ H+ + PO4

3-

H3PO4 ↔ 3H+ + PO43-

Diprotic base - Accept 2 mole H+ ions by 2 mole OH-

Weak triprotic acid dissociate partially produce few H+ ion

One way reversible

reversible

One way

One way

reversible

CH3COOH ↔ H+ + CH3COO-

(1 mole) (0.01 mole)

Strong Acid / Base Weak Acid / Base

Strong acid – ionise/dissociate completely producing H+ ionStrong base – ionise/dissociate completely producing OH- ionAll are in ionic ions stateStrong electrolyte with high conductivity ↑

Weak acid – ionise/dissociate partially producing H+ ionWeak base – ionise/dissociate partially producing OH- ionMost in undissociated molecule formPoor electrolyte with low conductivity ↓

HCI → H+ + CI-

HBr → H+ + Br−

Monoprotic acid - produce 1 mole H+ ions

Diprotic acid - 2 mole H+

H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42-

Strong acid - HI, HBr, HCI, HNO3, H2SO4, HCIO3, HCIO4

Strong base - LiOH, KOH, NaOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

(1 mole) (2 mole)

Weak Acid - CH3COOH, HF, HCN, H2CO3, H3BO3, H3PO4

Weak Base - NH3, C2H5NH2 , (CH3)2NH, C3H5O2NH2

Weak acid dissociate partially produce few H+ ion

NH3 + H2O ↔ NH4+ + OH-

C2H5NH2 + H2O ↔ C2H5NH3+ + OH-

CO32- + H2O ↔ HCO3

- + OH-

Weak bases dissociate partially produce few OH- ion

Vs

Example Strong Acid/Base Example Weak Acid/Base

Concentrated Acid / Base Diluted Acid / Base

Concentrated Acid – High number of mole/amt of solute per dm3

1 M HCI – 1 mole of HCI molecules in 1 dm3

10 M HCI – 10 mole of HCI molecules in 1 dm3

Diluted Acid – Low number of mole/amt of solute per dm3

0.1M HCI – 0.1 mole of HCI molecule in 1 dm3

0.01M HCI – 0.01 mole of HCI molecule in 1 dm3

Concentrated Acid may NOT be a Strong Acid10M CH3COOH – Concentrated Acid ↑ but Weak Acid ↓

Diluted Acid may be a Strong Acid0.01M HCI – Diluted Acid ↓ but Strong Acid ↑

10M CH3COOH - CONCENTRATED WEAK acid because 10M acid molecule will dissociate partially forming few H+ ions

0.01M HCI - DILUTED STRONG acid because all 0.01M acid molecule dissociate fully forming H+ ions

Vs

Diprotic base - 2 mole OH-

Ba(OH)2 → Ba2+ + 2OH−

(1 mole) (2 mole)

(1 mole) (1 mole)

Strong/Weak Acid and Base

Strong Acid/Weak Acid

Strong acid - HI, HBr, HCI, HNO3, H2SO4, HCIO3, HCIO4

Weak Acid - CH3COOH, HF, HCN, H2CO3, H3BO3, H3PO4

Strong Base/ Weak Base

Strong base - LiOH, KOH, NaOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2

Weak Base - NH3, C2H5NH2, (CH3)2NH, C3H5O2NH2

Distinguish bet strong and weak acid

Electrical conductivityRate of rxn pH

Strong acid

Strong acid → High ionization → High conc H+ → High conductivity → High rate rxn → Lower pH

Strong acid

OxoacidO atom > number ionizable proton

HNO3, H2SO4, HCIO3, HCIO4

Hydrohalic acidHI, HBr, HCI

Weak acid

Hydrohalic acidHF

OxoacidO atom ≥ number ionizable proton by 1

HCIO, HNO2, H3PO4

Carboxylic acid COOH

Strong base – contain OH- or O2-

LiOH, NaOH, CaO, K2O Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

Weak base – contain electron rich nitrogen, NNH3, C2H5NH2, (CH3)2NH, C3H5O2NH2

Strong base Weak base

1 2 3

Weak acid

0.1 M HCI 0.1 M CH3COOH

H+ 0.1 mole 0.0013 mole

pH 1 (Low) 2.87 (High)

Electrical conductivity High (Ionize completely) Low (Ionize partially)

Rate with magnesium Fast Slow

Rate with calcium carbonate

Fast Slow

Weaker acid → Low ionization → Low conc H+ → Low conductivity → Low rate rxn → High pH

Strong acid

HA A-H+

H+ H+

H+

H+ H+

H+

H+A-

A-

A-

A- A-

A-

Ionizes completely

Weak acid

HAHA

H+ A-H+

H+

A-

A-HA

HA

HA

HA

HA

HA

Ionizes partially

Easier using pH scale than Conc [H+]• Conc H+ increase 10x from 0.0001(10-4) to 0.001(10-3) - pH change by 1 unit from pH 4 to 3• pH 3 is (10x) more acidic than pH 4• 1 unit change in pH is 10 fold change in Conc [H+]

Conc OH- increase ↑ by 10x

pH increase ↑ by 1 unit

pOH with Conc OH-

pOH = -log [OH-][OH-] = 0.0000001MpOH = -log [0.0000001]pOH = -log1010-7

pOH = 7pH + pOH = 14pH + 7 = 14pH = 7 (Neutral)

pH with Conc H+

pH = -log [H+][H+] = 0.0000001MpH = -log [0.0000001]pH = -log1010-7

pH = 7 (Neutral)

Conc H+ increase ↑ by 10x

pH decrease ↓ by 1 unit

pH measurement of Acidity of solution

• pH is the measure of acidity of solution in logarithmic scale• pH = power of hydrogen or minus logarithm to base ten of hydrogen ion concentration

← Acidic – pH < 7 Alkaline – pH > 7 →

pOH with Conc OH-

pOH = -log [OH-][OH-] = 0.1MpOH = -log[0.1]pOH = 1pH + pOH = 14pH + 1 = 14

pH = 13 (Alkaline)

pH with Conc H+

pH = -log [H+][H+] = 0.01MpH = -log [0.01]pH = -log1010-2

pH = 2 (Acidic)

Easier pH scaleConc H+

Conc [H+] = 1 x 10-12

pH = -lg[H+]pH = -lg[10-12] pH = 12

Conc [OH-]= 1 x 10-2

pOH = -log10[OH-]pOH = -log1010-2 = pOH = 2pH + pOH = 14pH + 2 = 14pH = 12

Conc [H+] = 1 x 10-2

pH = -lg[H+]pH = -lg[10-2] pH = 2

Alkaline

Alkaline

Acidic

Acidic

Kw - Ionic product constant water

Using conc [H+]pH = -log10[H+]

pH = -log10[H+] pOH = -log10[OH-] pH + pOH = 14 Kw = [H+][OH-]

Using conc [OH-]pOH = -log10[OH-]

Conc[OH-]= 1 x 10-12

pOH = -log10[OH-]pOH= -log1010-12 =pOH = 12pH + pOH = 14pH + 12 = 14pH = 2

Formula for acid/base calculation

22

3

OH

OHOHK c

OHOHOHKc 3

22

OHOHKw 3

OHOH 3

14100.1

7714 101101100.1

7101 OH

OHOHOHOH 322

H2O dissociate forming H3O+ and OH- (equilibrium exist)

14100.1 wK

Dissociation water small [H2O] is constant

Kw = 1.0 x 10-14 Ionic Product constant water at -25C

Kc - Dissociation constant water

7

3 101 OH

0.2

01.0log

log

10

10

pH

pH

HpH

22

3

OH

OHOHK c

OHOHKOHK wc 3

22

OHOH 3

14100.1 7714 101101100.1

OHOHOHOH 322

H2O dissociate forming H3O+ and OH- (equilibrium exist)

14100.1 wK

Dissociation water small [H2O] is constant

Kw - Ionic product constant waterKw = 1.0 x 10-14 Ionic Product constant water at -25C

Kc - Dissociation constant water

Cal conc of H+ ,OH- and pH of water Cal conc of H+ ,OH- and pH of 0.01M HCI

OHHOH 2

OHHK w

OHH14100.1

7714 101101100.1

7101 H

H2O H2O

HCI

OHHOH 2

H2O

OHHK w

OHH14100.1

Assuming H+ all from HCI = 0.01

)()( 2OHHHCIHH

H+ = 0.01 + 1.0x10-12

= 0.01 + 0.000000000001≈ 0.01

OHHOH 2

H+ = 1x10-12 OH- = 1x10-12

CIHHCI0.01 mol 0.01 mol0.01

1 mol ↔ 1 mol 1mol

0.000000000001

0.000000000001

H+ OH-

= 0.01 = 0.000000000001

or

0.7

101log 7

10

pH

pH

0.21214

12

100.101.0

100.1

01.0100.1

1214

14

pH

pOH

OH

OH

22

3

OH

OHOHK c

OHOHKOHK wc 3

22

OHOH 3

14100.1 7714 101101100.1

OHOHOHOH 322

H2O dissociate forming H3O+ and OH- (equilibrium exist)

14100.1 wK

Dissociation water small [H2O] is constant

Kw - Ionic product constant waterKw = 1.0 x 10-14 Ionic Product constant water at -25C

Kc - Dissociation constant water

Cal conc of H+ ,OH- and pH of 0.01M KOH Cal conc of H+ ,OH- and pH of 0.1M H2SO4

7.0

2.0log

log

10

10

pH

pH

HpH

H2O

KOH

H2SO4

OHHOH 2

H2O

OHHK w

OHH14100.1

Assuming H+ all from H2SO4 = 0.2

7.03.1314

3.13

100.52.0

100.1

2.0100.1

1414

14

pH

pOH

OH

OH

)()( 242 OHHSOHHH

H+ = 0.2 + 5 x 10-14

= 0.2 + 0.000000000000005≈ 0.2

OHHOH 2

H+ = 5x10-14 OH- = 5x10-14

2

442 2 SOHSOH

0.1 mol 0.2 mol

0.2

1 mol ↔ 1 mol 1 mol

0.00000000000005

0.0000000000005

H+ OH-

= 0.2 = 0.00000000000005

OHHOH 2

1 mol ↔ 1 mol 1 mol

OHHOH 2

OHHK w

OHKKOH0.01 mol 0.01 mol

0.01

Assuming OH- all from KOH = 0.01

)()( 2OHOHKOHOHOH

= 0.01 = 0.000000000001

12

10log

log

10101.0

100.1

01.0100.1

12

10

10

1214

14

pH

pH

HpH

H

H

or

H+ = 1x10-12 OH- = 1x10-12

Number sig fig in log calculationSignificant number in log calculation

log10(3575)=3.55327 = 3.5532

log10(3.000x104) = 4.477121 = 4.4771

log10(3.3 x 104) = 4.5185 = 4.51

Calculation involve pH = -log10[H+]

Conc H+ = 1.9 x 10-4

pH= -log10[1.9 x 10-4] = 3.721 = 3.72

Measurement scale not linear• Simple average CANNOT be used• Average of pH 7, pH 8, pH 9

pH scale is logarithmic, pH = -log[H+]Correct average = convert to H+ concpH 7 = -log10[H

+] → H+ = 10-7

pH 8 = -log10[H+] → H+ = 10-8

pH 9 = -log10[H+] → H+ = 10-9

pH pH= -lg10H+ Conc H+

0 0 = -lg10100 1.0

1 1 = -lg1010-1 0.1

2 2 = -lg1010-2 0.01

3 3 = -lg1010-3 0.001

4 4 = -lg1010-4 0.0001

5 5 = -lg1010-5 0.00001

6 6 = -lg1010-6 0.000001

7 7 = -lg1010-7 0.0000001

8 8 = -lg1010-8 0.00000001

9 9 = -lg1010-9 0.000000001

10 10= -lg1010-10 0.0000000001

11 11= -lg1010-11 0.00000000001

12 12= -lg1010-12 0.000000000001

13 13= -lg1010-13 0.0000000000001

14 14= -lg1010-14 0.00000000000001

Easier using pH scale than Conc [H+]• Low pH – High H+ conc – More acidic• High pH – Low H+ conc – Less acidic• pH 3 (10x) more acidic > than pH 4• 1 unit change in pH is 10 fold

change in Conc [H+]

Relationship between pH and Conc H+

Uncertainty involving pH

83

987

Average

Uncertainty involving pH

4 sig fig 5 sig fig/4 decimal place

4 sig fig 5 sig fig/4 decimal place

Conc H+ = 3.2 x 10-5 M

pH = - log10[3.2 x 10-5]= 4.4948 = 4.49

2 sig fig 3 sig fig/2 decimal place

2 sig fig3sig fig/2 decimal place

2 sig fig3sig fig/2 decimal place

2 sig fig 3sig fig

2 sig fig3 sig fig

2 sig fig 3 sig fig

pH solution = 7.40. Cal conc of H+ ions

7.40 = -log10 [H+][H+] = 10-7.40

= 4.0 x 10-8

3 sig fig 2 sig fig

2 sig fig

4.7

]107.3lg[

107.3

3

101010

8

8

987

pH

pH

Average

Average

What is pH for [H+] = 1 x 10-12 M

pH = -lg [10-12]

pH = 12

What is conc of H+ of pH 3.20?

3.20 = -lg [H+][H+] = 10 –2.20

[H+] = 6.3 x 10-4

pH = -log10[H+] pOH = -log10[OH-] pH + pOH = 14 Kw = [H+][OH-]

Formula acid/base calculation

2 sig fig 1 sig fig 3 sig fig 2 sig fig

What is pH for [OH-] = 0.15M

pOH = -lg [0.15] pOH = 0.823

pH + pOH = 14pH = 14 – 0.823 = 13.2

pOH = -log[OH-]

3 sig fig 2 sig fig

Calculate conc of H+, OH- and pH for 0.0010M HCI.

1 2 3

4

CIHHCI0.001 ↔ 0.001 0.001

OHHOH 2

HCIH2O

OHHK wAssuming H+ all from HCI = 0.0010

)()( 2OHHHCIHH = 0.001 Negligible / too little

OHH14100.1

0.3

001.0log

log

10

10

pH

pH

HpH

0.31114

11

101001.0

100.1

001.0100.1

1114

14

pH

pOH

OH

OH

or

Cal conc OH-/pH when 3.o x 10-4 H+ add water

HCIH2O

CIHHCI OHHOH 2

OHHK w

OHH14100.1

11

4

14

414

103.3100.3

100.1

100.3100.1

OH

OH

3x10-4 ↔ 3x10-4

52.3

100.3log

log

4

10

10

pH

pH

HpH

pH weak acid at various concentration

HCOOCHOHCOOHCH 2323

Extend of dissociation depend on initial concentration acid

Conc of acid Observed pH CH3COOH Calculated pH HCI

0.10 2.7 1.0

0.010 3.0 2.0

0.0010 3.5 3.0

0.00010 4.2 4.0

CIHHCI

Weak acid Strong acid

Dissociate partially Dissociate completely

At same acid concentration• HCI has HIGHER [H+] > CH3COOH• HCI has LOWER pH < CH3COOH• HCI dissociate completely- Strong acid• CH3COOH dissociate partially- Weak acid

At decreasing acid concentration• Extend of dissociation for CH3COOH increase• pH weak acid closer to strong acid• Dilution increase the extend of dissociation

Conc decrease

HCOOCHOHCOOHCH 2323

Trends

Addition Water

Dilution shift equilibrium to right

Decrease conc of CH3COOH, CH3COO- and H+

Conc on left side is more effected due to CH3COO- and H+

Equilibrium shift to right to increaseconc of CH3COO- and H+ again

Extend of dissociation for acid increase (shift to right)

О О

Concept Map

[H+] [OH-]

pH pOH

Kw = [H+] x [OH-] = 1 x 10-14

pH + pOH = 14

pH = -lg [H+] [H+] = 10-pH pOH = -lg [OH-] [OH-] = 10-pOH

Question on Acid and Base

Which list contains only strong acids ?A. CH3COOH, H2CO3, H3PO4

B. HCI, HNO3, H2CO3

C. CH3COOH, HNO3, H2SO4

D. HCI, HNO3, H2SO4

When equal volume of four 1M solutions are arranged in order of increasing pH (lowest pH first), what is the correct order?A. CH3COOH < HNO3 < CH3CH2NH2 < KOHB. HNO3 < CH3COOH < CH3CH2NH2 < KOHC. CH3CH2NH2 < HNO3 < CH3COOH < KOHD. KOH < CH3CH2NH2 < CH3COOH < HNO3

pH of a solution changes from pH =2 to pH =5. What happens to the concentration of H+ ions during this pH change?

A. Decrease by factor of 1000

B. Increase by factor of 1000

C. Decrease by factor of 100

D. Increase by a factor of 100

Solution of acid A has a pH of 1 and a solution of acid B has a pH of 2. Which statement is correct ?A. Acid A is stronger than acid BB. [A] > [B]C. Concentration of H+ ions in A is higher than BD. Concentration of H+ ions in B is twice the concentration of H+ in A

100ml of NaOH solution of pH 12 is mixed with 900ml of water. What is the pH of resulting solution?A. 1B. 3C. 11D. 13

1

2

3

4

5

О

О

О

О

О

List two ways to distinguish between strong and weak acid/base 6

By Conductivity measurement

1M Strong Acid – Ionise completely – More H+ ion – pH lower ↓1M Weak Acid – Ionise partially – Less H+ ion – pH higher ↑

1M Strong Acid – Ionise completely – More H+ ion – Conductivity higher ↑1M Weak Acid – Ionise partially – Less H+ ion – Conductivity lower ↓

By pH measurement

Which method will distinguish bet equimolar strong base and strong acid?i) Add magnesium to each solution and observe formation bubblesii) Add aqueous sodium hydroxide to each solution and measure temp changeiii) Use each solution in circuit with battery/lamp to see brightness lamp

7

ОО

Click here on pH calculation Click here on Bronsted Lowry/ Lewis Acid/Base

Video on Acid/ Base

Click here on Lewis Acid/Base

Click here on pH varies with temperature Click here on pKa and pKb calculation

Acknowledgements

Thanks to source of pictures and video used in this presentation

Thanks to Creative Commons for excellent contribution on licenseshttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/http://4photos.net/en/image:44-225901-Water_droplets_on_blue_backdrop__images

Prepared by Lawrence Kok

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