Cell BiologyProperties of Cells

Cell Theory1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells2. Cells are the smallest living things and are the basic units of organization3. Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell

Cell Size and LimitationThe advantages of a large surface area of volume ratio:1. As cell size increases, volume increases more rapidly than surface area2. The cell surface provides the only opportunity for interaction with the environment3. There is more area for diffusion

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

CharacteristicProkaryoticEukaryotic

Size of CellTypically very smallTypically larger

NucleusNo nuclear membrane or nucleoliTue nuclear, consisting of a nuclear membrane

FlagellaConsist of two protein building blocksComplex; consist of multiple microtubules

Cell WallUsually present and chemically complexWhen present, chemically simple

Plasma MembraneNo carbohydratesCarbohydrates that serve as receptors are present

RibosomesSmaller size (70S)Larger size (80S)

ChromosomesSingle circular chromosomes; lacks histonesMultiple linear chromosomes with histones arrangement

Cell DivisionBinary FissionMitosis

Organelles

NucleusStructure: surrounded by the nuclear envelope and contains chromatin and nucleolusFunction: controls all the cells activities because it contains DNA

NucleolusStructure: visible structure in the nuclearFunction: produces ribosomes

CytoplasmStructure: consists of all organelles and cytosol combinedFunction: provides a place for cellular functions to occur

CentrosomeStructure: made of microtubulesFunction: involved in creating microtubules called spindle fibers in mitosis

Golgi ApparatusStructure: A stack of membrane bound vesiclesFunction: involved in packaging proteins and sending them out for use by the organism

LysosomesStructure: vesicles that contain enzymesFunction: enzymes in the lysosome are used to break down food, old organelles and damaged cells

Cell MembraneStructure: made of a phospholipid bilayer, contains membrane proteinsFunction: controls what enters and leaves the cell

MitochondriaStructure: has two membranes and the inner membrane has many folds called cristaeFunction: is used during cellular respiration to produce energy for the cell

VacuolesStructure: a membrane bound sac that is larger in plant cells than in animal cellsFunction: used for the storage of water, food and wastes. In plant cells it helps maintain turgor pressure

Cell WallStructure: a rigid structure outside the membrane in a plant cell made of celluloseFunction: provides structure to support the cell and a protective barrier for the cell

ChloroplastsStructure: has a double outer membrane and contains many stacks of structures called thylakoids, which are covered with chlorophyllFunction: Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts on the surface of the thylakoids

Smooth Endoplasmic ReticulumStructure: a network of membrane bound vesicles and tubules as a continuation of the outer nuclear membraneFunction: some functions include lipid and steroid hormone synthesis and the breakdown of toxins in liver cells

Rough Endoplasmic ReticulumStructure: A network of membrane-bound vesicles and tubules. It appears rough because it covered in ribosomesFunction: Proteins made on the ribosomes are packaged and transported throughout the cell

RibosomesStructure: made of rRNA and protein, contains two parts called the large and small subunitFunction: proteins are synthesized on the ribosomes

Drawing Biological Specimens

Calculating Magnification

Biological Drawings1. Title should be the name of the thing that is being drawn2. Showing magnification calculations at the bottom of the page3. Labels should line up on the right side of the drawing

Cell Division

Binary FissionOccurs in Prokaryotic Cells1. DNA replication occurs for the naked DNA (no histones) to duplicate2. DNA separates as cytokinesis occurs

Cell CycleInterphase = growth of the cell, protein synthesis, metabolic pathwaysMitosis = the cell is duplicatedCytokinesis = the cytoplasm is split into two daughter cells

MitosisOccurs in Eukaryotic Cells1. Prophase2. Metaphase3. Anaphase4. Telophase

Prophase1. The nuclear membrane breaks down so all 92 chromosomes can fit across the cell2. DNA condenses to form chromosomes and spindle fibers from the centrosomes on polar ends of the cell

Metaphase1. Chromosomes are moved to the central place in the cell2. Spindle fibers attach to each sister chromatid at the centromere

Anaphase1. The sister chromatids separate by the spindle fibers and the centromeres divide

Telophase1. The sister chromatids relax into messy DNA2. The nuclear membrane begins to reform around the DNA3. Spindle fibers break down

Cytokinesis in Animal vs. Plant CellsAnimals: Microfilaments contract to form a cleavage furrow which then pinches off to form two daughter cellsPlants: vesicles form in the middle and join to form a cell wall between daughter cells

Cell Cycle RegulationIt is important that cells only grow when they are needed and not all the timeCyclins are proteins that regulate the cell cycle by binding to enzymes called cyclin dependent kinases (CDK)The attachment triggers the other proteins to become active and carry out tasks specific to one of the phases of the cell cycle

Cyclin D: coordinates cell growth and the start of a new cycle (present in G1, S, G2 and M)Cyclin E: starts the initial process of DNA replication (present in S)Cyclin A: induces DNA replication and activates DNA proteins (present in G2)Cyclin B: influences the formation of mitotic spindles and alignment of sister chromatids (present in M)

Membrane Structure

Bilipid LayerThe Bilipid layers of phospholids are amphipathic (both hydrophobic and hydrophilic). The phosphate head is hydrophilic while the fatty acid tails are hydrophobic.

Cholesterol in MembranesCholesterol keeps the membrane fluid and flexible by disrupted fatty acid tail packing so the membrane isnt solid, the OH part of cholesterol stays near the hydrophilic ends of the membrane.

ProteinsIntegral Proteins: span the hydrophobic and hydrophilic layers because they are amphipathic Peripheral Proteins: stay on the outside of inside but not through the membraneGlycoproteins: have carbohydrates on the end used for cell signal and communication, as well as self-recognition

Membrane Transport

Simple DiffusionSending molecules through the Bilipid layer down the concentration gradient, mostly gases and small particles. Requires no energy or proteins, therefore it is passive transport.

Facilitated Diffusion Requires an integral protein to move molecules down the concentration gradient, uses protein channels and is used for larger molecules therefore it is passive transport

Active TransportRequires ATP to change the confirmation of a protein to pump molecules from low to high concentrations. Used for sugars, ions and large molecules.

OsmosisOsmosis is the movement of water molecules across a membrane from high concentration to low concentrations.

Hypotonic SolutionCell has a higher solute concentration, water goes into the cell and the cell swells because water goes into the cell

Hypertonic SolutionCell has a lesser solute concentration, water leaves the cell and the cell shrivels up

Isotonic SolutionThe same percentage of solute is in the surrounding solution and the cell so the cell remains constant

Bulk Transport

EndocytosisThe process in which the cell takes in molecules by pinching off the plasma membrane1. Phagocytosis = cell eating in which it takes in solid particles2. Pinocytosis = cell drinking where it takes in extracellular fluid

ExocytosisMolecules are ejected from vesicles as it binds to the cell membrane

Molecular BiologyThe Basics

Organic vs. InorganicOrganic molecules have the presence of carbonInorganic molecules does not contain carbon but are still necessary to life

Important Elements and their FunctionsSulfur = important element found in amino acidsCalcium = found in bones and used for muscle contractionsIron = found in hemoglobin to carry oxygenPhosphorus = found in cell membrane structures

Carbohydrates

MonosaccharaidesSingle sugars that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygenGlucose = most simple sugarFructose =fruit sugarGalactose = milk sugar

DisaccharidesTwo sugars joined by a covalent bondSucrose = glucose + fructoseLactose = glucose + GalactoseMaltose = glucose + glucose

Dehydration Synthesis Two monomers join together into polymers while loosing water molecules. This happens as one monomer loses OH and the other looses H forming a glycosidic bond.

HydrolysisThe process to break down large molecules into monomers so they become unusable for the body, an enzyme adds water to a glycosidic bond, which breaks apart into OH and H.PolysaccharidesLong chains of sugar used for strange because they are not water-soluble and are bonded by glycosidic bonds Starch = mainly found in plants and is a long chain of glucoseCellulose = long chain of glucose found in the cell wallGlycogen = found in animals for energy storage, long chain of branched glucose

Lipids (Fats)

TriglycerideA monomer of a fat moleculeA glycerol and three fatty acid tails are joined by condensation synthesis to form an ester bond and produce three molecules of water Insoluble in water (hydrophobic)

Saturated vs. Unsaturated FatSaturated Fat: Since the fatty acid tails are straight, they are easily stacked and therefore become a solid at room temperature, and because it is solid it can clog arteriesUnsaturated Fat: since fatty acid trails are bent they do not stack or store easily and are liquid at room temperature. The CIS bond with the hydrogens on the same side distinguishes an unsaturated fat.

TransfatsThe trans tail is classified because hydrogens are on different sides therefore it is not accepted by the body. Also the tail is not as bent therefore it can be solid at room temperature.

Carbohydrates vs. LipidsCarbohydrates: More easily digested than lipids so the energy stored by them can be released more rapidly. They are soluble in water therefore easily move in and out from storage.Lipids: Contain more energy than carbohydrates however lipids are insoluble in water and can only be utilized at lower levels of energy

CholesterolCholesterol is a waxy, fat like substance that the body uses in cells and nerves to make hormones, protect nerves, and make up membranes. It is found in foods of high saturated fats. Problems: Cholesterol is distributed through the bloodstream and if you have an excessive amount, it gets stored in the arteries as plaque and can cause coronary heart disease

Protein Functions

ProteinsPolymers of amino acids (polypeptide)Each sequence of amino acids identifies the proteinMade of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen

RubiscoAn enzyme involved in carbon fixation in photosynthesis

ImmunoglobinA large Y shaped protein produced by the immune system to fight infection

CollagenA protein that builds muscle, tendons and ligaments

RhodopsinA protein linked to a pigment found in the photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eyes, it recognizes light and sends the information to the brain

Protein Folding1. Primary = sequence of long amino acid chain2. Secondary = side groups form together by hydrogen bonds to make shapes, either a beta sheet or an alpha helix.3. Tertiary = formation of a 3D shape. There are four bonds that stabilize the shape. Hydrogen bond (OH binds with H)Hydrophobic InteractionDisulfide Bridge (S-S)Ionic Bond (NH3 O)4. Quaternary = multiple 3D shapes form together

Formation of a Peptide BondDehydration synthesis occurs such that the OH from one amino acid and the H from another form water, which leaves the bond to form a peptide bond.

A polypeptide chain will always start and end with the same thing, highlighted in yellow in the diagram above.

Properties of Water

Cohesion FactorH2O has surface tensionGood for water transport in plants

Thermal FactorHigh specific heat capacity (water needs a lot of energy to heat up)Regulates temperature in water because of hydrogen bonds

Universal SolventWater has a positive and negative side, which attracts ions to either side

Hydrogen BondingTemporary bonding (weak) between the positive hydrogen side and the negative oxygen side

Enzymes

EnzymesEnzymes speedup chemical reactions as they serve as a catalystHas a specific 3D shape with an active site that only fits one moleculeThe shape of the protein is dictate by sequence of amino acids Enzymes work to break down a specific substrate into a final product

Enzyme RegulationEnzymes are tertiary folded (3D shape) there they can be irreversible denatured (no more active site), they need to be regulated because the body needs a balance between the substrate and the final product.

Negative Feedback Regulation

The final product tells the first enzyme in the anabolic pathway to stop producing it when there becomes a surplus of the final product, or a shortage of the original substrate

Example of this is threonine (amino acid) that gets turned into isoleucine, which can inhibit Enzyme 1 to prevent the product of the final product.

Competitive InhibitionAn inhibitor looks similar to a substrate and occupies the active site so the substrate cannot bindAt high substrate concentrations there is less effect by the inhibitor as it is more likely the substrate will bind than the inhibitorTo reverse you must add more inhibitors

Non-Competitive InhibitionThe final product binds with a site called the allosteric site to turn off enzyme activityOnce the inhibitor binds and shifts off the active site, the substrate can no longer bind so the rate of reaction is always lowTo reverse you can remove inhibitors or add enzymes

Diagrams of Non-competitive and Competitive Inhibition

DNA The structure of DNA/RNA

Nucleic Acids (Nitrogenous Bases)Adenine (A) = purine (2 rings)Guanine (G) = purine (2 rings)Cytosine (C) = pyrimidine (1 ring)Thymine (T) = pyrimidine (1 ring)

A + T, C + G because DNA is always 3 rings wide

Sugar Phosphate Backbone

DNA consists of a phosphate and a deoxyribose (sugar) base The sugar/phosphate backbone does not change even though the sequence of ATCG pairings does changeThe nitrogenous bases (ATCG) are bonded with hydrogen bonds DNA has an antiparallel structure such that one side goes from 5 to 3, while the other goes from 3 to 5 and is in a double helix form

RNARNA is similar to DNA however the difference is that the base sugar is ribose, and instead of Thymine, RNA contains Uracil (U), which still pairs with A

Meselson and Stahls ExperimentTheir experiment proved how DNA replicates in a semi conservative manner (such that there is always one parent strand and one daughter strand1. Grew bacteria in an N15 medium, therefore DNA was tagged with N152. Removed bacteria and allows it to grow in N14 medium3. Isolated the DNA from bacteria and place it in a solution of chloride in a centrifuge and spun it around, DNA containing just N15 was heavy and sunk in the solution, DNA that was half N15, floated in the middle and DNA that was purely N14 floated near the top4. They observed that as more generations reproduced, that there was always some of the N15 present because of the semi conservation manner of reproduction

Supercoiling of DNA1. Double helix structure wraps around a nucleosome (made up of 8 proteins called histones)2. Coiled into a 30nm chromatin fiber of packed nucleosomes 3. Coiled to form a chromosome

Leading vs. Lagging StrandLeading Strand: the 5 to 3 end, is able to be synthesized continuouslyLagging Strand: the 3 to 5 end therefore it must be synthesized discontinuously

DNA Replication

HelicaseHelicase unwinds DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds

DNA Polymerase IIIAdds new DNA nucleotides to the 3 end

PrimaseEnzyme that adds RNA primer to start the lagging strand

RNA PrimerGives DNA polymerase III a 3 OH end to add nucleotides to

DNA polymerase IReplaces RNA primer with DNA

LigaseJoins the Okazaki fragments together with a phophodiester bond

GyraseKeeps DNA from coiling in front of helicase

Steps in DNA Replication1. Helicase unwinds the double helix and single-strand binding proteins stabilize the unwound DNA2. The leading strand is synthesized in the 5 to 3 direction by DNA Polymerase III3. The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously. Primase makes a short RUNA primer, which is extended by DNA polymerase III to form an Okazaki Fragment 4. After the RNA primer is replaced by DNA by DNA polymerase I, Ligase joins the Okazaki fragment

Transcription and Translation

CodonThe three-letter fragment on MRNAAUG codon codes for startUAA, UAG, UGA codons code for stop

TranscriptionThe process in which DNA gets transcribed into mRNA1. Initiation = RNA polymerase binds to DNA at the site of the promoter codon which tells the enzyme where the gene starts2. Elongation = RNA polymerase makes a complimentary copy of DNA (using Uracil not Thymine) using anticodons3. Termination = RNA polymerase reaches the terminator and disassociates. The mRNA exits the nucleus through the membrane pores to be translated.

Translation1. 5 MRNA AUG codon binds with the small subunit. The tRNA with UAC anticodon brings Met (amino acid) and the large subunit joins2. New tRNA with correct anticodon enters the A site (aminoacyl site) then an amino acid joins the polypeptide held in the P site (peptidyl site)3. When end codon is reached, all parts disassociate

Repressors to Regulate Gene ExpressionA repressor is a protein that blocks transcription by binding to DNA to stop RNA polymeraseIf a molecule is present like lactose, it will find to the repressor changing the 3D shape and allowing RNA polymerase to synthesize lactase enzymes If the molecule is not present, the repressor binds to DNA to stop transcription of the gene that makes that enzyme

Environmental Factors to Regulate Gene ExpressionGenes exposed to different temperatures or UV can express differentlyFor example, Siamese cats have a mutant gene that is turned on because of lower temperatures at the ears nose and paws so the fur turns black

Nucleosomes to Regulate Gene ExpressionAdding different groups can modify histones found in nucleosomes1. Acetyl Group2. Methyl Group3. Phosphate groupDNA has a negative charge so if you add a group to the histones it would neutralize DNA charge and the histones wont bind as tightly therefore increasing transcription (acetyl group), or it may prevent transcription by winding DNA more tightly (methyl group)

Post-Transcriptional ModificationPre-mRNA can be spliced by a spliceosome to remove parts to create different proteins turning it into mature mRNAThe parts that are removed are called introns and the parts that are kept are called exons

Basics of Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis

ATPEnergy comes from breaking bonds between phosphate groups in ATPWhen phosphate is broken off, ATP become adenosine diphosphate plus phosphateATP ADP + P

Redox ReactionsOxidization: loss of electrons/hydrogen (OIL)Reduction: gain of electrons/hydrogen (RIG)

Anaerobic RespirationIn the absence of oxygen, the cell goes through a process called fermentation1. Alcohol fermentation glucose = ethanol + carbon dioxide2. Lactic Acid Fermentation glucose = lactic acid

Factors that affect photosynthesis1. Irradiance Level = more light that is present, the more photosynthesis until a maximum is reached because there is only a finite number of chloroplasts 2. Carbon Dioxide = the more CO2, the more photosynthesis up to a maximum level because there is only a finite number of chloroplasts3. Temperature = there is an optimal temperature for photosynthesis to occur

ATP SynthaseThe pumping of protons establishes a concentration gradient. AS the protons fall back into the matric through ATP Synthase, oxidative phosphorylation occurs to create ATP.

Cellular Respiration

Steps of Cellular Respiration1. Glycolysis = occurs in the cytoplasm2. Kreb Cycle = occurs in the mitochondria (matrix)3. Electron Transport Chain = occurs in mitochondria (cristae)

Glycolysis1. A 6C glucose gets split into two 3-carbon molecules by two molecules of ATP2. Electrons and hydrogen are removed from the 3 carbon molecules to turn NAD into NADH (electron carrier)3. Energy is removed to create ATP from ADP leaving two molecules of pyruvate

NET GAINS2 ATP2 NADH2 Pyruvates

Link ReactionPyruvate enters the mitochondria and undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to create Acetyl CoA. In this process, CO2 is lost from pyruvate, and electrons/hydrogen are removed to form NADH

NET GAINS2 Acetyl CoA2 CO2 molecules2 NADH

Kreb CycleBoth molecules of Acetyl CoA enter the matrix and go through the Kreb Cycle

NET GAIN (per Acetyl CoA)3 NADH2 CO21 FADH21 GTP

Electron Transport Chain1. Hydrogen Ions are pumped into the intermembrane space by moving electrons alone integral proteins, biding H2 and O2 making 6H2O2. ATP Synthase does oxidative phosphorylation to add phosphate to ADP to make ATP

NET GAINS34 ATP6 H2O

Mitochondria Labeled

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Steps1. Light Dependent Reaction = occurs on the thylakoids2. Light Independent reaction (Calvin cycle) = occurs in the stroma

Light Dependent ReactionLight energy is converted to chemical energyChlorophylls is attached to thylakoid membrane along with other proteins to form photo stems, which absorb red and blue lightElectrons within chlorophyll absorb energy from photons and become excited, moving them alone the protein chainElectron causes protein pumping used by ATP synthase to drive production of ATP

Light Independent Reaction1. Carbon Fixation = a carboxylase (Rubisco) catalyzes the carboxylation (adding carbon) of riblose biphosphase (RuBP)2. Reduction = G3P is reduced to triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP. Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP to product carbohydrates3. Regeneration = RuBP is reformed using ATP

Chloroplast Labeled

Chloroplast Structure and FunctionLarge surface area of thylakoids = greater absorption of lightSmall space between thylakoids = faster accumulation of proton concentration gradient

Compare Photosynthesis and RespirationBot use a concentration gradientATP is a final product by ATP synthaseBoth use electron carriers

Contrast Photosynthesis and Respiration

RESPIRATIONPHOTOSYNTHESIS

MitochondriaChloroplasts

Uses NAD + FADHUses NADP

No light is required and makes waterPlants split water using light energy

Oxygen is the final acceptor in the ETCNADP is the final electron acceptor in light reaction

Human PhysiologyDigestive System

Parts of the BodyLiver: Makes bile which helps with fat digestion Gallbladder: Bile is stored in the gallbladder and is added to the small intestineLarge Intestine: Salt and water is absorbed from chyme thus converting it to fecesEsophagus: connects the mouth to the stomach and pushes chyme down by peristalsis Pancreas: secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestineSmall intestine: the location in which nutrients are digested and absorbedRectum: stores feces and the anal cavity eliminates feces

ChymeThe pulpy acidic fluid made of bolus, which is food after being pushed past the pharynx

PeristalsisThe contraction of both circular and longitudinal muscles to push food through the digestive tract

Digestive System Diagram

The StomachHolds chyme to be chemically broken down by enzymes and hydrochloric acidThe stomach contains mucus cells to product a protective layer of mucus from hydrochloric acid and protease enzymesEnzymes Responsible for Digestion

AmylaseFound In: salivary glands and pancreasOptimal Conditions: mouth at pH of 6, intestines at pH of 8Action: breaks down carbohydratesPolysaccharides disaccharides

LipaseFound In: pancreasOptimal Conditions: small intestine at pH of 8Action: breaks down lipidsTriglycerides glycerol + fatty acids

NucleasesFound In: small intestineOptimal Conditions: immobilized on the epithelium cells of the intestineAction: breaks down nucleic materialsNucleic acid, DNA, RNA nucleotides

ProteaseFound In: stomach and pancreasOptimal Conditions: stomach at a pH of 1Action: break down proteinsChain of amino acids amino acids

PhospholipaseFound In: small intestineOptimal Conditions: small intestine at a pH of 8Action: breaks down phospholipidsPhospholipid phosphate + fatty acid

Small Intestine

Villi in the small IntestineVilli increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out. Villi absorb monomers as well as mineral ions and vitamins. Each villi covered in microvilli.

Lipid Absorption 1. Triglycerides simply diffuse through the villi membrane because it is made of phospholipids2. Triglyceride is packed into a lipoprotein inside the villi cell3. Lipoprotein goes through exocytosis into the lacteal, which transports fat and white blood cells through the lymphatic system

Glucose Absorption1. Sodium-Potassium pump decreases sodium concentrations in the villi cell2. Sodium and glucose enter passively using the sodium glucose transporter protein3. Glucose gets sent to the blood through the glucose channelCirculatory System

Components of BloodRed Blood cells: iron in hemoglobin carries oxygen White blood cells: defends against infections and makes antibodiesPlatelets: help blood clotPlasma: water, glucose, minerals, salts and hormones

Veins Carries deoxygenated blood to the heartLower pressureLarge lumen but verily thin wallsValves prevent blood from going downwardsMuscles movement helps move blood

ArteriesCarries oxygenated blood away from the heartHigher pressureThick muscular layer surrounding a smaller lumenNo values because blood is pumped

Cardiac Cycle1. Deoxygenated blood flows into the right atrium then through the tricuspid value into the right ventricle 2. The right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonic valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs3. Oxygenated blood returns through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium4. Blood passes through the bicuspid value into the left ventricle5. The left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta to be transported to all parts of the body

Diagram of the Heart

Pressure during the Cardiac CycleAtrial Ventricular Diastole: atriums expand and fill with red/blue bloodAtrial Systole: atriums contract (pressure increases) and blood goes into ventriclesVentricular Systole: ventricles contract and blood goes to either the aorta or pulmonary artery

CapillariesSmallest blood vessels that deliver oxygen and remove waste from cellsOne cell thick for quick diffusion and connects arteries and veins

Sinoatrial NodeThe sinoatrial node sends out electrical impulses that stimulate contraction creating the heartbeat

Coronary ThrombosisThis disease is a clot in the coronary arteries. Risks for this disease include high cholesterol, smoking and high blood pressure.

Endocrine System

Endocrine SystemOrgans that product hormones (a chemical made in one part of the body but used in another)Parts of the hormone system include: pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal gland, pancreas and ovaries/testis

Negative FeedbackSTIMULUS HOMEOSTATIC CONDITION RECEPTORS RESPONSEThe response eliminates change and returns to homeostatic condition

ThyroxinA hormone secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate metabolic rate (nutrient use) thus has the ability to control body temperature

InsulinA hormone that causes glucose to be absorbed by liver or muscles for storage, you need insulin when blood sugar is high so glucose can be stored as glycogen.Secreted by cells in the pancreas

GlucagonA hormone that causes liver and muscles to release glucose into the bloodstream and helps turn stored glycogen into glucoseSecreted by cells in the pancreas

Islet of LangerhansThe area of the pancreas that makes hormones and contains and cells

MelatoninA hormone secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms (sleep)Pineal gland produces more melatonin when light is dim and less when light is bright

Type I DiabetesCause: the immune system attacks and kills cellsEffect: glucose builds up in the blood instead of being used for energyTreatment: insulin injections or oral medicationPrevention: it is not yet known what causes Type I diabetes however research shows it is strongly linked to genetics

Type II DiabetesCause: the body cannot properly use the insulin that is producedEffect: glucose builds up in the blood instead of being used as energyTreatment: healthy lifestyle and medicationsPrevention: controlling blood pressure/cholesterol and exercising and eating healthy

Respiratory System

AlveoliAir sacs at the end of bronchioles that are covered in capillaries for gas exchange/diffusionLarge surface area for gas exchange

Type I Pneumocytes vs. Type II PneumocytesType I: Extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchangeType II: Secretes a solution containing mucus that creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides from adhering to each other

Gas Exchange1. Deoxygenated blood comes from the pulmonary artery 2. Blood drops off CO23. Blood picks up O24. Oxygenated blood returns through pulmonary veins

InhalationRib Cage: expandsDiaphragm: contracts and moves downwardMuscles: contract to pull ribcage both up and out Thorastic Pressure: decreasesAir movement: oxygen goes into the lungs to the alveoli sacs

ExhalationRib Cage: contractsDiaphragm: relaxes and moves upwardsMuscles: expands and relaxes to reduce space in chest Thorastic pressure: increasesAir movement: air goes out of the lungs

Lung CancerCauses: tobacco, pollution, chemical carcinogens, exposure to radiation or hereditary Effect: infection of cells that line the bronchiTreatment: surgery, radiation, chemotherapy

EmphysemaCauses: tobacco, marijuana, pollution, exposure to fumes and dustEffect: gradually damages the alveoli causing them not to work properly and air becomes trappedTreatment: lung transplant, medication

Immune System

Blood Clotting1. Endothelial damage2. Platelets release clotting factors3. Prothrombin turns into Thrombrin which helps turn Fibrogen (soluble) into Fibrin (insoluble)

FibrinFibrin net catches platelets and red blood cells to firm a scab to prevent pathogens from entering

Skin and Mucous MembranesSkin: lower pH level to prevent bacterial growthMucous: lines nasal and digestive tract and includes enzymes that can kill pathogens

AntibodiesAntibodies have multiple functions that help to destroy a pathogen. There is one antibody for one type of antigen, which is a chemical signal that is found on pathogens that trigger an immune response

Roles of AntibodiesCoagulate the pathogen (clumping)Lysis of the cell coat/membrane to help block adhesion to hostAttaches to pathogen to make recognizable to white blood cells, which causes phagocytosis by macrophages/neutrophils

B Cells1. B cells encounter an antigen and respond by proliferating by mitosis2. Some B cells differentiate into memory cells, which remain in the blood stream in case of a second exposure, while some differentiate into plasma cells, which secrete antibodies into the circulation

AntibioticsPrevent membrane formationAffects DNA replicationCan stop transcription and translationBlocks processes that occur in prokaryotic cells but not eukaryotic cells, which is why they do not work against viruses

Florey and Chains Penicillin TestPenicillin: a chemical made by fungi used to treat competitive bacteria The Experiment: eight mice were injected with bacteria yet only four were treated with penicillin. After 16 hours, the four mice that did not receive treatment were dead.

Bacteria20x larger than virusesNon-cellular and submicroscopicContains: single chromosomes, organelles and enzymesCapable of independent reproductionLiving because they feed, grow and reproduce

Viruses20x smaller than bacteriaSingle celled organism Contains: central core of DNA surrounded by protein coatOnly capable of reproducing inside other cellsNon-living because they do not feed or grow

White Blood CellsNeutrophils: endocytosis to eat pathogensMacrophage: sends our hormone to signal more white blood cellsMast Cells: secretes factors that mediate vasodilation (delivery of blood plasma and cells to wound)

Self-RecognitionGlycoproteins are on the surface of every cell in your body and if glycoprotein is not present there will be an immune response

Blood TypeAntigens on the surface of red blood cells stimulate antibody production and immune system. If the wrong blood cell is transfused, antibodies will agglutinate (clump) the red blood cells together

TYPEABABO

ANTIBODIESAnti BAnti ANone A and B

ANTIGENSAB A and BNone

CAN ACCEPTA and OB and OA and B and OO

AllergiesMast cells are activated by a harmless pathogen and produce histamine. Histamine increases the blood supply to increase white blood cells in responses to heal inflammation.

Specific Immune Response1. Macrophages engulf pathogen by endocytosis after it displays antigen on the surface2. Only B and T cells with correct match to antigen will be activated and multiplied3. Helper T cells quickly multiply and produce specific B cells for the antigen (clonal selection), which can differentiate into plasma, and memory cells4. In second exposure, antigen stimulates memory B cells to differentiate into plasma cellsNervous System

Human Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System: brain and spinal cordPeripheral Nervous System: sensory and motorSomatic nervous system: controlled by the person, motor neurons and skeletal musclesAutonomic Nervous System: involuntary, nerves from internal receptors

Neuron

Parts of NeuronMyelin Sheath: the layer of fat wrapped around the axon, each roll of fat is called a Schwann cellNode of Ranvier: the point between Schwann cells where impulses jump

The Sodium/Potassium PumpNeurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate resting potential. Only 2K enter for every 3Na out therefore a negative interior potential is maintained.

Nerve Impulses

Depolarization: Sodium channels open, sodium enters the cell making the axon positive after threshold is reached

Repolarization: Sodium channels close, potassium channels open and potassium leaves the cell making axon more negative

Refractory Period: Much potassium leaves the cell that the nerve becomes too negative so excess potassium outside diffuses

Action Potential: once an action potential is reached it is propagated along the nerve

Nerve Communication1. Action potential reaches the synaptic cleft ad calcium ions enter the presynaptic membrane2. Calcium causes exocytosis of neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft3. Neurotransmitters bind to sodium channels on the postsynaptic membrane to allow sodium to flow into either that nerve or muscle4. Neurotransmitters are broken down by enzymes and are absorbed to be recycled

Acetylcholine and Neonicotinoid Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitters made of acetyl group and chorine used for muscle contractions Neonicotinoid: A synthetic compound that binds to acetylcholine receptors in insects causing the postsynaptic nerve to constantly produce action potential

Reproductive System

TestosteroneA gene on the Y chromosome causes the development of testes to secrete testosteroneThis hormone causes pre-natal development of male genitals and sperm production and development of sale sexual characteristics during pubertyA gene called SRV codes for TDF (testis determining factor)

Sperm Diagram and Functions

Acrosome: breaks down the outer shell of the egg

Male Reproductive System and Functions

Vas Deferens: carries sperm to the urethra

Seminal Vesicle and Prostate Glands:Make semen in a high pH solution to protect the sperm

Estrogen/ProgesteroneBoth hormones cause pre-natal development of the female reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics during puberty

Ovum Diagram and Function

Female Reproductive System Diagram and Function

Ovaries: produces eggs and estrogen

Cervix: protects the fetus

Fallopian Tube: collected egg and is place where fertilization occurs

IVF1. Women take medication to increase the number of follicles developed in ovaries2. Remove the eggs from the ovaries3. Fertilize the eggs with donor sperm4. Embryos grow on place and few selected ones are implanted into uterus

Menstrual Cycle

Menstrual PhaseDay 1-5Menstruation occursThe lining of the uterus shed because progesterone is lowFSH from the pitutatary gland causes a follicle to develop

Proliferative PhaseDay 5-14This is where the lining rebuilds to prepare embryo for implantation due to an increase in estrogen

Ovulation DayThe mature egg leaves the ovary caused by a spike in LH (luteinizing hormone)

Secretory PhaseDay 14-endIf implantation occurs, progesterone stays high to maintain the lining of the uterus If no implantation occurs, the levels of progesterone decrease and the cycle starts again

Fertilization

External FertilizationNo copulationMale gametes are shed into a large space reducing the chance of fertilizationMany female gametes are producedZygotes develop outside the male and female parents

Internal FertilizationCopulation occursMale gametes are shed into a confined space Few female gametes are produced Zygote is developed inside the mother for protection

Process of Fertilization1. Acrosome releases enzymes to break down zona pellucita 2. Nucleus of sperm enters the egg while tail remains outside 3. Tiny protein bags called corticle granuals are released after fertilization and bind to glycoproteins to harden zona pellucita

Blastocyst ImplantationAt the uterus, the zona pellucita breaks and the blastocyst escapes to sink into the endometrium (lining of the uterus)Syncytiotrophoblast is secreted to try and find the maternal blood supply

HCGThe fetus produces a hormone called HCG, which stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during the pregnancy to maintain the lining of the uterus

OxytocinDuring pregnancy, progesterone inhibits oxytocin, which facilitates uterine contractions. At the end of the pregnancy, fetus releases hormones to limit progesterone therefore the pituitary gland will make oxytocin

PlacentaThe placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between mother and fetus At 9 weeks, the placenta takes over the production of hormones such as estrogen and progesterone

Material Exchange between Mother and Fetus1. Mothers blood brings nutrients such as glucose, lipids, water, hormones, antibodies and amino acids and bathes the blood around the villi2. Fetal blood drops off carbon dioxide, urea, hormones and water3. Gas exchange and nutrient exchange occurs over the villi surface so mother and babies blood never meet4. Blood returns to the fetus via umbilical vein

EcologyKey Terms

SpeciesA group of organisms that have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring

PopulationA group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area at the same time

CommunityA group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area

EcosystemA community and its abiotic environment

AutotrophsSpecies that are able to make their own food from basic inorganic materials

HeterotrophsConsumers that obtain their food from organic matter, can include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores

SapotrophsBacteria and fungi that secrete enzymes onto organic matter and then absorb their nutrients

DetrivoresOrganisms that digest dead organic matter

Food ChainsA hierarchy of feeding relationship that influences how nutrients and energy pass through it Autotrophs start food chains since they are able to convert the suns energy into chemical energy. This chemical energy in carbon compounds passes through food changes as organisms consume

Energy in Food ChainsOnly about 10% of energy passes onto the next trophic level. Energy losses can occur from cellular respiration, not absorbed or lost to decomposers, or the organism is not consumed

Carbon Cycling

Carbon CyclingIn the atmosphere, carbon is present as carbon dioxide gasCarbon dioxide is converted into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds by autotrophsCarbon dioxide enters the cells of autotrophs from the air or water by diffusionCarbon dioxide is produced during respiration and diffuses out of organisms In anaerobic conditions, methane is produced from organic matter and diffuses into the atmosphereWhen organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils, peat forms Oil, gas and coal are formed from partially decomposed organic matter that has accumulated in porous rocksCombustion of biomass and fossilized organic matter produces carbon dioxide

Greenhouse EffectOccurs when the concentration of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapor increases so more heat is trapped rather than reflected back into space therefore increasing global temperature

Classification of Biodiversity

HierarchySpecies are classified using a hierarchy of groups called taxa. There are eight levels:1. Domain2. Kingdom3. Phylum4. Class5. Order6. Family7. Genus part of the name that indicates a group of species that are closely related8. Species defines a group of individuals that are capable of interbreeding

Phyla of the Plant Kingdom

BryophytaPlants in this phylum include mossesUsually small and grow in damp places because they have no vascular systemReproduce by way of sporesThey have no roots

Filicinophyta This group includes mosses and fernsHave roots stems and leaves and possess internal structuresSome have fibrous roots while other produce an underground stem called a rhizome

ConiferophytaThis group includes shrubs and trees, which are often large and evergreenProduce pollen rather than spores often in huge amountsThey produce seedsHave needle-lie leaves to reduce water loss

AngiospermophytaThis group includes all flowering plants, which are pollinated by wind or animalsThey produce seeds which are associated with a fruit or nut

Phyla of the Animal Kingdom

PoriferaThis group contains the sponges They are aquatic and many produce a skeleton of calcium carbonate

CnidariaSea corals and jellyfishThey feed on other animals by stinging them with special cells called nematocysts

PlatyhelminthesThese have a layer of cells and have a body cavity with a mouth and an anusSome are free-living it water while others are parasites living in other organisms They have a flattened appearance

AnnelidaThis group contains lugworms, earthworms and leechesAll annelids have bodies that are divided into sections called segments