Iacobus.CodexCalixtinus,OmniaCanticaCoroUltreia—Liner notes

Iacobus

Codex Calixtinus

Religious Poetry in the Codex Calixtinus

The Codex Calixtinus, Compostelan Liturgical Landmark

Europe's Founding Song

The Sound of the Codex

IACOBUS

Tomyfather.ToourfellowBenito.ToMaruxaBarreiro.

Just as Master Mateo's “Pórticoda Gloria” (“Gates of Glory”) intheCathedralof Santiago standsas a true jewel of medievalChristian art, so the CodexCalixtinus or Liber Sancti Iacobikept in the Cathedral's librarycan be considered a genuinehistorical, literary, liturgical andmusical monument. Itsimportance is reflected in thevariousarticlesfromthisbooklet

accompanying our full recording of the music from the manuscript,whoseveryprologuebearsthenameIACOBUS.

Our choir's name gives away our interest for this invaluable musicalrepertoire.Asformyself,thisinterpretativeendeavourderivesfrommyfondness and liking for the Jacobean phenomenon. But it is also theresult of my own scholarly and interpretative experience of theCalixtinus'smusic,gatheredfromthealmostfifteenyearsduringwhichIwas luckyenoughtobelong totheChamberGroupof theUniversityofSantiago de Compostela. Under the direction of Carlos Villanueva, Ibecame familiar with Prof. López Calo's work, which is no doubt thetouchstone of all musicological research on the Codex. This activity,which was rendered into many live performances and musicalrecordings,wascontinuedwhentheUltreiaChoircameintobeingunderVicenteCouceiro'sdirection.Nowonder,then,thatinthecourseoftheseyearsandlookingaheadontheoncoming last Jubileeof themillenium,we devised this ambitious project that finally comes to light after twolongyearsofwork.

The paleographical basis for our interpretation is the Codex itself,particularly the excellent full edition by Dom. Germán de Pradoaccompanying the masterful research work on the Liber undertakenfrom 1931 to 1944 and sponsored by the Consejo Superior deInvestigaciones Científicas and the Instituto P. Sarmiento de EstudiosGallegos. According to the suggestions from this outstandingmusicologist from Silos, we include all the music contained in themanuscriptexceptforthatwhich,eventhoughmentionedintheincipit,

is not complete or does not belong to this specific repertoire (ie. thepsalms).

ThemonodythroughoutBookIdisplaysagreatvarietyandrichnessofmelodies.Thefactthatmanyofthesetuneswerealreadyknownandhadbeen taken from other choir books and musical compilations(BenedictineAntiphonary,RomanAntiphonary,etc.)doesnotdiminishthe musical value of this beautiful repertoire. The adaptation ofpreexistent melodies (through centos or contrafattura) was already along-standingcustominancientmusicalpractice,andtherewasnoneedforthecompileroftheCodextododifferently.Inanycase,theoutcomeofthisadaptationofancientliturgicaltextsissplendid,anditstandsfarabove most medieval repertoires devoted to one single figure. Theprocesswasreversedinsomecases,aswiththeprettytune“OluxDecusHispanie”whichcanbefoundinmanymanuscriptsafterwards.

Leaving aside any musicological disquisitions about its authorship,origin,or intention,orabout theovertFrench influenceontheCodex'sstyle and notation, or about whether this or that lyrical or musicalcomponenthadalreadybeenused,ourimpressionasinterpretersoftheCodex is thatwe faceabodyofmusic tobeusedin theworshipof theApostle,whether this be in the Cathedral of Santiago itself or in someother church. This would refute other readings which consider it aFrench didactic manual, strictly for teaching. The importance of themusic,thenumerousindicationsforitsproperusethatcanbefoundintheverytext(like“StJames'sownmassmustbesungeverydaytothepilgrims;”“ThistobesungbyachildstandingbetweentheReaderandSinger;” “This to be sung joyfully;” etc.), as well as the opinion ofauthoritativescholarsallsupportthespecificJacobeanendofthismusic.This monody comprises mainly songs for the offices for St James(invitatories, hymns, antiphons, responses, lessons, chapters andverses),processionalverses,andthreemasses,oneforthevigilandtwofor the feasts of St James, oneofwhich is the original farcemasswithtropes for every part but the Crede. The pieces were orderednumerically,as in theRomanAntiphonary.Our interpretation followedthe free and loose rhythms indicated by the tunes themselves—whichhave a marked melismatic character—, so that we could enjoy somefreedomofstyleinourperformance.Wehavealsofeltfreetousesomepolyphonictechniquessuchaspedalnotesorbordons,whichcomefromimprovisational procedures like the faux-bourdons. This has enrichedtheplainchantandhasreadiedusforwhatisthemost interestingandfamous instance of musical art in the Codex: the polyphoniccompositions which, except for two of them, are collected in theappendix at the end of Book V. These are liturgical and processionalpiecessuchasconducti,organa,etc.whichmakeup“thefirstpolyphonic

repertoireofartisticvalue in theHistoryofMusic”,asProfessorLópezCalo has asserted. Following both this scholar's work and our ownexperience,wehaveavoidedstickingtoanyaprioristicorpreconceivedtheory attempting to solve the musical problems raised by thepolyphony in the Calixtinus. The balance between the looseness andfreedom of the musical phrasing, and the rigour in the polyphonicsetting of the voices can only be achieved by means of the detailedanalysis and interpretive study of each individual piece, of its internalrhythmandofitsmelodicsingularities.

The accompanimentby instruments is justified for two reasons: firstlybecause of the plentiful literary references in the Codex; and secondlybecausetheinstrumentsusedintherecordingarereplicascraftedafterthe marvellous stone rendering of contemporary instruments in the“Portico daGloria”. Provided by the Compostelan groupMartin Codax,these instruments evoke the sonority that this music could have hadunderthevaultsoftheApostolicSee.

Letme finish the introductiontothisbookletbythankingthehelpandcontribution from many people and institutions listed elsewhere, andespeciallyfromourLordStJames.IndeedHisaidhasmadeiteasierforustorecordthemusicfrom“His”book.

Pontevedra,March1999,intheHolyYearofStJamesFernandoOlbésDurán

CODEX CALIXTINUS

ByEmilioCasaresRodicio

The “flaming lights” that could be seen at night over the Celtic villagenearIrisFlaviawerethesignthatconvincedbishopTeodomiroandkingAlfonsoII“theChaste”thatStJamestheApostle'sremainswereburiedonthatveryspot.Suchamiraclesoonpromptedthebuildingofthefirstplaces for worship, paid for with royal funding. These constructionswouldeventuallybecomethecitycalledCompostela,“campusstellae”,inremembranceof those lights.Thenewsabout the findingof St James'scorpse spread rapidly around all Christendom, and both the Pope andCharlemagne—aswould theorderofCluny lateron—became involvedwithfosteringtheappealofthesacredplace.Infact,thestorygoesthatthesonofPipino'scontributiontothepilgrimagetoSantiagowentasfar

as tobuild thebasilicaofSahagúnor theWayofSantiago,andeventodiscover the Apostle's sepulchre. The faraway Compostela of StJames—theonlyApostletobeburiedinWesternEuropeexceptforthemartyrs of Rome—would become the western vertex of Christianpilgrimage,particularlysincevisitingtheHolyPlacesunderIslamicruleturnedouttobeadangerousendeavour.

Morestars,liketheonesintheMilkyWay,havehelpedthepilgrimtrodhiswaytoSantiago to thisveryday.Everyyear, thousandsofpilgrimsfromallaroundtheworldcometoSantiagofollowingthepaththatrunsalong thewayof thestars in thesky.As they lingeron theirway, theyleave samples of their art, their science, or their language.There is nowaytoaccount forwhat thethriveandexchangebroughtaboutbythepilgrimagetoSantiagohasmeanttothedevelopment,cultureandartoftheIberianPeninsula.

Sucha remarkableeventwasbound togive rise toworksof literatureforthepilgrimsandabouttheirpilgrimage.OneoftheseminalworksisnodoubttheCodexCalixtinus,knownsincethebeginningofthiscenturyalso as Liber Sancti Jacobi, the very first words in the text. Themanuscript is kept in the archive of the Cathedral of Santiago deCompostela.Itwascopiedwithextremecareonfineparchment,anditisadornedwithbeautifulminiaturesandinitials.Itcomprisesacollectionofservices,sermonsorchantsinhonourofStJamestheApostle,whoisthesaintpatrontothecathedral.

The Calixtinus—so calledbecause most of thepieces in it wereattributed to PopeCalixtus II— wascompiled at the start ofthe last third of the 12thcentury (probably in1160 to 1170) withmaterialsofvariedoriginandauthorship.Dr.LopezCalo asserts that thematerials in theCalixtinus were writtenbefore they were everincluded in the Codex,though immediatelybefore,“sothatonlyafewyears could have passed

between the writing andcompilation of thesematerials and theirinclusion in this andotherextantcopiesoftheLiberSanctiIacobi.Itcanbeascertainedthatthe ideaof compiling thesewritings in honour of St James theApostlecameabout in the timeofbishopDiegoGelmírez,moreexactly fromc.1120 on. This means that the Codex was but one more of the manyendeavoursconceivedandundertakenbythegreatCompostelanprelatein order to exalt his church and to present an audience as large aspossiblewiththeexcellenceoftheApostle,ofhisworshipandofthecitythathelditsremains”.Calocontinues:“althoughthetextwastheworkofseveral copyists, most of it was carried out by one single scribe whoworked under heavy French influence, probably Cluniac”. Indeed,Gelmírezbrought in themostoutstandingrepresentativesofcultureatthetime,Clunymonks,forhebelievedthiswouldraisetheculturallevelinSantiago.ThatiswhymostofthewritingandmusicalnotationoftheCodexareFrench,morepreciselyNorthernFrench.

TheCodexismadeupoffivebooksofunevenvalue.Thefirstoneisthemostinterestingone,foritcomprisestheliturgicalritualforthevariousfestivities pertaining to St James together with a great number ofmonodic compositions for the various parts of the services, aswell asnumerousconducti,proses,farces,etc.Oneshortbookletisparticularlyinteresting music-wise, for it comprises 22 polyphonic pieces from asearlyastheverybeginningsoftheArsAntiqua.ThebookletwasaddedtotheCodexafter ithadbeencompleted(LópezCab'sestimation isnolater than 1180), and it includes the conductus, the earliest knowncompositionforthreerealvoices.

Thus, the Calixtinus stands as the oldest and most coherent wholemusical corpus in Europe: it comprises the complete liturgy and itsmusic,togetherwiththechantedpiecesfortheservices;italsoincludesmasses, many of which are well-known, and other poetical works toadorndifferentmomentsof the ritual (fol. 123r and ff.).The liturgy inthe Cathedral of Santiago appears as one of the most magnificent inWesternEurope.Themusic resounded in theCathedral of Santiago allday long: ordinary and feast masses and services, eve songs of praiseand pilgrimage by English, Germans, Italians, French. On arriving, theworshippersoftheApostlewentintoasuperbRomanesquechurchandattendedasplendidliturgy,adornedwithchantsenrichedbytropesandprosesandconductiwrittenpurposelyfortheliturgyofthesaintpatronand dedicated to him. The modern verse forms with their rhythmicscansion andpolyphonic accompaniment sungby theCathedral schoolandmusiciansalternatedwithmorepopularsongsinhonourofStJames

thatthepilgrimswouldplayontheirowninstrumentsandintheirownlanguages.Amusicalsymbiosisoccurred,minglingthewholecultureoftheMiddleAgesinWesternEurope.

Buttherewassingingallalongthejourney,too.PopularsongsfromthePeninsula would be played and sung at resting stops, which in manycases took place the at Clunian monasteries open to pilgrims. Thepilgrimswouldcry“Eia,ultreia!”whentheyreachedtheMontedoGozo(”MountofJoy”)andsawSantiagoforthefirsttime.Togetherwithotherpopular or clearly foreign expressions from pilgrimage songs, this cryappears in several occasions in the Calixtinus, for instance “ultreia” inAlleluiaGratulemur(f.120v),inAdhonoremregissummi(f.199v),andinDumpaterfamilias(f.193r),inwhichwealsofind“HerruSanctiagu,GrotSanctiagu”(”LordStJames,DivineStJames”).

Apartfrommusic,theCodexCalixtinuscomprisesmanyusefulnewsforthefaithfulandforpilgrimssuchastalesabouttheApostle'smiraclesorthe Bearing of his corpse, the narrative of Charlemagne's crusade inSpain (known as the “Pseudo-Turpin” after its presumed narrator), acollection of liturgical and ritual texts, and the Liber Peregrinationiscontainingampleinformationaboutthejourney.Itseems,then,thattheworkhada twofoldpurpose: toexaltandspreadknowledgeabout theCompostelan see, and to provide the pilgrims with information andteachingsaboutit.

Most certainly, anyworkwritten in Santiago in the course of the12thcenturymightwellhavebeentheworkofaFrenchman,orofsomeoneunderheavyFrench influence.Therubricsof themusicalpieces in theCalixtinusnamenumerousFrenchecclesiasticsasauthors(alsoItaliansandsomeGalicians,butmainlyFrench):Ato,bishopofTroyes;GauteriusofChâteau-Renard;MagisterGolsenus,bishopofSoissons;DroardusofTroyes; Fulbertus, bishop of Chartres; Magister Albertus of Paris;MagisterAlbericus,archbishopofBourges;MagisterAirardusofVézelay.Mostofthemareknownandsomeofthemcertainlyascomposers,butstill the attribution of many of the pieces in the Liber Sancti Iacobi isdoubtful.Nevertheless,manypiecesshowastronglocalinfluenceintheform of direct references to rituals andplaces, and sometimes even in

theuseofpopularmelodictwists1:thereisnodoubtwhatsoeverthatthemanuscriptwaswrittenfortheCathedralofSantiagoanditsservices.

It has already been pointed out that themost conspicuous part of theCalixtinus is itspolyphonicbooklet(ff.185rto192r),which is the firstwritten European polyphony together with that of Saint Martial ofLimoges. Fairly enough, it has been considered the most importantsectionintheCodex.

Thebirthofpolyphony isoneof thegreatrevolutions in thehistoryofmusic. Some musicologists have even posited the hypothesis that thetrue beginnings of western music were tied to the appearance of thismusical technique. They argue that monodic music—one-voicesinging—would be an eastern tradition which had been transplantedinto the western world. In Europe, however, there comes a time ataround the 9th century when a new perspective on music arises, andpolyphonic singing comes into being. Through itwill thewesternmanfind a way to reach over the straightforward preexistent musicalforms—whichwerenootherthanGregorianchant—anddevelopanewfeel for music. Containing some precious tokens of this primitivepolyphony, the Codex Calixtinus was not only a witness to thisrevolution,butalsoaforceinit.

Both rhythmically and compositionally, the Calixtinus steps ahead ofworksfromtheschoolofLimoges,standinghalfwaybetweenitandtheso-calledschoolofNotreDameofParis—itshouldnotbeforgottenthat,amongitsmanyauthors,ourworknamessomemasterAlbertusofParis,likelypredecessoroftheMasterofLeón,Leoninus.

This is how Professor Lopez Calo describes the music from theCalixtinus:“ThepolyphonyintheCalixtinuswouldbehalfwaybetweenthefreerhythmofplainchantandthestrictrhythmoftheArsAntiqua,measuredaccordingtotherulesofthesixmodes.Still,itisobviousthatthe polyphony in the Codex Calixtinus stands as the first polyphonicrepertoire of artistic value in the historyofmusic after the theoreticalexperiments from the 10th and 11th centuries and conducti fromWinchester and St Martial, which cannot be compared, artisticallyspeaking, to the Compostelan compositions”. Clearly the Schools ofSantiagoandLimogesarethetwogreatrepresentativesof12thcenturypolyphony, and the three-voiced polyphonic pieces in the CodexCalixtinusand in thework fromStMartial areoneof thekeystonesofmedieval polyphony. There has been discussion about who influencedwhom,butthereisnodoubtthatSantiagowasthegreatdisseminatorbymeansofthemusicalactivismthatspringedfromtheWayandrestsonabeautifulandsuggestivemusic.

The calixtinian polyphony has been the object of plenty of scholarlyresearch, editions, revisions, and recordings. Still, its transcription hasalwaysbeenextremelyhard to interpret.Thesedifficultiesderive fromthefact thatthenotationusedforthispolyphonywastheoneusedformonodic chant in France at the time, so that it does not convey anyrhythmicalvaluewhatsoever.Thus,theinterrelationofthethreevoicesintheCongaudeant,forinstance,turnsextremelydifficult.

ThisCDpresentsforthefirsttimethefullrecordingofthewholeoftheCalixtinus—bothmonody and polyphony—. It follows the detailed andstill valid editionbyDom.GermánPrado, amonk in Silos:LiberSanctiJacobi. Codex Calixtinus in two volumes, published in Santiago deCompostelain1944.

Therecordingwascarriedoutinauniqueplacewhichcanrepresentanyof themonasteries intheWayofSantiagowherethesepiecescouldbeheard. This is the hidden monastery of Santa Cristina de Ribas de Sil,knownas“oMosteiro”bythevillagers,inthesteepbanksoftheSilriverthat cuts across the “Ribeira Sacra”, one of the most wonderful andwithdrawn places in Galicia. As Father Yépez tells, the monasterywasfounded in the 9th century, and itwas completed in the 12th centurywiththebuildingofthechurchandtheactualmonasticpremises.Surelythe vaults of this Cistercian monastery have provided the adequateacoustics to this recording, so that this monument of western culturethat is theCodexCalixtinushas found the right place tomaterialize inthemagnificentinterpretationbytheCoroUltreiafromPontevedra.

RELIGIOUS POETRY IN THE CODEX CALIXTINUS

ByManuelC.DíazyDíaz

As faras religiouspoetryis concerned, the 12thcentury in Compostelabearsapropername, thefamous Codex Calixtinus,which has been kept intheCathedral of Santiagosincethen.

The Codex Calixtinus, orrather the Liber SanctiJacobi, is a hugecompilation of textsabout St James which

were put together as anhomage to the Apostle.Interesting both in itscomposition and in itsatmosphere, it comprisesfive books which contain liturgical pieces on the matter of St James(Book I), St James's miracles (Book II), tales about the bearing of StJames's corpse (Book III), the history of Charlemagne and his army'sdeedsinSpain,orHistoriaTurpini(BookIV),andaguidetotheWayofSantiago with a description of the city of Santiago and its Cathedral(Book V). Initially, the two first books (liturgy and miracles)made upone single independentwork entitled Jacobus.Thepresentbodybearsthegeneral titleofCodexCalixtinusbecause thecompilationof its fivebooks isatributedtopopeCalixtus II (1118-1125),althoughnowadayswedoknowthatthisattributionisfalse.

The author of such a vast work wanted it placed under a threefoldpatronage,takingcarethatthethreepatronswereinonewayoranotherlinked to the manuscript, which is not the orginal manuscript but acareful copy produced to be stored in the cathedral of Santiago. Thethreepatronsare:thepresumedauthorofthewholevolume,thePopeofRomeCalixtus,whooftenmarksmanyofthepiecesintheCodexasofhisowndoing;theCompostelanarchbishopDiegoGelmírez,themostlikelysponsor of this aswell as of many other Compostelan works; and thepatriarch William of Jerusalem, who will dealt with below. Thecontribution of Cluny, the great Burgundian monastery, must also beacknowledged; it stands as one of the great centers of diffusion of theSantiagomanuscript,whichispaidhomageforitsroleinthepilgrimageto Santiago, and consequently in the splendor of the very Cathedral ofSantiagoanditscult.

SincetheCalixtinusstilltreatsWilliamaspatriarchofJerusalem,itmusthave been compiled before 1147, for it was in this year that herenounced his patriarchy. The Jacobusmust have been finishedbefore1140, when the great archbishop Gelmírez is no longer recorded inhistory. Only after that could the rest of the Calixtinus have beencompleted,andthisbyaddingnewpiecestotheJacobusandbyredoingandretouchingsomeof theoldmaterial. Inanycase,Calixtus'spapacyappearsonlyasa remembrance, somethingwhichmanyCompostelansmusthaveappreciatedbecausehehadbeenanextraordinarypromoteroftheSantiagosee.

Theworkwas completely finished at about1160, and certainly before1173, for itwasthenthatthemonkfromMonserratArnaldodeMonteundertookhispreciouscopyofthebook,whichhefoundaninteresting

noveltyworthyof transcription. Therefore, it is very likely that all theliturgicalpoemsinthebookwereproducedataround1130-1140.

The Codex Calixtinus as a whole is repeatedly presented as a foreignproduct, intended for foreigners, who must have been the most likelyaddressees of the work. This intention, together with the alreadymentionedreferencetoCluny,mademanyscholarsconsidertheCodexCalixtinusaFrenchwork,bothinwhatreferstoitsliteraryintegrityandtoitspaleographicrealization.Certainlythisisnotso.

Itcanbesaid thateveryancient textdealingwithSt James theApostleeither comes from the Codex Calixtinus exclusively or has it as itsessentialevidence.Moreover,theCalixtinusstandsasouronlysourceofreligiouspoetryfromthe12thcentury.Weareleft,therefore,alonewiththe Codex Calixtinus. Texts and problems have it as their only criticalreferent.

Several scholarly studies have dealt with Compostelan poetry: theillustrious Jesuit Guido Maria Dreves compiled under the epigraphCarminaCompostelanaeverypiecefromtheCalixtinusintoanappendixto Volume XVII of the Analecta Hymnica Medii Aevi, dedicated to theHymnodia lberica (Leipzig 1894). A new edition, already outdated inmanyways,wasproducedbyPeterWagnerinFriburgin1931whenhestudiedDie Gesänge der Jacobusliturgie zu Santiago de Compostela ausdem sog. CodexCalixtinus (“Liturgical Songsof SantiagodeCompostelafrom the so-called Codex Calixtinus”). Many of the poems had alreadybeeneditedbyAntonioLópezFerreiroinhisHistoriadelaS.A.M.Iglesiade Santiago, II (“Historyof theChurchof Santiago”; Santiago1889), inwhich he closely follows F. Fita-A. Fernández Guerra,Recuerdos de unviaje a Santiago de Galicia (“Recollections of a Trip to Santiago inGalicia”;Madrid1880).Allthisworkswereboundtobeoutdonebytheedition Liber Sancti Jacobi. Codex Calixtinus (Santiago 1944), by thedistinguishedarthistorianWalterM.Whitehill.Foranumberofreasons,thiseditionisashardtocomebyastheCodexitself.Themeticulousskillof the Compostelan professor Abelardo Moralejo produced a fulltranslationofthesetextswithplentyofnotesin1950(reprintedin1993and1998).AneweditionoftheoriginalLatintexthasjustbeenreleasedbyK.HerbersandA.SantosOtero(Santiago,1998).Fortunately,wearenotunaidedinthissearch.

Thecompositionsweareabouttodealwitharesome35,alldifferentincharacter and worth. They have been attributed to various authorsrangingfromPopeCalixtushimself,ofcourse,toFulbertusofChartresorWilliam of Jerusalem, and including an anonymous bishop fromBeneventooranunknownGaliciandoctor.Thus,wearepresentedwith

pieceswhoseoriginliesinplacesaroundthewholeknownworld.Ontopof this geographical dispersion, which points to some of the mostoutstanding literary names of those times, we still have a poemattributed toPope Calixtus,which involves the three sacred languagesthatwerealreadyontheinscriptionthatPilatushadwantedcarvedonChrist's cross: Hebrew, Latin and Greek. That is to say, geographicaluniversalityisconjoinedbythemoreprestigioustraditionderivedfromtruesacreduniversality.

Two from among the first compositions in the Vigil for Santiago havebeenascribedtoFulbertusofChartres,anexcellentwriterandpoetwhohelped the Carnotian School grow into high technical and lyricalstandards.Threepoems,presumablybyWilliamof Jerusalem—oneoftheaddresseesoftheLiberSanctiJacobi—,canbefoundinafeastwithintheoctaveofthegreatholydayofStJames.Thethreepoemsarehighlyachieved: the firstone iswritten in rhythmic iambicsenarii,whicharegrouped in five-line verses with bisyllabic rhyme; the second, morecomplexoneisdividedintoeight-lineverses,ofwhichll.1,2,3and5,6,7 have one single tetrasyllabic trocaic word, while ll. 4 and 8 areheptasyllabic trocaic feet with bisyllabic rhyme. The third one ispresentedasashortversionofthePassionofStJames,towhichitaddsnothing; thepoem,however,wasdesigned tobe sungonanyoccasion(crebrocantanda)asitseasyrhythmandsimplestructureindicate,anditisfullofpoeticresourcessuchasitsconsonantrhyme,itsdistichswithtwotrocaicdimeters,andthefactthateachverseisfollowedbyachorusor refrain with the invocation Iácobe iuua. Curiously enough, theconsonant-rhymingsyllabesarealwaysthoseendingin-orum.

Itisworthlingeringoverthesetwolastpoems.Thisisthefirstverseofthesecondpoemmentioned:

locundeturet leteturaugmenteturfidelium concio;solemnizetmodulizetorganizetspirilati gaudio.

ie. inMoralejo'srhythmicversion:

Numerous,jubilant,and joyousof faithful this

reunion;rejoycing,modulating,and singing outtheir emotion.

What none of theversionsrevealisthefactthatthefirsttetrasyllabicseries increaseproportionally, from theinnermost realm of manto his behaviour in thecommunity; whereas thesecond series presents anew variation in whichsinging (modulizet) andaccompaniment(organizet) are evoked.The first and secondheptasyllablesrefertothepowerfulwillthatunderlaythesession:thattheassembly,inaccordancewiththeearlyChristianidealascorunumetanimauna,willrisespirituallyinduepraisetoStJamesinhisfestivity.

Meetingthemoststrictrulesofthegenre,thelastpoemismorepopularintone,andthisinspiteofitsmanylexicalresources—theonlyonesitsbrevityallowsfor—.

Clemens seruulorumgemitus tuorumIacobe iuua.Flos apostolorum,decus electorumIacobe iuua.Gallecianorumdux et Hispanorumlacobe iuua.

Moralejo'stranslationreads:

To your poor peoplewho moan in piety,give your aid St James.Flower of Apostles,honour of the chosengive your aid St James.Guide of the Galicians

and of the Spanish,give your aid St James.

Noticethesubtleandprecisesuccessionofthevariousmomentsevokedby the author,whoseuseof the Latin resources ismasterful. Certainlythe author of these little jewels is of some account. The poems moveswiftly between its Latin erudition and the forms and rhythms theromance-speakingpeoplewerebeginningtoappreciate.

As we have said, these poems have been attributed to William ofJerusalem.InhisHistoryoftheKingdomofJerusalem(XIV26),WilliamofTiro provides a valuable definition of our author: “uir simplex, modicelitteratus” (“a simple man with a mediocre education”). A handsomeFlemishfromMalinas,Williamhappenedtomakeagoodimpressionnotonly on on the king, but also as on the VIP and common people ofJerusalem; ifwe takedeTiro's remark intoconsideration,however,hedoes not appear as a man particularly gifted for poetry, an art whichdemanded not only inspiration, but also a profound knowledge oflanguageandpoetictechniques.Thus,weareboundtopresumethatitwas not himwho composed theseworks from the Codex even thoughthey have long been attributed to him. They are probably thework ofsome good poet or other, Galician or maybe French, who chose todisguisehimselfbehindsucharelevantpseudonym.

What can be said of the numerous works attributed to Fulbertus ofChartres?Apartfromfourpoems,theycomprisealltherichandvariedpiecesthatmakeuptheinterestingFarceMassforStJames.Itdeservessomeofourattentionduetoitsfabulousperformingcharacter,inwhichthere is a certaindegreeof scenic interplay (with the altar as stage,ofcourse).Asitsnamesuggests,themissafarsaorFarceMassisaserviceinwhich themain pieces (Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus, AgnusDei and even abenediction) are interspersed with various little excerpts, sometimespresentingtwochoruseswhichreplyeachother's interventionsaswellasthemainsinger's,whorepresentstheofficiant.Thisisbestexplainedhere by reproducing the three first Kyries with a excerpt from theSanctus:

TheKyriereadsasfollows:

Rex inmense, pater pie, eleisonKyrie eleison.Palmo cuncta qui concludis eleisonKyrie eleisonSoter theos athanatos eleisonKyrie eleison

Notice how the third piece is entirely made up of Greek words notentirelyaproductoftheartist's imagination,butrathertakenfromthefamousByzantinetrisagionpreservedbytheRomanliturgy.

AfterthefirstpartoftheSanctushasbeensung,theHosannainexcelsisispresentedthus:

Chorus: Hosanna, saluifica tuum plasma qui creasti potens omnia.Singers: AChorus: tenet laus, honor decet et gloria, rex eterne in secula.Singers: A

andonlikethisuntilthechoruscompletestheliturgicalsentencesinginginexcelsis.

The farce masses —which can take even more varied shapes, thoughneverricherasfarastheirliteraryachievementisconcerned—becomevery frequent around this time, especially in the most importantchurchesinFrance.TothisextentwasourCalixtinusuptodate.ButletusreturntoFulbertusofChartres.

Fulbertus had been an excellent poet (c. 1160) and a master to therenowned cathedral school of Chartres. Many of his works, most ofwhichareofgreat lyricaland literaryvalue,havesurvived.Ourpoems,however, do not appear among his genuine production. This does notimply that we must consider them apocryphal, but it is sound topresume that someone after Fulbertus followed his trail andappropriatedhisnamesoastobringhisownworkstolight.

Wemuststillrecallsomeotherauthorswhosenamehasnotoutgrownhis connections to the Codex. Master Anselm uses verses with threeoctosyllabiciambiclines,eachoneofwhichendswithachorusreadingFulgetdies,transformedintoFulgetdiesistatoclosetheverse.Whereasthe chorus and itsdouble formreveal thepopularhueof thesepieces,theirmetricfeaturesarefarfrombeingsimple.

These works include someconducti, oneofwhichhas beenattributed to a Roman cardinalcalled Robertus (maybereferring to Robert Pullen,archdeacon of Rochester andlater cardinal, d. 1146); anotheronetoFulbertus,andstillathird

onetotheunnamedbishopfromBenevento mentioned above.Although we have much theoryfromthe12thand13thcenturies

dealingwiththeconductus, itscommonformhasnotbeenascertainedyet.Apparentlyitsdenomination—ratherthanitsmetrics,whichisveryvaried indeed—corresponds to the kindof lyrics needed tobe sung incertain tones, from which the so-called cantus firmus was certainlyexcluded.

The collection of religious poetry in various tones continues into theAppendixtotheCalixtinus,acompilationofpieceswhichwerecollectedtoo late tobe included inamoreadequateplacewithin theBookofStJames.Manynamescomeup in this section,although I amnot so surethattheirattributiondoesnotrefertothelyrics(someofwhichareveryshallow), but rather to the music, which is written for two and threevoicessometimes,justlikesomeotherinstancesintheverybodyoftheLiber.ThisistheoldestsurvivingcompilationofthiskindinEurope.

Theanalysisofoneof thispiecesallows forabetterassessmentof thevariousattributions,andpositsonemoremethodogicalprocedure.Itisaconductus ascribed to Venantius Fortunatus, bishop of Poitiers and awidelyreadpoetofthe6thcenturywhowashighlyesteemed,especiallyinthePeninsula.Presumably,thepiecewastobeactedout,sinceanoteonthemarginofthemanuscriptsuggeststhattherefrainshouldbesungbyachildstandingamongthesingersoftheconductus.Thepiecegoeslikethis:

Salue festa dies, ueneranda pro omnia fiesqua celos subiit Iacobus, ut meruitgaudeamus.

Thesearegoodelegiacdistichswiththeonlyadditionoftherefrain.Itsohappens that thedistichswere taken fromacento compilingworksbyFortunatus.Manyotherquotationsfromthispoetwere includedinthesermonsthatcanbefoundintheLiberSanctiJacobi.Thiswasprobablydoneinmanyothercases,suchaswiththegreatFulbertusofChartres.

Centosorsimpleevocationsapart,wemustnorforgetthatmanyofthepieces in theCodex are aworkof the compiler himself.Manyof thesepieces are mere versifications of phrases and expressions alreadypresentinotherpartsoftheLiber,especiallyinsermons.Someofthesesermonswerewrittenbythecompiler,someotherssurelywerefinishedandreadiedbeforeheevenbeganhistask.

Manyofthepoemswereactuallywrittenbycontemporaryauthors,even

by Compostelan authors. Given the many-fold origin and status of thepilgrims, thisgeographical label isbestunderstoodnotasanationalorlocal concept, but rather as referring to the constant pool of trulyinternationalpeoplethat floodedCompostela inthosetimes.NosourceinformsaboutthecomingofliterarypersonalitiestoCompostela;butwemustnotoverlookthefactthatthetwogreatworksbestowedbyBishopGelmírez on Compostela were participated not only by Spaniards andGalicians,butalsobyforeigners.Whyshouldwenotconsiderthesamepossibilityforthoseauthorsofreligiouspoetryinthe12thcentury?

A good example of this is theremarkable, easy-to-singmarching chant. These aretrocaic septenaries withbysillabic rhyme inspired in awell-known classical meter. Ithas been attributed toAymericus Picaud, presbyter inPartenay near Vezelay, whoappears also as donee of theCodex to the Cathedral ofSantiago. The presentCompostelan Calixtinus has notbeen preserved in whole, and itwas completed thanks to some of the old copies.The poem reads asfollows:

Ad honorem regis summi, qui condidit omniaiubilantes veneremus Iacobi magnalia.De quo gaudent celi ciues in superna curiacuius facta gloriosa memnit ecclesia.

Thatis,intheoftenusedtranslationbyMoralejo:

In honour of the supreme king of it all,let's praise St James's great deeds.The heavenly curia rejoices at him,and the Church remembers his glorious record.

Again,thisisapeculiarcaseforwhoseassessmentwehavequiteafewelements. It is quite likely that some character come from Vezelay toSantiagowrote it to thehonourandgloryof theApostle, and this in arhythmicalmetrethatmakesiteasytoaprehendandapttobesung.

Some of the pieces were extremely popular, such as the Dumpaterfamilias, whose music was composed outside of the CodexCalixtinus. This song has become well-known as the “song of Ultreia”,duetoitsbeautifulrefrainwhichwassungbypilgrimsfromtheNorthor

byFlemishpilgrimsastheymarchedontoSantiago.Presumably,itwastherefrainthatgavewaytothepoem.Inanycasewefindinitaperfectsymbiosisofthestrictlypopularqualityoftherefrainwiththeauthor'slearnedLatinwork.

When the good Father,King of it all,bestowed the twelve apostleson his kingdoms,did St James to his Spainbring his saintly light.

TheLatinforwhichisasfollows:

Dum pater familiasrex uniuersorumdonaret prouinciasius apostolorum,lacobus Hispaniaslux illustrat morum.

WemustnotleaveouttheremarkablerefrainIjustreferredto:

Herru Santiagu, grot Santiagu.e ultr 'eia, e sus 'eia, Deus aia nos.

In any case, Compostela appears as a thriving melting-pot of trends,formsandnovelties,bothpopularandlearned.Nowonderthenthatthisrichlife,farfromsubmittingtothestraightandstiffliturgicalpompthatglittered in the Cathedral of Santiago, would in the end make animpression on the people from Compostela and on the pilgrims, andwouldgivewaytoaconstantandfruitfulimitation.

THE CODEX CALIXTINUS, COMPOSTELAN LITURGICAL LANDMARK

PorManuelJesúsPrecedoLafuenteDean-President of the Most Excellent Cathedral Chapter of Santiago deCompostela(Nov.16,1998)

The12thcenturyhasbestowedtwogreatworksonthecityofSantiagode Compostela: one of them is an architectural and theologicalmasterpiece, Master Mateo's “Pórtico da Gloria” (‘Gates of Glory’); theotheroneistheCodexCalixtinus,aworkofmostprofoundliteraryandmusicalvalue.Aswerevivethemusicalmatterfromthosetimes,whichmarkthebeginningofpolyphony,itisbutfairthatwereferbrieflytotheliturgical texts included in theCodex. The bookhas been attributed toPopeCalixtusII,arelativetokingAlfonsoVII‘theEmperor’,whowasason of the Pope's brother, Don Raimundo, and of the famous DoñaUrraca.

AServicetoCompostela

ThemoralauthoroftheCodexisalsopresentedastheactualauthorofits liturgical texts.Asheopenly states, hisendeavour is toprovide theCompostelanChurchwithenoughmaterial,carefullyselectedbyhim,tokeep the liturgical celebrations in honour of St James the Older fromresortingtotextswhichwerealreadydevotedtootherApostles.Buriedin the city to which he gave his name, the son of Zebedee surelydeservedtohavehisowndevotionaltexts.

ScholarssuchasthepresbyterD.ElisardoTemperánVillaverdesuspectthattheliterarygoodssuppliedbytheCodexwereactuallyneverusedinthose times. The fact that this collection of texts —which includedreadings, benedictions, antiphons, prayers, responses for the dead,hymns, homilies, as well as tales of the Apostle's passion andmartyrdom— was done without, however, does not go against itsimportance.

For one thing, they let us know the solemnity with which the variouscelebrations dedicated to St James took place. The Codex begins byannouncingthe12thcenturycalendarofStJames,whichincludedthreefestivities: two of them, the martyrdom and bearing of the Apostle'sremains,arestillheldnowadays;andtheotheroneconcerningStJamestheOlder'smiracles,inwhichtheCodexabounds,hasfadedout.

AnOverwhelmingRichness

The matter of the texts, particularly of those by the Fathers of theChurch,andofthehomiliesisalsoworthmentioning.Asfortheformer,however, they are often hard to ascribe to any one author inparticular—whether this be Pope Calixtus himself or any other—andtheirgenuineattributioncannotbealwaysdeterminedforsure.

TheCalixtinusisnotthefirstpieceofreligiousliteratureaboutStJames.ThefirstJacobeanhymntobeknowninHispanicliturgycameoutinthetimesofkingMauregato(d. in789),evenbefore theApostle'sremainswerefoundin813-814.ItisanacrosticwritingwhichinvokesStJamesfor protection for thementionedmonarch. Thehymncalls theApostle“golden and refulgent head, defender and saint patron of Spain”, titleswhichwouldbeoftenrepeated fromthenonbecause theyexpress theheavenly roles generally attributed to the Apostle who brought theGospelstotheveryendoftheworldandwantedtorestforeverinthismostfarawaycorner.

Still, as we go deeper into the texts from the Calixtinus, we ascertainpraises to Christ's direct disciple and to his link to Spain and Galicia.Whatfollowshasbeentakenfromoneoftheliturgicalhyms:“PeopleofGalicia, raiseyournewsongs toChrist; thankGod for thecomingofStJames....underhisguidancewilltheflockgrazeonsacredpastures.”AndPope Calixtus begins like this one of the sermons attributed to him:“With spiritual joy, let us rejoice in this day, dearest brothers, for themostsublimeapostleStJames,sonofZebedee,saintpatronofGalicia.”

TheFestivityoftheMiracles

Since the so-called “Festivity ofSt James'sMiracles” isno longerapartoftheliturgicalcalendar,itseems appropriate to say a fewwords about it here.The authoroftheCodexjustifiesthecurrentdates for the festivity.Theseareno doubt hypothetical, and tothis day we cannot be sure thatthesearethecorrectdates,sincethereiswrittenevidenceinbothcases. Only for the day of the

martyrdomcouldwegiveanapproximatedate,becauseActslocatesitinthe Jewish Passover. The Calixtinus marks March 25th following theVenerableBede,towhomthedatewouldhavebeenrevealedinavision

by a friend of his. The traditional date of July 25th was fixed by StJerome, and December 30th commemorates both the Bearing of theApostle'sremainsandhiselectionasadiscipleofChrist.

ButtheuniquenessoftheCalixtinusrestsmainlyontheFestivityoftheMiracles. This is what Calixtus says about the celebration: “It was StAnselm who piously commanded the celebration of the Festivity of StJames'sMiracles,liketheoneaboutthemanwhohadkilledhimselfandwasbroughtbacktolifebytheApostle,aswellasalltheothermiraclesheperformed,anditisusuallyheldonOctober3rd.Andweconfirmthisfactherein.”Twenty-twomiraclesarerenderedinBookIIoftheCodexCalixtinus, and some others are scattered in various other tales. ButthereisnodoubtthattheApostle'sgreatestmiracleishisever-growingcultandadoration,theflourishingpilgrimagetothesiteofhissepulchre,andtheincreasingnumberofpilgrims'conversions.Thatinitselfwouldsufficetocelebrateitsthaumaturgicalfunction.

StJames'sConches

It is interesting to readabout thevicissitudesunderwentby theCodexCalixtinus in Pope Calixtus II's lifetime, as told by the author himself.Overcoming the harassment by thieves, the hazard of imprisonment,shipwrecks,andevenafire,andridofallhispossessions,hewasfinallyabletopreservethebookonwhichhehadworkedsincehewasachildoutofhisdevotion forSt James.Hewould finallybestow itonaClunymonastery,sothatitsmonkscouldjudgeitsorthodoxyandbecomethezealouscustodiansofwhathadbeensohard tokeepaway frommanydangersandthreats.

CalixtusorderedtheCodextobewrittenwiththeCathedralofSantiagoand the many pilgrims inmind. Thus, he does notmiss any chance togive all kinds of advice to them. He deals with the various ways toenhance the piety of those who head for Compostela, and he alsoprovidespracticaladviceforaneasyandpleasantjourney.Nevertheless,he does not refrain from warning them about the many tricks andswindles they may fall prey to, like “the misdemeanors of the evilinnkeepers who dwell in my Apostle's way”. He is also aware of theinterest in thosemementos fromSantiago that thepilgrimsare to takeback home, such as the ones he calls “St James's conches”. These areprobably the “horns” from the Rías Bajas, as the translators of theSpanish version believe. The author of the Calixtinus ascribes magicalpowerstothem:“itistoldthatwheneverthemelodyfromaconchofStJames,whicheverypilgrimalwayscarrieswithhim,resoundsintheearsofthepeople,thesefeeltheirfaithfuldevotiongrow,andwardofftheir

enemies'animosity,therumbleofhail,theroughnessofthestorm...”.

EUROPE'S FOUNDING SONG

PorXoséLuisBarreiroRivasUniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela

OnthemapofEurope,theWayofSantiago islikeasea-currentflowingfromthevastwesternplainsoftheOldWorld,whenthewindsofchangebegan toblowonthecomplexsocial,economicandpoliticalstructuresof the Carolingian Empire. That is why I often resort to E. M. Sait's

metaphorinwhichhecomparespoliticalinstitutionstocoralreefs,1forIhavethe impressionthatwe inhabitaworldresultedfromtherandompilingupofunnoticedmaterial,draggedbycurrentsofpilgrims,traders,crusaders,intellectuals,warriorsandonlookerswhobrokeuptherigidstructures of the feudal society in the Early Middle Ages and beganbuilding what is now, like a portentous coral reef, the fruitful andimmenserealityofEurope.

Certainly,wenowseepilgrimageasapeculiarphenomenonthathardlyfitsoursocial lifeandourwaysofworship.But itrepresentsthesheerdynamicsofahyerocraticsociety,whensocialchangeslookedfortheirlegitimacy to a religious form that would enable the old codes to be

challengedandreplacedfornewsetsofvalues.2Thatisthereasonwhyit is best to look into the Jacobean phenomenon from two differentperspectives: firstly, as a religious instancewhose occurrence broughtabout important side-effects such as the progress in art, economy,cultureandtheinstitutions;andsecondly,asapoliticalfactthatfosteredsocialchangeandwasstagedaroundtheworshipoftheApostle.

Symbol of a newcosmology created inWestern Europe in the9th and 10th centuries,theWayofSantiagoistheaxis mundi of aChristendom whichemerged as the signs of

political and socialidentity that had beenswept away by thebarbarian invasions inthe Early Middle Agesbegan to amalgamate. Asa cosmos-making device,the Way of Santiagodefines the values whichmark the boundaries ofChristianity, legitimizeitssources of authority, andgenerate the centralizingthrust which willorganize power in theemergent westernkingdoms. MotivatedbothbytheirreligiousfaithandbythecivilincentivesinthegreatroutetotheEndoftheWorld,thepilgrimsplacedtheirbeliefsandtheiridealsabovethecentrifugalforcesthatthreatenedtofragmentandimpairthefeudalsociety.Thisishowtheybecametheofficiantsofuniversality,thetrueholdersanddesignersofaspacewhichtheythemselveshadhelpedtobuildandstructure.

The cityof Santiago,western tipof Christianity, grewas a result of allthis and gradually became the most important reference encouragingthebirthofanewEurope. Itspreadnewvaluesas itsWaytook in thearticticsplendorandtheinfrastructuralefficiencynecessaryforarouteonwhichhundredsofthousandsofpilgrimscomingfromallaroundtheworldwereboundtostagethecomingofanewera.Inordertounifytheflow of contributions stored by the current of pilgrims on theinstitutionalreefsoftheEarlyMiddleAges,andinordertoallowforthecomplex construction of Europe, the Way of Santiago equipped itselfwith a new theory of society. Conveyed by legends, myths, traditions,andoralhistoricalnarratives,thistheorycompletedthecentralideaofauniversal Christendom who journeyed from Eastern to WesternEurope—or from Jerusalem to Santiago—as its understanding of theworldpivotedonRome.

Ifwetakeintoaccountthatinlargepartpoliticalsocializationis,atleastoriginally,anon-politicalfactbasedoneducational,religious,andfamily

relations,3 the founding of Europe can be described as a process ofpoliticalsocializationfeaturingtherisingofanewaffectiveandcognitivestructure in the political reality. This provoked an incipientinstitutionalization of the centralizing powers—Church and

Empire—which broke away from the feudal immobility of the EarlyMiddleAgesandgavewayforsocial,culturalandeconomicchange.

The Carolingian Legend belongs to these theoretical-doctrinal corpus.Resting on a masterful epic-historical structure, it conveys the valueswhichdefinedthestructureofauthorityandthesocialandpoliticalaimsofthenewtemporalandreligiousorderbornofAix-la-Chapelle.Itsbestversioncanbefoundintheso-calledHistoriaTurpini, includedinBook

IVoftheCodexCalixtinus.4

Themoreundifferentiatedandthelessinstitutionalizedasocietyis,themore it depends on the indirectways of socialization and on a formalassimilation of the new political values to the preexistent, establishedand largely internalized community values. Accordingly, as StephenDriscollpointsout,thefartherawayasocietyisfromthedominanceofreading andwriting and from themeansof documental spreading, themore precise the language of symbols and the indirect expression ofmeaningbecome.Thisiswhywecansaythat,withintheframeofavastworld-makingactivity, thesocialandcultural importanceofpilgrimagemust be linked to the socio-genesis of the European civilization. Thisprocess steps ahead of the rising of the political structures of the lateMiddle Ages and becomes the seminal substratum of the changes

undergoneintheRenaissance.5

Everypoliticalsystemrestsonanorganizedsubjectivesystemofvaluesthat endows individual actions with meaning, that legitimizes anddisciplinestheinstitutions,andthatgivesasenseofstabilitytopolitical

decisionsarticulatedaspartsofalong-rangesocialconstruction.6Thus,pilgrimagetoSantiagocanbeconsideredameansoflinkingthebeliefs,psychology, and individual action of the medieval person to the socialaggregate;orasaninstrumenttocreateapoliticalculturewhichmovedalong two axes: from the individual to society, so as to structure thenorms and values that make the power organizations and institutionscohere, and fromsociety to the individual, soas toprovidehimorherwithmeansofsocialintegrationandcluestopoliticalbehaviour.

In itsmost basic version, pilgrimagehas a sacramental character. Thischaracter allows for an incomprehensible spiritual idea to be felt andunderstood, which is why pilgrimage has always been considered ahyerophany, ie. a form of the sacred that the common person canexperience directly. Besides the simple reality of the tired man goingafterhissacredgoal,however,thereareothercomponentsinpilgrimagethat helpeddefine its historical reality, anddetermined its remarkableeffects on the European society of the Middle Ages. Along with thepilgrims came monastic life, the ritual and doctrinal unification of the

Church, the papal authority on the Catholic Church, the underlyingpolitical identity of Christendom, new literary forms, new social waysand usages, as well as techniques of production and scientificdevelopments, all of which unified European society, raised its self-awareness,andstirredinitthefeelingthatitinhabiteditsowndwelling,

andowneditsownworld.7

Ifhistory is thepoliticsof thepast, if it isthemeanstounderstandthefactsthatunderpinourworld,thenlisteningtothemusicfromtheCodexCalixtinusisreturningtothesoundsthatlaythefoundationsofEurope.Likethem,awholeaestheticswithavastsocialholdspreadaroundtheChristianworldas ameansofpraying, andas theactual evidence thatthe longpilgrimage routesnever crossed the limitsof theown,not-to-be-declinedcosmos.Atthesametime,whenweascertainthetightnessof the bond between today's individual and the melodic art of somethousandyearsago,weshiverat thepictureof theabyssof time,eventhoughwedothisfromthecomfortablesecurityofhavinga“wayofthestars” that runs across the western sky, from Frisia to Fisterra, in itssearchaftertheapostolicsepulchreinSantiago.Itwasherewhere,attheendofthefirstmillenium,thewholeofEuropebeganitslongwayback.

1Sait,E.M.(1938):PoliticalInstitutions:APreface.NewYork:D.Appleton-Century.

2Cfr.Bellah,R.1966.“ReligiousAspectsofModernisationinTurkeyandJapan”,inJ.L.Finkle and R.W. Gable, eds. Political Development and Social Change. New York:Wiley.

3 Cfr. Dowse, R.E. and J.A. Hughes. 1972. Political Sociology. New York: Wiley.Spanishedition:1990.SociologíaPolítica.Madrid:AlianzaEditorial.5th.ed.

4BookIVof theCodexCalixtinus comprisestheHistoriaTurpini (ff.163 to191v.):“TTURPINUS DOMINI GRATIA ARCHIEPISCOPUS Remensis ac sedulus...”Furthermore,numerousmanuscripts(morethan250)fromtheHistoriaKaroliMagnietRotholandiincludevariantsfromtheCalixtinusnarrative:vid.C.Meredith-Jones'sHistoria Karoli et Rotholandi ou Cronique du Pseudo-Turpin: textes revus et publiésd'apres49manuscripts(These,FacultédesLettresdel'UniversitédeParis,1936).

5 Cfr. Elias, N. 1987. El proceso de la civilización. Investigaciones sociogenéticas ypsicogenéticars.Madrid:F.C.E.

6 Cfr. Pye, L.W. and Verba, S. 1965. Political Culture and Political Development.PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUP.

7As for contemporarypolitical science,ErnstCassirer vouched for the validity ofmythasawayofshapingthegreatpoliticalinstancesofourtime.Cfr.1947.ElmitodelEstado.Mexico:F.C.E.

THE SOUND OF THE CODEX

Itseemsparticularlydifficultforapersonlikemyselftoleavemynaturalenvironment,amongwiresandmicrophones,andstepfrombehindtheshelterofthesoundmixerinordertoexplainhowIdaredparticipateinsuchaproject.Ihavetoconfessthat,unliketheotherpeoplewithwhomIamhonouredtosharesomespace in thisbook, IenjoyaveryspecialadvantagewhenitcomestoexpressingmyopinionsontheCodex.For,who knows which was the atmosphere that surrounded theinterpretationoftheseworksinmedievaltimes?Well,thiswasthefirstissuethatstruckmeattheverystartofthisproject,anditalsohappensto be the doubt remaining at the back of my mind once the task isfinished.

It has become more and more difficult in our world to come acrossvirgin, unpolluted spaces. It is hard to breathe this air because it iscloggedwith strangesubstances;mass-media spreadculturalpollutionatthespeedoflight,whetherthisbeforthebetteroffortheworse;thestarsarenotvisibletooureyes,notevenindark,opennights,duetotheartificiallightshedbyourcities;andsomeofusareparticularlyworriedaboutananimal inclearandpresentdangerofbecomingextinct, eventhoughitisneverlistedinNationalGeographicsurveys:silence.Thefirstandmostcrucialtechnicalproblemthatcameupaswewerepreparingthe recording sessions was finding a place which offered the acoustic

conditions most adequate for the interpretation of the pieces in theCodex,butwhichweresufficientlyisolatedfromtheeverpresentnoisegranteddailyby the civilization at the closingof the thirdmillennium.Aftertryingoutseverallocations,wefinallyfoundtheplace.Thechurchof the monastery of Santa Cristina de Ribas de Sil displayed, togetherwith a breathtaking landscape, the ideal conditions to carry out ourenterprise:awonderfulsonorityduetoitswoodenceiling,theabsoluteavailability of the premises thanks to the generosity of the persons inchargeof themonastery,and,aboveall, theconditionsof isolationanddistancefrompopulatedareasnecessarytopreventnon-naturalsoundstosneak intotherecording.Butalas!,therewasnoelectricpower.Thevery civilization from which we were escaping gave us, in turn, thesolutiontothisproblemintheformofaquietfuelgenerator,prudentlyplacedsomehundredsofmetersaway,whichfedpowertothelightandrecordingunits.Wehadbuttowaitforthenighttoavoidthesingingofbirdsandotherunwantedsounds...except,ofcourse,forbatsandowls,who sometimes accompanied the CoroUltreia with their authoritativevoices,as ifwanting toassert that theywere there longbeforeus,andthattheirmusicsurelymatchesuptoours.

Santa Cristina had a unique atmosphere for monody, as far as bothsetting and sound were concerned, but the very first attempts atpolyphonyandinstrumentsrevealedthattheatmospherewasrathertoodense for them. That is why a location with a lower degree ofreverberation was preferred and the recording was moved to theSantuariodeNosaSeñoradeAbades,achurchinaverybeautifulvalleynearSantiagodeCompostela.Withitscleanandtransparentacoustics,itadequately hosted and wrapped the voices of the Coro Ultreia, thusallowingforaclearerrecordingofthevariousmelodiclines.

The third space, the Cathedral of Tui, was not chosen because of itsacoustic conditions as in the previous cases. Its sweet-fluted organprovided the best enfolding for some of the pieces collected in theCalixtinus,althoughwehadtofightthebackgroundnoisebroughttousbycitylife.

I will refrain from boring anyone with technical details. Certainlytechnicswasnotthekeytothesonorityput intothisrecords.Wehavetriedtoavoideveryunnecessaryelectronicaddition,andthisishowwebelievetohaveachievedthepurestsoundpossibleforyou,asitcouldbefoundinthewonderfulplaceswherewespentmanyhoursrecordingit.Just pour plenty of enthusiasm and communication among the peopleparticipatinginthisproject,andyouwillhavetherecipethathasturnedFernando Olbés's dream into a reality. For he was the one whotransmittedittoeveryoneelseincludingme,who,likeFernandohimself

andinsofarasIwasinvolvedinit,wouldliketoofferittoallwhohavegonebeforeitcametrueandandtoallwhohavearrivedintimetoenjoyit.

Allowmetofinishoffwithaconfession.IwasluckyenoughtolistentowhatIthinkistheperfectsoundfortheCodexCalixtinus:Iwas,atthreeinthemorningandminusthreedegrees,buriedinthedark,standingatthedoorstepofaromanesquechurchfromtheXIIcenturylostintheSilcanyon,feelingthesilenceonlybrokenbythesoundoftheslightestrainand the voices of some twenty madmen singing musical works eighthundredyearsold.Notmanypeoplehavehadsuchachance..noteventhemadmen“themselves”.

PabloBarreiroRivas.Soundtechnician.

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