I. Content Presentation

II. Learning Situation

III. Observation IV. Reflection

Defining Learning

Definition of Behaviorism

Three earlier behaviorists and their contributions› Ivan Pavlov

› B.F. Skinner

› E.L. Thorndike

Theories and principles› Classical conditioning

› Operant conditioning

› Contrasting two major types of conditioning

Instructional application

Learning is a long-term change in

observable behavior that occurs as a

result of experience, it involves mental

representations or associations.

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Definition of

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors

are acquired through conditioning, which occurs through interaction with the environment.

Basic

Assumption

Principles of Learning should apply equally to organism.

learning process can be studied most abjectly when the focus of study is on stimuli.

Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study.

Learning involves a behavior change.

Organisms are born as blank slates

Learning is largely the result of environmental events.

The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious.

Two major

types of

conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Instrumental Conditioning/Operant Conditioning

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Figure 1 How Pavlov’s dog learned

Step 1: Bell (NS) No Response

Step 2: Bell (NS)

Salivate (UCR)

Meat (UCS)

Step 3: Bell (CS) Salivate (CR)

The father of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

A Classical Conditioning analysis of how Pavlov’s dog learned (Click to watch the video):

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Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Four conditions that maximize Learning:

› Law of Effort: Responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened and more likely to repeated; responses followed by discomfort are more likely not to be repeated.

› Law of Recency: The most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence.

› Law of Exercise: People learning by doing. Stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition.

› Law of Readiness: Learning is dependent upon the learner's readiness to act, which facilitates the strengthening of the bond between stimulus and response.

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E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949)

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Proposed the theory Operant conditioning

› Behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behavior in the future.

Influence on education

Five Main Obstacles to learning Instructional Principles

People have a fear of failure Give the learner immediate

feedback

The task is not broken down into

small enough steps.

Break down the task into

small steps

There is a lack of directions Repeat the directions as

many times as possible

There is also a lack of clarity in

the directions

Work from the most simple to

the most complex tasks

Positive reinforcement is lacking Give positive reinforcement

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DefinitionClassical conditioning is a process of behavior modification by which a subject comes to respond in

a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits the desired response

Basic Principle When stimulus and response occur with each under reinforcing conditions, learning will form.

Common

Phenomena

Associative BiasAssociations between certain stimuli are more likely to be make than are

associations between others.

Importance of

Contingency

UCS and the would-be conditional stimulus (CS) need to be presented at

approximately the same time.

Extinction The CR disappear when the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS

Spontaneous

Recovery

The reappearance of conditioned response after it had previously been

extinguished.

Generalization Learners respond to other stimuli in the same way that they respond to CS.

Stimulus

DiscriminationThe differentiation between two stimulus.

Higher-order

Conditioning

A neutral stimulus is paired with a CS1 to produce the same CR as the CS1, and

finally becomes CS2

Sensory

Preconditioning

An individual can develop a CR to a stimulus that has never been directly paired

with an UCS.

Educational Implications

Practice is important

Students should encounter academic subject matter in a positive climate and associate it with

positive emotions.

To break a bad habit, a learner must replace one S-R connection with another one

Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changesBack

Definition A method of learning that occurs through reinforcement and punishment for a behavior

Basic

Principle

Behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, and the nature of the

consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behavior in the future

Basic

Concepts

Baseline The frequency of an operant behavior in the absence of reinforcement.

Terminal BehaviorThe form and frequency of a desired response at the end of a planned reinforcement

program, described in concrete and observable terms.

Superstitious

Behavior

Randomly administered reinforcement tends to reinforce whatever response has

occurred immediately beforehand, and an organism will increase that response.

ShapingA process of reinforcing in which the increasingly accurate approximations of a

desired response are reinforced

ChainingAn instructional procedure which involves reinforcing individual responses occurring

in a sequence to form a complex behavior.

Extinction Decline of the response when it is no longer reinforced in the presence of stimulus.

Reinforcement

Schedules

A protocol for determining when responses or behaviors will be reinforced, ranging from

continuous reinforcement, in which every response is reinforced, and extinction, in which no response is reinforced.

Avoidance Learning The process of learning to stay away from an aversive stimulus.

Effects of

Antecedent Stimuli and Responses

Cueing Using discriminative stimuli elicit a specific behavior or reflex, as a result of a learned association

Setting eventsComplex environmental conditions, under which certain behaviors are most likely to occur

Generalization Responding in the same, previously learned way to a similar stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

Tendency for a response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present

Behavioral Momentum

Organisms are more likely to make desired responses if they are already making similar responses

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Figure 2. Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive Reinforcement(Present pleasant stimulus)

Negative Reinforcement(Remove aversive stimulus)

Reinforcement Increase Response

Punishment I(Present aversive stimulus)

Punishment II(Remove pleasant stimulus)

Punishment Decrease Response

Reinforcement

Positiveoccurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus that is

rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior

Negativeoccurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an

aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency

Punishment

Positiveoccurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as

introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

Negativeoccurs when a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus, resulting

in a decrease in that behavior.

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Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Same in defining learning: Learning is a relatively permanent change in observable

behavior as a result of experience, it is predicated on the conditioning of stimuli and responses.

Same common phenomena: Extinction, Spontaneous recovery and stimulus generalization

Learning occurs when two stimuli (UCS&CS) are paired

Learning occurs when response is followed by reinforcing stimuli

Association between stimuli and responses Association requires reinforcement

Based on involuntary reflexive behavior Based on voluntary behavior

Figure 3. Contrasting Classical Conditioning with Operant Conditioning

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Create students a positive learning environment associate with pleasant emotions

Provide precise observable and measurable learning objectives before conditioning begins

Repeat the directions as many times as possible

Bread down the task into steps (chaining)

Work from simple to complex tasks (shaping)

Guide students with cues (visual, verbal, gestural, physical)

Reinforce accomplishment with appropriate and immediate feedbacks

The repetition of S-R habits can strengthen those habits

To break a bad habit, a learner must replace one S-R connection with another one

Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changes

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Programmed Instruction: Material is learned through a series of discrete frames that include content and questions. If the learner answers a question correctly, they proceed onto a new frame with new content. Those who answer the question incorrectly are directed to remedial material on the subject for more practice.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): CAI is computerized programmed instruction. CAI eliminates the bulk of paper-based programmed instruction and can automatically redirect students to new frames.

Mastery Learning: Material is learned through a series of discrete units. In order to proceed to the next unit, a learner must master the current material. Remedial units are used to help learners who have difficulty with the material.

Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA): A person’s environment is modified to reinforce desired behaviors and non-reinforcement of undesirable behaviors. Behavior is measured before, after, and throughout the treatment and is compared with the desired terminal behavior. Group ABA often involves the use of token systems.

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Learning Situation Explanation

The trainer started the session by asking “What types of clothes are

appropriate for your working environment?" The new employees

began to respond. As each new employee provided a response, the

trainer gave him/her positive feedbacks such as “Good answer”,

repeated the answer and wrote it down on the board.

Pleasant learning

environment

Appropriate and

immediate feedback

(Positive reinforcement)

Without providing a rationale to the learners the trainer purposively

arranged the list by male and female clothing (e.g. blouse, skirts, pants,

jacket) and accessories (e.g. shoes, ties, belts). The trainer then asked

for a description of the items from the learns, for example the length of

the skirt, or type of blouse, or appropriate colors.

Chaining

Shaping

As each new employee provided a response, the trainer gave him/her

positive feedback, repeated the answer and wrote it down near the

related item.

Appropriate and

immediate feedback

(Positive reinforcement)

The recording and descriptive process repeated on few additional

items. The trainer then asked the learners to review the list on the

blackboard and asked if all items were suitable for their working

environment. After each learner provided a response the trainer gave

him/her positive feedback and asked the next person to respond. This

continued until all who wanted to participate did.

Appropriate and

immediate feedback

(Positive reinforcement)

Learning Situation Explanation

The trainer started the session by asking “What types of clothes are

appropriate for your working environment?" The new employees began

to respond. As each new employee provided a response, the trainer

gave him/her positive feedbacks such as “Good answer”, repeated the

answer and wrote it down on the board.

Pleasant learning

environment

Appropriate and

immediate feedback

(Positive reinforcement)

Without providing a rationale to the learners the trainer purposively

arranged the list by male and female clothing (e.g. blouse, skirts, pants,

jacket) and accessories (e.g. shoes, ties, belts). The trainer then asked

for a description of the items from the learns, for example the length of

the skirt, or type of blouse, or appropriate colors.

Chaining

Shaping

As each new employee provided a response, the trainer gave him/her

positive feedback, repeated the answer and wrote it down near the

related item.

Appropriate and

immediate feedback

(Positive reinforcement)

The recording and descriptive process repeated on few additional

items. The trainer then asked the learners to review the list on the

blackboard and asked if all items were suitable for their working

environment. After each learner provided a response the trainer gave

him/her positive feedback and asked the next person to respond. This

continued until all who wanted to participate did.

Appropriate and

immediate feedback

(Positive reinforcement)

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Learning Situation Explanation

Keeping the question “Are all items listed on the blackboard

suitable for your working environment?” the learners

watched a video about a world famous enterprise in the

same field. In the video, all employees were in different

professional dress. After watching, the learners were divided

in to groups to discuss the previous questions and to share

their answers after the discussion

Guide learners with cues

At the end of the training, the trainer emphasized company’s

punishment policy regarding inappropriate dressing.

Punishment (Reinforcing

stimulus)

During the following one month, every new employee

received an E-mail each week from the training department,

which included an evaluation of their weekly dressing and

the corresponding suggestions

Appropriate feedbacks

Repetition of S-R habits

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Trainer’s Instruction

Activity

Shaping □ Yes □No

Chaining □ Yes □No

Reinforcement Schedule □ Yes □No

Setting Effects □ Yes □No

Trainer’s ReinforcementSocial Reinforcement □ Yes □No

Administer Reinforcement Consistently □ Yes □No

Use of Learning

Strategies

Learning is divided into small units □ Yes □No

Reinforcement on response is immediate □ Yes □No

Trainer allows new employees to practice □ Yes □No

Learning Avoidance □ Yes □No

Activities Observation Results

Baseline is identified □ Yes □No

Learning environment is pleasant □ Yes □No

Breaking down the tasks into steps (chaining) □ Yes □No

Working from simple to complex tasks (shaping) □ Yes □No

Guiding learners with cues □ Yes □No

Learning objectives are clear and observable □ Yes □No

Implementation of positive reinforcement □ Yes □No

Implementation negative reinforcement □ Yes □No

Implementation of punishment □ Yes □No

Providing appropriate and immediate feedbacks □ Yes □No

Stimulus and responses connections are repeatedly used □ Yes □No

Continuous reinforcement for the expected behavior □ Yes □No

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How does behaviorism inform the design of instruction?

› According to behaviorism, people learning by doing. Learning occurs when the response is associated with stimulus, and the repetition of stimulus-response associations can strengthen learning. So, when designing an instruction, the application of stimulus should be well considered. The stimulus can be applied in different ways, like create learners a pleasant and relax learning environment, give learners positive and immediate feedbacks, and provide learners appropriate punishment to decrease unexpected behaviors. Moreover, behavior is determined by it consequences. A too hard instruction or an instruction lack of direction might depress learners, and makes them refuse to learn. So a hard task should be break down into small pieces, learners work from the simple to hard pieces, clear directions should be provided to learners constantly, and interactive learning activities should be designed to engage learning.

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What questions do you still have about behaviorism?

› Behaviorism defines learning as “observable change”. I would argue that learning is not always observable. Like the new employees in my learning situation. By taking the training program, the new employees learn how to dress professional during the working hours. Well, assuming one of the new employees quit the job and worked for another company that had no professional dressing requirement, and that employee preferred to dress casually during the working hours, then, we would not be able to figure out whether he had learnt how to dress professional in the working environment or not. So my question is, is there any learning behavior that is unobservable? If there is, how do behaviorism define such kind of learning behavior?

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How were the classroom activities in this unit reflective of

behaviorism?

› There are so many classroom activities reflect behaviorism. The syllabus which included the overall course introduction, course goals, learning objectives, course expectations, course schedule and some other important course information was provided to students ahead of time. The instructor was nice and the learning environment was pleasant and relax. For example, the first class was initiated by a fun classroom activity, that was, learning how to draw an elephant. And then, the instructor use elephant as an example to teach students how learning happened on animals. Moreover, many instructional strategies were used throughout the classes, like classroom discussion and group discussion. The instructor always gave immediate and positive feedback no matter the answer was right or wrong. In this way, every student was willing to participate in the discussion. Also, considering learning theories were new for most of the students, knowledge were break down into chunks to make them easier to understand. Besides, there were precise and clear assignment rubrics to facilitate students’ assignment completion.

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How have your ideas about learning and instruction changed

and why?

› Before taking this course, I had no idea about the two stimuli (conditional stimulus and unconditional stimulus), neither realized that learning occurred when the two stimuli were paired. I will apply this principle in my future instructional design. Many instructional principles are based on this learning principle. For example, create learner pleasant learning environment, give learner positive and immediate feedback, repeat the directions as many time as possible, use punishment to decrease unexpected behavior, and replace good S-R connection with the bad one to break the bad habit. Besides, shaping and chaining are also useful instructional design principle. Because breaking down the task in to small steps and making students work from simple to complex task can facilitate the whole learning process, and make students feel comfortable and enjoyable.

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Ormrod J.E. (2008) Human Learning (5th). Upper Saddle River, NJ:PearsonEducation, Inc.

Classical Conditioning. Retrieved Sep. 20, 2008 from http://www.answers.com/topic/classical-conditioning

Kendra Cherry. Introduction to Operant Conditioning. Retrieved Nov. 10 from http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.html

Extinction (psychology). Retrieved Sep. 20, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_(psychology)

Reinforcement. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning Terms. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008 from http://www.honoluluzoo.org/enrichment_operant_cond_terms.htm

Learning and Conditioning. Retrieved Sep. 22, 2008 from http://www.sparknotes.com/101/psychology/learning_and_conditioning/operant_conditioning.html

From Theory to Practice: Behaviorist Principles of Learning and Instruction. Retrieved Nov. 10 from http://www.otl.wayne.edu/pdf/newsltr/dec02.pdf

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