Chapter 12

Motivation

Motivation• Key Question:

– What motivates us to behavior &/or attitude?

WHY do we do what we do?

Motive• A hypothetical state within an organism that activates behavior and motivates the organism toward a goal

NEED• Any state of deprivation

– Physiological needs (air, food, water pain avoidance, temperature, etc.)

– Our state of deprivation of the comfort level of any need gives rise to drive to regain that level again

HOMEOSTASIS• “The same state”

– Our comfortable level we try to maintain

DRIVEA need gives rise to a drive

• A condition of arousal in an organism that propels it toward satisfying the need

Physiological drives are the psychological

counterparts of physiological needs

INCENTIVE• An object, person or situation perceived as being capable of satisfying a need.

• Incentives motivate behavior

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

IDEAS ABOUT WHAT MOTIVATES US TO DO WHAT WE DO…

A) COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

• DR. FESTINGER (1956)• We are motivated to be sure our cognitions and beliefs are consistent, if not, we work until they are!– Dissonance - not in harmony– Cognitive - information processing

B) INSTINCT THEORY (1900ish)

• William James– People inherit social behavior instincts

• William McDougal– 18 Basic Instincts

•Migratory & mating behavior (birds)•Rooting/Sucking (humans)

Darwin- behavior originates from instinctAdaptive survival behaviors

INSTINCT THEORY - ideas

1. Species specific behavior

2. Releasers

3. Fixed-Action Pattern (FAP)

• Ethologist - a scientist who studies the behavior patterns that characterize different species– Konrad Lorenz

•Baby goslings•Imprinting•Critical period

Pheromones• Seemingly odorless and tasteless chemical secretions detected by members of the same species that, when released, stimulate stereotypical behavior

• What about in Humans??

Sociobiology

• Herding Behavior as threat reduction

• Aged or nonproductive leave group to increase survival – (Theory of the Buffalo from Norm on Cheers!)

C) DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY

• CLARK HULL• We are motivated to reduce the compelling drive that we are experiencing– State of Irritation

•We try to reduce tension where we no longer experience a “drive” because the “need” has been satisfied

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY

• Primary Drives– unlearned or physiological drives

• Acquired Drives– We learn to need them through experience

D) OPPONNENT-PROCESS THEORY

• RICHARD SOLOMON• Emotional reactions are followed by their opposite emotion rather than a neutral emotion, when the conditions give rise to the original emotion change.

– Ex. •Afterimages•fearful soldier

E. HUMANISTIC THEORY

• A DRIVE TO SELF-ACTUALIZATION• ABRAHAM MASLOW• Behavior is motivated by a conscious desire for personal growth

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs • Lowest level neeeds must be met first

• then higher-level safety needs become active

• then psychological needs become active

Self-actualization needsNeed to live up to one’s

fullest and unique potential

Esteem needsNeed for self-esteem,

achievement, competence,and independence; need for

recognition and respect from others

Safety needsNeed to feel that the world is organized and

predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable

Belongingness and love needsNeed to love and be loved, to belong

and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation

Physiological needsNeed to satisfy hunger and thirst

F) COGNITIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION

• Leon Festinger(1957) & Sandra Bem(1993)

• Cognitive consistency

1. Gender Schemas - expectations of “maleness” or “femaleness”

2. Expectancies - people motivated by what they expect will happen (Bandura,Rotter,Mischel)

COGNITIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION

3. Self-efficacy expectations - Julian Rotter’s idea that we are motivated or not by our own sense of how well we will perform at something

4. Cognitive Dissonance - (Festinger) we are motivated to maintain consistency*

G) SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

• Covers all other theories• States that everything is within the “Filter” of a social or cultural context

• “Milieu” = environment– The sociocultural milieu influences motives such as aggressiveness, nurturance, etc. (M. Mead 1935)

DRIVES:HUNGER & THIRST

• SATIETY - The state of being satisfied or full

• LESION - and injury that relults in impaired or loss of function

Motivation-Hunger• Set Point

– the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set

– when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

• Basal Metabolic Rate– body’s base rate of energy expenditure

Motivation-Hunger

• The hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions

PsychSim• Hunger & the Fat Rat

Eating Disorders

Eating Disorders• Anorexia Nervosa

– when a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly (>15%) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve

– usually an adolescent female• Bulimia Nervosa

– disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of highly caloric foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercise

Eating Disorders:Anorexia Nervosa

• when a person is less than 85% of their normal body weight

• 95% of sufferers are female • most are between the ages of 18-30• 30% of persons diagnosed with anorexia nervosa die

Women’s Body Images

Thinnest Women’sideal

What womenbelieved menpreferred

What menactuallypreferred

Women’scurrent

body image

Fattest

Psych Quest• How do we control how much we eat?

Motivation and Achievement

Motivation•Achievement Motivation–a desire for significant accomplishment•for mastery of things, people, or ideas

•for attaining a high standard

–McClelland and Atkinson believed fantasies would reflect achievement concerns

Motivation•Intrinsic Motivation–desire to perform a behavior for its own sake or to be effective

•Extrinsic Motivation–desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

Rewards Affect Motivation

Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’Controlling reward

Child: “As long as she pays, I’ll study.’’Extrinsic motivation

Mom: “Your grades were great! Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner.’’Informative reward

Child: “I love doing well.’’Intrinsic motivation

Motivation• Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology– sub-field of psychology that studies and advises on workplace behavior

• I/O Psychologists– help organizations select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, and design products and assess responses to them

Motivation• Task Leadership

– goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

• Social Leadership– group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

Motivation• Theory X

– assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money

– should be directed from above• Theory Y

– assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity