PHILIPPINE CIVILIZATION

The Negritos are believed to have migrated to the Philippines some 30,000 years ago from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya. The Malayans followed in successive waves. These people belonged to a primitive epoch of Malayan culture, which has apparently survived to this day among certain groups such as the Igorots. The Malayan tribes that came later had more highly developed material cultures.

In the 14th cent. Arab traders from Malay and Borneo introduced Islam into the southern islands and extended their influence as far north as Luzon. The first Europeans to visit (1521) the Philippines were those in the Spanish expedition around the world led by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. Other Spanish expeditions followed, including one from New Spain (Mexico) under López de Villalobos, who in 1542 named the islands for the infante Philip, later Philip II.

The Art of War

When the Spanish began to colonize the Philippine islands the culture and technology was by no means that far behind most other areas of the world. Indeed, in many areas the Filipinos were quite advanced considering the timeline of the history of science. The metal smith, Panday Piray of Pampanga, was so skilled at weapons making and other types of metal working that the Spanish entrusted him with opening the first Spanish artillery foundry in the country. The Spanish found that the Filipinos made their own small arquebuses, or portable cannons, usually made of bronze. Larger cannons made of iron and resembling culverins provided heavier firepower. The iron cannon at Raha Soliman's house was about 17 feet long and was made from clay and wax moulds.

The most fearsome weapon though was the famed lantaka, or swivel gun. Unlike the Spanish cannons these guns were placed on flexible swivels that allowed the gunner to quickly track a moving target. The lantakas of the Moros gave the Spanish so much trouble that they always included native ships, like the karakoa, equipped with lantakas to counter the Moro weapons. The most impressive lantakas had two revolving barrels. These were eventually exported to South America, and may have become the precursor of the Gatling gun.

Piray started a tradition of high quality metal casting that lasted for centuries in many parts of the Philippines. Many individuals with surnames like Piray, Viray, etc., may have ancestors who were members of the guilds of smiths who followed the Piray lineage. The metal work involving authentic native swords was also of the highest quality. Unfortunately, this fell into disuse among most of the lowlanders of the North. However, the Muslims and animists of the South continued to make very fine kampilans, krisses, etc., that can take many years of work to complete.

People of the Sea

The Filipinos, particularly the Bisayans, impressed the Spanish with their navigational skills. Some Filipinos used a type of compass similar to that found among the people of Borneo and the Chinese, although most had no need for such devices. They used sailing techniques native to the ancient Malayo-Polynesian people. Some of the fishermen and traders in the Bisayas, Mindanao, Sulu and other areas of the Philippines can still navigate long distances over open water without modern instruments. The Philippine ships were of excellent quality and continued to be of great use to the Spaniards who included armed Karakao, or korkoa, and other vessels not only in expeditions against rebellious or resistant Filipinos, but also against intruding Dutch and British forces. The karakao was a rowed vessel with small rowing canoes placed under each outrigger. It's name is related to the korokoro of Indonesia, the kolik and kurakura of Malaysia, the kelakela of Tikopia, kel or gel of Anuda, and the kel of Pak. Some of the larger rowed vessels held up to a hundred rowers on each side besides a contigent of armed troops. Generally the larger vessels held at least one lantaka at the front of the vessel with an additional one sometimes placed at the stern.

Legazpi describes one of the "Moro" pilots captured from Butuan:

"...a most experienced man who had much knowledge, not only of matters concerning these Filipinas Islands, but those of Maluco, Borney, Malaca, Jaba, India, and China, where he had had much experience in navigation and trade." (Blair and Robertson, Vol. II, p. 116.)

The Kapampangans were said to have continued their trade with Batavia until the start of the galleon trade compelled the Spanish to take control of all commerce. Indeed, at one point Filipinos were not even allowed to go out of their villages to trade.

The Philippines was also an active trading center itself before the coming of the Spanish. Pigafetta mentions that merchants and ambassadors from all the surrounding areas came to pay tribute to the king of Cebu for the purpose of trade. Indeed, while Magellan's crew were with the king a representative from Siam was paying tribute. Legazpi wrote how merchants from Luzon and Mindoro had come to Cebu for trade, and that they had mentioned how Chinese merchants regularly came to the north for the same purpose.

The Barangay

The word, barangay, usually means to modern Filipinos the basic social unit into which communities are divided. However, the barangay is also the name of an oceanic vessel that was used for trade, and also apparently for migration. At Butuan in Northern Mindanao, a spectacular find of barangay vessels was made in the mid-seventies. One of these ships dated back to the 4th century, the oldest find of its kind in the Austronesian region. Some of these boats were associated with T'ang Dynasty pottery, the oldest to be found in the Philippines to date. In the same area, skeletons were found with burial artifacts including wooden coffins and various trade items.

Fishing

The Filipinos were skilled in all types of fishing and fisheries. In the south, the basnig, a Viking-like ship, was and is the vessel of choice among the Bisayans for ocean fishing. The salambao is a type of raft that utilizes a large fishing net which is lowered into the water via a type of lever made of two criss-crossed poles. Night fishing was accomplished with the help of candles similar to the copal of Mexico. These candles were made from a particular type of resin. Fish corrals, like the ones still used today, were also employed by the ancient Filipino. However, the area in which the Filipino most astonished Westerners was in their advanced aquaculture:

"To the early Spaniards, the pisciculture of the Filipinos was regarded almost as a new art, so much more advanced it was than fish breeding methods in Europe." (Commercial Progress in the Philippine Islands, Antonio M. Regidor and J. Warren T. Mason, 1905)

Many have looked to Japan for an explanation for these advanced methods. The roe was transplanted to safe pens for incubation and to guard the small fry from predators. Only when sufficiently mature to fend for themselves were they released back into the wild. These days this method is practiced by fisheries throughout the world. Before the Spanish came, the Filipinos also only used large mesh nets when fishing in rivers, lakes or in the sea. This ecologically sound practice protected the young ensuring future good catches. However, the competition brought by the Spaniards resulted in the use of such small mesh nets that the Spanish themselves eventually had to regulate the nets to prevent the destruction of the fisheries.

Jewelry, Metal Work and Mining

Mines dating back to at least 1,000 B.C. have been found in the Philippines. When the Spanish arrived the Filipinos worked various mines of gold, silver, copper and iron. They also seemed to have worked in brass using tin that was likely imported from the Malay Peninsula. The iron work in particular was said to be of very high quality in some cases, and occassionaly in some areas, even better than that found in Europe.

"... the natives proceed more slowly in this ,and content themselves with what they already possess in jewls and gold ingots handed down from antiquity and inherited from their ancestors. This is considerable, for he must be poor and wrethced who has no gold chains, calombigas, and earrings."

However, things seem to already diminished from Pigafetta's time:

"On the island [Butuan] where the king came to the ship, pieces of gold as large as walnuts or eggs are to be found, by sifting the earth. All the dishes of the king are of gold, and his whole house is very well set up."

Pigafetta goes on to describe the huge gold ornaments, gold dagger handles, tooth plating and even gold that was used to decorate the outside of houses! On the gold work of the Filipinos is this description of the people of Mindoro:

"...they possess great skill in mixing it [gold] with other metals. They give it an outside appearance so natural and perfect, and so fine a ring, that unless it is melted they can deceive all men, even the best of silversmiths."

The Filipinos also made jewelry of carnelian, agate and other precious stones, and of course, they were known for their coveted pearl industry.

The Filipinos made metal implements like the sumpak of carabao horn and silver, a sort of fire piston, and the kalikot, of ebony and silver, for pounding betel nuts into powder. Excellent gongs were made of various metals. These gongs were often used as clocks, and Dampier and other visitors to the Moro kingdom tell of the regular sounding of the gongs to mark the hours of day and night. So far no evidence exists, that I am aware of, that the Filipinos possessed the copper water clocks of the Moluccas or Bali.

Pottery

The ancient Filipino engaged in pottery making from very ancient times. Many of the important pottery traditions that spread into the Oceania region had their counterparts in the Philippines including the well-known Lapita culture. This quote from Wilhelm Solheim illustrates the matter:

"I hypothesize that the Sa-huynh Kalanay and Lapita pottery traditions had a common origin somewhere in the Palawan-Sarawak-Sulu Sea-Sulawesi area and that it was at this point in time and space that a second and main stage in the spread of the Austronesian languages began."

One interesting question is whether or not the Philippines ever developed an export industry for pottery. Generally it is known that the Thais had developed quite a flourishing industry, which is sometimes considered unique in SE Asia. However, it is well-documented that the Philippines was in fact a major destination of pottery buyers from the islands of Japan at least. Japanese texts mention trading expeditions to the island of Rusun (Luzon) going well back before the Spanish period. What they sought were the highly-prized Rusun and Namban jars. In fact, these jars were far more precious than gold to the Japanese because of their ability to act as tea canisters. Japanese texts were very specific about these jars being made in Luzon. The Tokiko, for example,

calls the Rusun and Namban jars, Ru-sun tsukuru or Lu-sung ch'i (Chinese), which means simply "made in Luzon." The only question is whether the pottery makers were Filipinos trained in the Chinese art, or local Japanese or Chinese, or a combination of both.

Another interesting type of pottery was the "dragon jar." Although these jars shown certain Chinese or Japanese influence, no kiln from China or elsewhere has yet been discovered that produced these jars (to the author's knowledge). Indeed, no true samples of these jars have even been found in China! However, even many of the humblest tribal families possessed at least one of these jars in some areas of the Philippines. These are very fine works and are a tribute to the makers, who likely resided in the Philippines, if not Filipinos themselves. It should be noted that the Japanese were very careful about classification of pottery. Even in foreign countries like Korea, they were careful to distinguish the differences between indigenous Korean and imported Chinese-school pottery made in Korea. In the case of the Rusun and Namban jars, they distinctly classified them as local manufactures.

Agriculture and Livestock

The Filipinos were great agriculturists. A report during the time of Legazpi noted:

"...it [Luzon] has a great abundance of rice, fowls, and wine, as well as great numbers of buffaloes, deer, wild boar and goats; it also produces great quantities of cotton and colored clothes, wax, and honey; and date palms abound."

Another early report on the Bisayas noted that: "rice, cotton, great numbers of swine and fowls, wax, and honey are produced in great abundance." Leyte was said to produce two rice crops a year, and Pedro Chirino commented on the great rice and cotton harvests that were sufficient to feed and cloth the people.

The Filipinos practiced a form of duck culture around Pateros and Tagig in Rizal that resembled that of the Chinese. This included methods of artificial incubation of eggs, and the tradition was carried on until modern times. Indeed, this is quite an advanced science which requires intimate knowledge of every phase of a duck's life.

Rice Terraces

Nowhere in the world can one find agricultural wonders like the rice terraces. Although dates on the terraces vary, modern dating tends to verify Beyer's contention that they were started by at least 1,000 B.C. Certainly, one can safely dismiss theories that they were only started during Spanish times (by Spaniards perhaps?!).

The construction of these terraces is something that surpasses comprehension. Check out this link: The Rice Terraces of the Philippines, for more information on these marvels. Also, for big, panoramic pictures of Banaue and Bontok, click the respective interactive text.

Architecture

The houses of chiefs and other ruler's in the Philippines was said to be impressive:

"They are built upon trees and thick arigues, with many rooms and comforts. They are well constructed of timber and planks, and are strong and large. They are furnished and supplied with all that is necessary , and are much finer and more substantial than the others."

As stated earlier, the early Filipinos even went as far as to decorate their houses with gold. However, the Spanish soon put a halt to this practice. As is the case in Borneo, the use of timber in architecture has left few remains of even the most grand Raja's palaces. Only people in some of the far northern islands like the Ivatans build stone typhoon proof houses because of their geographical situation along the typhoon belt. However, everywhere in the Philippines all houses, stone or wood, chief or commoner, used thatch for roofs.

The stone walls, canals, dams and reservoirs of the Igorots can also be considered as type of architecture, or at least stone engineering. The amount of stones used by the Igorots in their hydraulic engineering works is estimated to far exceed in bulk those used in building the Pyramids or the Great Wall of China. Many of these walls and canals are thousands of years old and have withstood countless typhoons and the effects of Sun, wind and time.

Sculpture

The Filipinos were said to be excellent wood carvers, and most of their sculpture was in wood. The carvings consisted mainly of small anitos for the household, or for mostly small religious structures known as simbahan. In some cases, fine carvings like the sarimanok were to be found. Unfortunately, wood carvings like wood architecture rarely survives the march of time. As many of the native arts suffered due to colonization, it is impossible to determine what level the lowlanders reached in these arts. The gold Butuan Tara statue may be an example of indigenous Buddhist art from period long forgotten. We should remember, though, that even the great monuments of Borobodur in Java were unknown to the inhabitants when they were rediscovered, and the natives were surprised to learn that Buddhism had ever been practiced there. Other Hindu and Buddhist statues of Avalokesvara and Ganesa have also been recovered in the Philippines.

Textiles

The textile industry is one in which the Philippines has long acted as an exporter. The early Spanish noted that the Filipinos knew had to raise, spin and weave cotton and silk. Lace-making and embroidery were widely practiced often with superb results. Besides cotton, abaca fiber and banana leaf fiber was also used. The native silk was known as pina. The woven works of the Philippines, particularly from the Muslims and animists of the South are now receiving long overdue attention from the international community.

Other Industries

Other Pre-Spanish Filipino industries included the manufacture of liquors and vinegars like tuba, basi, etc., the production of hides for export to Japan, export of edible bird's nests from Northern Palawan to China, the raising and trade of civet cats, the manufacture of gunpowder, the making of wax for export to China, and the making of cotton stockings for export.

Mathematics, Astronomy and Calendric Science

There is insufficent space to go into details here since no written traditions exist, and one must piece together details like a detective. The Filipinos had a rather sophisticated system of counting and weights and measurement. They used a decimal counting system, but also systems based on other numbers. They had names for various types of numbers much larger than the myriad used in Europe until fairly modern times. They also used mnenomic aids like the runo counters of the Ifugao in making mathematical calculations. Sometimes, shells or pebbles were stacked in heaps or used with boards like the Sungka to aid in calculations.

The Filipinos were avid astronomers and astrologers. The Ifugao, for example, were said to possess the world's most perfect calender (See Beyer, Otley, "Ifugaos using world's most perfect calender." Philippine Free Press, 26 July 1924.) There is much evidence that the Filipino knew the difference between the tropical year, as determined by the Sun's declination, and the sidereal year, as determined by the helical rising of stars. The Igorots of Sagada used stone calenders to mark the Sun's declination in a manner similar to some great ancient monuments of the world. The declination fix is known as gadagad. The movement of the planets was well known among many tribes as was the helical rising and setting of the stars. The stars were also used as clocks at night, while the Sun was used during the day. In addition to using the rising and setting of the stars as a night clock, the Aetas and others used the Southern Cross like one would use a modern timepiece, while the Ifugao used Monliwotan (The Winder), or the Big Dipper.

Also, the star rising when he Sun vanished was known as the Pauwit star and it was used just like the Sun during the day in telling time. There is even a legend of how the Pauwit star takes the place of the Sun. The ancient Filipinos also knew that the time given by the Sun and stars changed when one moved east or west, or even north and south, just like the Micronesians and other Oceanic peoples. The Igorot chants, for example, always give the solar time according to place, and the Micronesian navigators knew that the difference in rising time between two stars with different declinations was different at varying latitudes.

Writing and education

The literacy of the Filipinos astonished the Spanish. Morga states about the native script: "Almost all the natives, both men and women, write in this language. There are very few who do not write it excellently and correctly." This was very different than the situation in Europe were the it was mostly the elite that were literate. The writing was done on palm-leaves with a pen with an iron point. It was only later they adopted the European quill, although eventually everyone began using the Filipino method of iron points again.

It may be that there were at least two types of script used in the Philippines -- one for the commoner and one for the elite. The commoner script was highly successful in that the masses were able to learn and use it quickly. The evidence of a more sophisticated script comes in the finding of the Laguna Copper Plate Grant. This script was similar to Kawi of Indonesia and could represent many more sounds.

. The article claims that the script and some documents in this language had been preserved by Mariano Datahan from a Spanish edict that all writing in the language should be burned. They were passed on to Fabian Baha, the present leader of the tribe(as of 1991) in 1947. Today, the Eskaya continue to teach the children their script and traditions. In fact, the article claims that scholars and linguists are also studying the Eskaya language and script in hopes of obtaining clues as to the ancestor of the modern Bisayan languages. The Eskaya claim to have come originally from Western Sumatra, from whence they sailed to Bohol in 677 AD. They claim that Sikatuna and Dagohoy were also from the Eskaya tribe. They have many legends concerning their own culture hero who is known as Tamblot. As of 1991, there were 130 families of Eskaya living in Bohol.

CHINESE CIVILIZATION

Chinese civilization, as described in mythology, begins with Pangu, the creator of the universe, and a succession of legendary sage-emperors and culture heroes who taught the ancient Chinese to communicate and to find sustenance, clothing, and shelter. The first prehistoric dynasty is said to be Xia, from about the twenty-first to the sixteenth century B.C. Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites in 1928, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the Xia. But since then, and especially in the 1960s and 1970s, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the existence of Xia civilization in the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. At minimum, the Xia period marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures that followed the settlement of nomadic tribes in the fertile valleys of the Yellow Riverand the subsequent first Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty.

Thousands of archaeological finds in the Huang He (Yellow River), Henan Valley --the apparent cradle of Chinese civilization--provide evidence about the Shang dynasty, which endured roughly from 1700 to 1027 B.C. The Shang dynasty (also called the Yin dynasty in its later stages) is believed to have been founded by a rebel leader who overthrew the last Xia ruler. Its civilization was based on agriculture, augmented by hunting and animal husbandry. Two important events of the period were the development of a writing system, as revealed in archaic Chinese inscriptions found on tortoise shells and flat cattle bones (commonly called oracle bones or), and the use of bronze metallurgy. A number of ceremonial bronze vessels with inscriptions date from the Shang period; the workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization.

The study of the heavens was one of the central features of the Chinese civilization and the resulting calendar was a sacred document, sponsored and promulgated by the reigning monarch. For more than two millennia, a Bureau of Astronomy made astronomical observations, calculated astronomical events such as eclipses, prepared astrological

predictions, and maintained the calendar. After all, a successful calendar not only served practical needs, but also confirmed the consonance between Heaven and the imperial court.

The beginnings of the Chinese calendar can be traced back to the 14th century B.C.E. Legend has it that the Emperor Huangdi invented the calendar in 2637 B.C.E. The Chinese calendar is based on exact astronomical observations of the longitude of the sun and the phases of the moon indicating that the Chinese astronomers of the time were quite capable of carrying out intricate and detailed observations and calculations.

Analysis of oldest surviving astronomical records inscribed on oracle bones reveals a sophisticated Chinese lunisolar calendar, with intercalation of lunar

months. Various intercalation schemes were developed for the early calendars, including the nineteen-year and 76-year lunar phase cycles that came to be known in the West as the Metonic cycle and Callipic cycle. From the earliest records, the beginning of the year occurred at a New Moon near the winter solstice. The choice of month for beginning the civil year varied with time and place, however. In the late second century B.C.E., a calendar reform established the practice, which continues today, of requiring the winter solstice to occur in month 11. This reform also introduced the intercalation system in which dates of New Moons are compared with the 24 solar terms. However, calculations were based on the mean motions resulting from the cyclic relationships. Inequalities in the Moon's motions were incorporated as early as the seventh century C.E., but the Sun's mean longitude was used for calculating the solar terms until 1644.

The Chinese astronomers were among the earliest to keep systematic record of their observations of the heavens. Sitings and records of these sitings go back over forty centuries. The Chinese observed sunspots, meteorites, eclipses and comets which they called "guest stars." They also observed rare events such as the splitting of comets as the record of 896 CE from the Tang Dynasty indicates, and meteorite showers. The earliest account of the latter exists in The Chronicles of Zuo Ming regarding such a shower in 687 BCE.

Observing total solar eclipses was, for example, a major element of forecasting the future health and successes of the Emperor, and astrologers were left with the onerous task of trying to anticipate when these events might occur. Failure to get the prediction right, in at least one recorded case in 2300 B.C. resulted in the beheading of two astrologers.

"Here lie the bodies of Ho and Hi, Whose fate, though sad, is risible; Being slain because they could not spy Th' eclipse which was invisible." - Author unknown (Refers to the Chinese eclipse of 2136 B.C. or 2159 B.C.) Because the pattern of total solar eclipses is erratic in any specific geographic location, many astrologers no doubt lost their heads. By about 20 B.C., surviving documents show that Chinese astrologers understood what caused eclipses, and by 8 B.C. some predictions of total solar eclipse were made using the 135-month recurrence period. By A.D. 206 Chinese astrologers could predict solar eclipses by analyzing the Moon's motion.

They were also one of the earliest people to make star maps:Shi Shen, an astronomer, catalgied an eight-volume series of his observations of the heavens in the 4th century BCE. The earliest known western star maps were made by the Greek astronomer Hiparchus in 2 BCE.

In addition to their observations and records of the heavens, the Chinese also developed highly sophisticated navigational systems based on the stars. Chinese sailors in the third century BCE were already able tofind their bearings using the Great Dipper and the North Pole. In conjunction with their observations of the heavens the Chinese also built planetariums, and various instruments including armillaries for measuring the celestial coordinates. Scientists reading the records estimate that the Chinese were probably

using an armillary to map the heavens by the 4th century BCE.

In Chinese history, the study of astronomy was inseparable from mathematics. From the earliest times, the Chinese, according to Joseph Needham, were far in advance of of contemporary civilizations such as those of Egypt, Babylon, Greece and Rome. There is evidence for instance, that the Chinese had mastered the decimal system since the dawn of history. The earliest treatise on mathematics, Zhoubi suanjing was proably written during the Zhou Dynasty between 1030-1022 BCE. During the Han Dynasty (221BCE-220CE) several mathematical

treatises were compiled by distinguished mathemeticians such as Liu Hui whose Haidao suanjing (The Sea and Island Mathematical Manual) appeared sometime around 220CE.

The dual studies in astronomy and mathematics would result in the some of the most remarkable inventions including the astronomical clock by the astronomer Su Song over nine hundred years ago. In the second century CE the famous astronomer Shang Heng devised a mobile water-driven globe which revolved in correspondence with the movements of the heavenly bodies.

VIETNAM CIVILIZATION

Western historians became interested in the pre-history of Viet Nam around the turn of the 20th century. Their early studies theorized that ancient civilization of South East Asia, especially Viet Nam, was a product of Chinese and Indian cultures as their cultural influence expanded southward and eastward, hence the region was named Indo-China. But in the past 40 years, Vietnamese archaeologists have brought to light significant information to present a more logical and coherent view of the pre-historic Viet Nam. Based on recent excavations and surveys, Vietnamese historians have established a chronology of cultures originated in the Hong (Red) River valley from the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age through the Son Vi, Hoa Binh, Bac Son, Quynh Van, Da But, Phung Nguyen, Dong Dau and Go Mun culture. The Dong Son culture culminated the Bronze Age and the opening stage of the Iron Age. This culture represented the peak of the ancient civilization of Viet Nam and the beginning formation of Van Lang/Au Lac, the first unified nation under the Hu`ng kingdom.

The Culture of Vietnam, an agricultural civilization based on the cultivation of wet rice, is one of the oldest in East Asia; the ancient Bronze age Dong Son culture is considered to be one of its most important progenitors.[1] Due to the long-term Chinese influence on its civilization, in terms of politics, government and Confucian social and moral ethics, Vietnam is considered to be part of the East Asian Cultural Sphere.

Following independence from China in the 10th century AD, Vietnam began a southward expansion that saw the annexation of territories formerly belonging to the Champa civilization (now Central Vietnam) and parts of the Khmer empire (today southern Vietnam), which resulted in minor regional variances in Vietnam's culture due to exposure to these different groups.

During French colonial period, Vietnamese culture received merchant influences from the Europeans, including the spread of Catholicism and the adoption of Latin alphabet—to this day, Vietnam is the only non-island nation of Indochina which uses the Latin alphabet to write the national language.

In the socialist era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and the cultural influences of socialist programs. For many decades, foreign cultural influences were shunned and emphasis placed on appreciating and sharing the culture of communist nations such as the Soviet Union, China, Cuba and others. Since the 1990s, Vietnam has seen a greater re-exposure to Asian, European and American culture and media.

Some elements generally considered to be characteristic of Vietnamese culture include ancestor veneration, respect for community and family values, handicrafts and manual labour, and devotion to study. Important symbols present in Vietnamese culture include dragons, turtles, lotuses and bamboo.

Society

Organization

In terms of societal levels of organization, the two most important units are làng (village) and nước (country). Vietnamese people usually say that "làng goes hand in hand with nước." Intermediate organizational units are huyện (district) and tỉnh (province).

Kinship

Kinship plays an important role Vietnam. Unlike Western culture's emphasis on individualism, Eastern culture values the roles of family and clanship. Comparing with Eastern cultures, Chinese culture values family over clan while Vietnamese culture values clan over family. Each clan has a patriarch, clan altar, and death commemorations attended by the whole clan.

Most inhabitants are related by blood. That fact is still seen in village names such as Đặng Xá (place for the Đặng clan), Châu Xá, Lê Xá, so on so forth. In the Western highlands the tradition of many families in a clan residing in a longhouse is still popular. In the majority of rural Vietnam today one can still see three or four generations living under one roof.

Because kinship has an important role in society, there is a complex hierarchy of relationships. In Vietnamese society, there are nine distinct generations. Virtually all commemorations and celebrations within a clan follow the principles of these nine generations. Younger persons might have a higher position in the family hierarchy than an older person and still must be respected as an elder. For example, if the parent of a child was older, but had an older cousin whose parent was younger than the first child's parent, then the first child would be higher ranked .

This complex system of relationships, a result of both Confucianism and societal norms is conveyed particularly through the extensive use of varying pronouns in Vietnamese language, which has an extensive array of honorifics to signify the status of the speaker in regards to the person they are speaking to.

Marriage

In the past, both men and women were expected to be married at young ages. Marriages were generally arranged by the parents and extended family, with the children having limited say in the matter.

In modern Vietnam, this has changed completely as people choose their own marriage partners based on love, and in consideration primarily to their own needs and wants.

The traditional Vietnamese wedding is one of the most important of traditional Vietnamese occasions. Regardless of Westernization, many of the age-old customs practiced in a traditional Vietnamese wedding continue to be celebrated by both Vietnamese in Vietnam and overseas, often combining both Western and Eastern elements.

Depending on the tradition of specific ethnic groups, marriage includes various steps and related procedures, but generally there are two main ceremonies:

Lễ Ǎn Hỏi (betrothal ceremony): Some time before the wedding, the groom and his family visit the bride and her family with round lacquered boxes known as betrothal presents. The presents include areca nuts, betel leaves, tea, cake, fruits, wine and other various delicacies. The presents are covered with red paper or cloth, and they are carried by unmarried girls or boys. Both families agree to pick a good date for the wedding.

Lễ Cưới (wedding ceremony): On the wedding day, the groom's family and relatives go to the bride's house to ask permission to for the groom to marry his bride. Guests would be invited to come and celebrate the couple's marriage. The couple pray before the altar asking their ancestors for permission for their marriage, then to express their gratitude to both groom's and bride's parents for raising and protecting them.

Religion and Philosophy

Religion in Vietnam has historically been largely defined by the East Asian mix of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. They are the so-called Tam Giáo, or "triple religion." Today it has become more diverse including other religions such as Catholicism, etc. Vietnamese Buddhism has typically been the most popular. This fits perfectly with the "triple religion" concept, making it difficult for many Vietnamese to identify exactly which religion they practice.[2]

Besides the "triple religion," Vietnamese life was also profoundly influenced by the practice of ancestor worship as well as native animism. Most Vietnamese people, regardless of religious denomination, practice ancestor worship and have an ancestor altar at their home or business, a testament to the emphasis Vietnamese culture places on filial duty. [citation needed]

Along with obligations to clan and family, education has always played a vital role in Vietnamese culture. In the old days, scholars were placed at the top of society. Men not born of noble blood could only elevate their status by studying for the rigorous Imperial examination. Similar to Mandarin officials, passing the examination could potentially open doors to a government position, granting them power and prestige.

Cuisine

Vietnamese cuisine is extremely diverse, often divided into three main categories, each pertaining to Vietnam's three main regions (north, central and south). It uses very little oil and many vegetables, and is mainly based on rice, soy sauce, and fish sauce. Its characteristic flavors are sweet (sugar), spicy (serrano peppers), sour (lime), nuoc mam (fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mint and basil.

Vietnam also has a large variety of noodles and noodle soups. Different regions invented different types of noodles, varying in shapes, tastes, colors, etc. One of the nation's most famous type of noodles is phở (pronounced "fuh"), a type of noodle soup originating in North Vietnam, which consists of rice noodles and beef soup (sometimes chicken soup) with several other ingredients such as bean sprouts and scallions (spring onions). It is often eaten for breakfast, but also makes a satisfying lunch or light dinner. The boiling stock, fragrant with spices and sauces, is poured over the noodles and vegetables, poaching the paper-thin slices of raw beef just before

serving. Phở is meant to be savored, incorporating several different flavors: the sweet flavor of beef, sour lemons, salty fish sauce, and fresh vegetables.

ClothingThe plain white áo dài is worn as a uniform in Vietnamese high schools.

In feudal Vietnam, clothing was one of the most important marks of social status and strict dress codes were enforced.

Commoners had a limited choice of similarly plain and simple clothes for every day use, as well as being limited in the colors they were allowed to use. For a period, commoners were not allowed to wear clothes with dyes other than black, brown or white (with the exception of special occasions such as festivals), but in actuality these rules could change often based upon the whims of the current ruler.

The Áo Tứ Thân or "four-part dress" is one such example of an ancient dress widely worn by commoner women, along with the Áo yếm bodice which accompanied it. Peasants across the country also gradually came to wear silk pajama-like costumes, known as "Áo cánh" in the north and Áo bà ba in the south.

The headgear of peasants often included a plain piece of cloth wrapped around the head (generally called Khăn đống), or the popular Nón Lá (conical hat). For footwear peasants would often go barefoot, whereas sandals and shoes were reserved for the aristocracy and royalty.

Monarchs had the exclusive right to wear the color gold, while nobles wore red or purple. Each member of the royal court had an assortment of different formal gowns they would wear at a particular ceremony, or for a particular occasion. The rules governing the fashion of the royal court could change dynasty by dynasty, thus Costumes of the Vietnamese court were quite diverse.

The most popular and widely-recognized Vietnamese national costume is the Áo Dài. Áo Dài was once worn by both genders but today it is worn mainly by females, except for certain important traditional culture-related occasions where some men do wear it. Áo Dài is derived from the Chinese Qipao, although it consists of a long gown with a slit on both sides, worn over cotton or silk trousers. Áo Dài is elegant and comfortable to wear. Áo Dài was likely derived in the 18th century or in the royal court of Huế. [clarification needed] White Áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across Vietnam. Some female office workers (e.g. receptionists, secretaries, tour guides) are also required to wear Áo Dài.

ArtNoon gate leading to the Imperial City, an example of Nguyen dynasty Imperial architecture

Traditional Vietnamese art is art practiced in Vietnam or by Vietnamese artists, from ancient times (including the elaborate Dong Son drums) to post-Chinese domination art which was strongly influenced by Chinese Buddhist art, among other philosophies such as Taoism and Confucianism. The art of Champa and France also played a smaller role later on.

The Chinese influence on Vietnamese art extends into Vietnamese pottery and ceramics, calligraphy, and traditional architecture. Currently, Vietnamese lacquer paintings have proven to be quite popular.

Calligraphy

Calligraphy has had a long history in Vietnam, previously using Chinese characters along with Chữ Nôm. However, most modern Vietnamese calligraphy instead uses the Roman-character based Quốc Ngữ, which has proven to be very popular.

In the past, with literacy in the old character-based writing systems of Vietnam being restricted to scholars and elites, calligraphy nevertheless still played an important part in Vietnamese life. On special occasions such as the Lunar New Year, people would go to the village teacher or scholar to make them a calligraphy hanging (often poetry, folk sayings or even single words). People who could not read or write also often commissioned at temple shrines.

Music

Vietnamese music varies slightly in the three regions: Bắc or North, Trung or Central, and Nam or South. Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest and is traditionally more formal. Vietnamese classical music can be traced to the Mongol invasions, when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe. Central classical music shows the influences of Champa culture with its melancholic melodies. Southern music exudes a lively laissez-faire attitude.

Vietnam has some 50 national music instruments, in which the set of percussion instruments is the most popular, diverse and long-lasting such as trong dong (copper drums), cong chieng (gongs), dan da (lithophone), dan to rung... The set of blowing instruments is represented by flutes and pan-pipes, while the set of string instruments is specified by dan bau and dan day.

Two of the most widely known genres are:

Imperial Court music: When referring specifically to the "Nhã nh ạ c " form it includes court music from the Tran Dynasty on to the Nguyen dynasty. It is an elaborate form of music which features an extensive array of musicians and dancers, dressed in extravagant costumes. It was an integral part of the rituals of the Imperial court.

Ca trù : An ancient form of chamber music which originated in the imperial court. It gradually came to be associated with a geisha-type of entertainment where talented female musicians entertained rich and powerful men, often scholars and bureaucrats who most enjoyed the genre. It was condemned in the 20th century by the government, being tied falsely with prostitution, but recently it has seen a revival as appreciation for its cultural significance has grown. Ca trù has been recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2005.

In the 20th century, in contact with the Western culture, especially after the national independence, many new categories of arts like plays, photography, cinemas, and modern art had

taken shape and developed strongly, obtaining huge achievements with the contents reflecting the social and revolutionary realities. Up to 1997, there have been 44 people operating in cultural and artistic fields honored with the Ho Chi Minh Award, 130 others conferred with People's Artist Honor, and 1011 people awarded with the Excellent Artist Honor. At the start of 1997, there were 191 professional artistic organizations and 26 film studios (including central and local ones). There have been 28 movies, 49 scientific and documentary films receiving international motion picture awards in many countries.

Water puppetry

Water Puppetry is a distinct Vietnamese art which had its origins in the 10th century. In Water Puppetry a split-bamboo screen obscures puppets which stand in water, and are manipulated using long poles hidden beneath the water. Epic story lines are played out with many different puppets, often using traditional scenes of Vietnamese life. The puppets are made from quality wood, such as the South East Asian Jackfruit tree. Each puppet is carefully carved, and then painted with numerous successive layers of paint to protect the puppets.

Despite nearly dying out in the 20th century, Water Puppetry has been recognised by the Vietnamese Government as an important part of Vietnam's cultural heritage. Today, puppetry is commonly performed by professional puppeteers, who typically are taught by their elders in rural areas of Vietnam. It is now extremely popular with tourists, and is performed at the National Museum in Ho Chi Minh city and in specialist theatres. In 2007 a Water Puppet troupe toured the USA to acclaim.

Dance

Vietnam has 54 different ethnics, each with their own traditional dance. Among the ethnic Vietnamese majority, there are several traditional dances performed widely at festivals and other special occasions, such as the lion dance.

In the imperial court there also developed throughout the centuries a series of complex court dances which require great skill. Some of the more widely known are the imperial lantern dance, fan dance, and platter dance, among others.

Martial Arts

Vietnamese martial arts is highly developed from the country's long history of warfare and attempts to defend itself from foreign occupation. Although most heavily influenced by Chinese martial arts, it has developed its own characteristics throughout the millennia in combination with other influences from its neighbours. Vietnamese martial arts is deeply spiritual due to the influence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, and is strongly reliant on the "Viet Vo Dao" (philosophy of Vietnamese martial arts). It is probably most famous for its scissor kicks.

The general Vietnamese term for martial arts is "Võ-Thuật." Some of the more popular include:

Vovinam Võ Bình Đ ị nh Quan Khi Dao

Vietnamese martial arts remains relatively unknown in the world today when compared to its counterparts from China, Japan, Korea or Thailand. However, this is seeing a definite change as schools teaching various styles of Vietnamese martial arts are starting to pop up all over the world, notably in countries such as Spain. [citation needed]

Literature

Vietnamese literature includes two major components: folk literature and written literature. The two forms developed simultaneously and are profoundly interrelated.

Vietnamese folk literature came into being very early and had a profound effect on the spiritual life of the Viet. The folk literature contributed to the formation of Vietnam's national identity with praising beauty, humanism, and the love of goodness. Legends, fairy tales, humorous stories, folk songs, epic poems have a tremendous vitality and have lived on until today.

Written literature was born roughly in the 10th century. Up until the 20th century, there had been two components existing at the same time: works written in the Han characters (with poems and prose demonstrating the Vietnamese soul and realities; thus, they were still regarded as Vietnamese literature) and works written in the Nom character (mostly poems; many great works were handed down to the later generations).

Since the 1920s, written literature has been mainly composed in the National language with profound renovations in form and category such as novels, new-style poems, short stories and dramas, and with diversity in artistic tendency. Written literature attained speedy development after the August Revolution, when it was directed by the Vietnamese Communist Party's guideline and focused on the people's fighting and work life.

Modern Vietnamese literature has developed from romanticism to realism, from heroism in wartime to all aspects of life, and soared into ordinary life to discover the genuine values of the Vietnamese people.

Classical literature generated such masterpieces as Truyen Kieu (Nguyen Du), Cung Oan Ngam Khuc (Nguyen Gia Thieu), Chinh Phu Ngam (Dang Tran Con), and Quoc Am Thi Tap (Nguyen Trai). Some brilliant female poets are Ho Xuan Huong, Doan Thi Diem, and Ba Huyen Thanh Quan.

THAILAND CIVILIZATION

A civilization is a society in an advanced state of social development (e.g., with complex legal and political and religious organizations). In short, civilization is and advance state of human

society --- the sum of cultures, science, industry, and government. So, you can have several cultures in one civilization. For example, you may say:

Some people argue that the Mon and Karen cultures in Thailand has been promoted for the sake of tourism campaigns.

This statement reflects that fact that there are several culture functioning in the kingdom of Thailand.

When we have a look at these two words in a dictionary, we will see that “culture” refers to the customs, beliefs, art, music, and all the other products of human thought made by a particular group of people at a particular time; and “civilization” means an advanced stage of human development marked by a high level of art, religion, science, and social and political organization.

Phraya Anumanrajathon, a famous Thai scholar, has defined “culture” as the human thought, concept, and belief appearing in four ways:

Social behavior Common characteristics in society Social activities, and The creation in society

“Culture” in general may be divided into two main groups : - Material Culture : All the concrete things that were created by man, such as houses, clothes, instruments etc. - Non-material Culture : the quality concerning human mind, concept, emotion, philosophy, religion etc.

The term “civilization” has still another meaning. Since each culture has peculiar features of its own, and since some cultures are more highly developed than others, we can say that a civilization is a superior culture. A culture deserves to be called a “civilization” when it has reached a stage of advancement in which writing has come to be used to a considerable extent. Some progress has been made in the arts and sciences, and political, social, and economic institutions have developed sufficiently to conquer some of the problems of order, security, and efficiency in complex society.

Oswald Spengler, the German philosopher of history, viewed “civilizations” as decadent phases of highly developed cultures. When a great people or empire was in its prime, he characterized its social pattern and intellectual pattern as a “culture”. When it passed its prime (time) and became ossified or fixed, he called it a “civilization”. Thida Saraya says that we can judge a civilization of any society from the following criteria: Technological development; The

development should fulfil its social need and have some exchange with other communities as well. With technological skills, the people could produce their social individualized characters.

Variety of professionals; The society should be composed of people in various professions.

The people who are responsible in any field of work, for example, administration, politics, economics, and society can set up systems for their social and cultural development until those systems are recognized.

Social institutions; The society can set up its own institutions to manage social affairs in stead of the kinship system, and

Integration of its own cultural characteristics; This may reflect on the patterns of art and the advancement of literature.

1.2 Factors leading to the rise of civilizations

When we start to study about civilizations, we should have at least three questions in our mind. They are:

1. What causes the rise of civilizations?2. What factors support their growth? , and3. Why do some civilizations reach much higher levels of development than others?

Some social scientists decide that factors of geography are the most important (to the rise of civilization). Others stress economic resources, food supply, contact with older civilizations, and so on.

Under geographical conditions, Ellsworth Huntington, an American geographer, insisted that no nation rose to the highest cultural status except under the influence of a climatic stimulus. Related to the climatic hypothesis is the soil-exhaustion theory.

This group of theory believes that the majestic civilizations that once flourished in Mesopotamia, Palestine, Greece, Italy, China, and Mexico were ultimately doomed by the simple fact that their soil would no longer provide sufficient food for the population.

Another theory about the origin of civilizations is adversity. Arnold J. Toynbee, a British historian, said that conditions of hardship or adversity are the real causes which have brought into existence superior cultures. Such conditions constitute a :challenge” to stimulate men to try to overcome it and to generate additional energy for new achievements. The challenge may be in the form of a desert, a jungle area, rugged topography, or a grudging soil.

What makes a civilization is complex.

The majority of historians believe that the genesis of civilizations cannot be explained except on the basis of a complex of causes or a combination of factors. Among these factors, they place

uppermost the geographic and economic elements of favorable climate, fertile soil, access to good harbors, and an abundance of mineral resources. They also accord a high place to opportunities for interchange of ideas with other people of a comparable level of advancement. Civilizations do not develop in isolated corners of the world.

Theories on the Origins of the Tai People

Before discussing the relevant theories on the origins of the Thai people, let's look briefly at the summaries of other countries.

Laos

The History of Laos is conventionally traced to the establishment of the kingdom of Lan Xang by Fa Ngum in 1353. His successors, especially King Photisarath in the 16th century, helped stablish Theravada Buddhism as the predominant religion of the country. In the 17th century Lan Xang entered a period of decline and the late 18th century Siam (now Thailand) established control over much of what is now Laos.

The region was divided into three dependent states centered on Luang Prabang in the north, Vientiane in the center, and Champassak in the south. The Vientiane Lao rebelled in 1828 but were defeated, and the area incorporated into Siam. Following its occupation of Vietnam, France absorbed Laos into French Indochina via treaties with Siam in 1893 and 1904.

Myanma

The first identifiable civilization is that of the Mon. The Mon probably began migrating into the area in about 300 BC, and their first kingdom Suwarnabhumi, was founded around the port of Thaton in about 300 BC.

The Pyu arrived in Myanmar in the 7th century and established city kingdoms at Binnaka, Mongamo, Sri Ksetra, and Halingyi. During this period, Myanmar was part of an overland trade route from China to India. By AD 849, the Burmans had founded a powerful kingdom centered on the city of Bagan and filled the void left by the Pyu. The kingdom grew in relative isolation until the reign of Anawrahta (1044 - 77) who successfully unified all of Myanmar by defeating the Mon city of Thaton in 1057.

After the collapse of Bagan authority, Myanmar was divided once again. The Burmans had restablished themselves at the city of Ava (Thai: อั�งวะ) by 1364, where Bagan culture was revived and a great age of Burmese literature ensued. The kingdom lacked easily defendable borders, however, and was overrun by the Shan in 1527. Surviors of the destruction of Inwa eventually established a new kingdom centered on Taungoo in 1531 led by Tabinshwehti (reigned 1531-50), who once again unified most of Myanmar. A popular Burmese leader named Alaungpaya drove the Bago forces out of northern Myanmar by 1753, and by 1759 he had once

again conquered Pegu and southern Myanmar while also regaining control of Manipur. He established his capital at Rangoon, now known as Yangon.

Myanmar was known to the West ever since western explorers had heard of it. Marko Polo was the earliest known westerner who discovered Myanmar and introduced to the West.

Britain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886) and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administered as a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony; independence from the Commonwealth was attained in 1948.

Myanmar has a long and complex history. Many peoples have lived in the region and the history began.

Cambodia

Cambodia is another Thailand's neighbors. Its history has been tied closely with that of Thailand's.

The Funan Kingdom, believed to have started around the first century BC, is the first known kingdom of Cambodia. The kingdom was strongly influenced by Indian culture by shaping the culture, art and political system.

He also began the great achievements in architecture and sculpture while his successors built an immense irrigation system around Angkor. His successors (26 from the early 9th to the early 15th century), built a tremendous number of temples - of which there are over a thousand sites and stone inscriptions.

The 13th and 14th centuries were not as successful for Cambodia, some believe it was due to the increased power of (and wars with) Thai kingdoms that had at one time paid homage to Angkor. Others believe it was due to the induction of Theravada Buddhism, which was totally contrary to the Cambodian societal structure at that time. After this time historical records are rather sketchy at best regarding Cambodia and it is considered the "Dark Ages" of Cambodian history.

Theories/Stories about the origin of the Thai People

1. The Altai Mountain Theory: Theis is perhaps the oldest theory. Thai people migratyed south from Mongolia. Most people were skeptical about its validity.

2. The Tibet Theory: Some scholars [citation needed] have argued that Thais came from Tibet.3. The China Theory: Thais migrated south (forced by stronger peoples such as the Huns)4. The Vietnam Theory: Thais came from the north of Vietnam.5. The South Theory: Thais were polynesains and Malaynesians, gradually moved north to the

continent.6. The "We Have Been Here" theory: This is the story supported by archeological evidences. The

word 'here' refers to the area called 'Suwannabhumi' and the south of China, the north of

Vietnam, the Shan sate of Burman, The Assam of India (?), Loas, Cambodia, and the Malayu Peninsular.

Sukhothai Period (AD 1249-1463)

According to the Encyclopedia for Thai Youths:

"The Sukhothai Kingdom became the center of the Siamese Thai in BE 1792 (AD 1249). It remained the center of the Siamese Thai until BE 2006 (1463) when it was integrated into the new Siamese kingdom, Ayudthaya".

The Sukhothai Kingdom was ruled by the Roung Dysnasty, entailing 9 kings.

Dawn of Happiness

Sukhothai (literally means “Dawn of Happiness” ) was the first truly independent Thai Kingdom.

Sukhothai is the first Siamese Thai kingdom. It is located near the river Nan.

Established in BE 1792; became part of the Ayudthaya Kingdom in BE 2006.

Sukhothai lasted for 214 years.

Sukhothai enjoyed a golden age under King Ramkhamhaeng.

Geography

Sukhothai is located on the lower edge of the northern region, 440 kilometres north of Bangkok or some 350 kilometres south of Chiang Mai. The province covers some 6,596 square kilometres and is divided into 9 Amphurs (districts): Muang Sukhothai, Sawankhalok, Sri Samrong, Si Satchanalai, Kong Krailat, Kirimas, Thung Saliam, Ban Dan Lan Hoi and Sri Nakhon.

Kings of the Sukhothai Kingdom

1. Pho Khun Sri Indraditya (1249 (BE 1792)- c.a. 1257)2. Pho Khun Ban Muang (1257 - 1277)3. Pho Khun Ramkhamhaeng (Ramkhamhaeng the Great) (ruled 1277 - 1298 or 1317)4. Praya Loethai (1298 - 1347)5. Praya Nguanamthom (1347)6. King Lithai or Maha Thammaracha I (1347 - 1368/1374)7. King Maha Thammaracha II (1368/1374 - 1399)8. King Maha hammaracha III or Praya Saileuthai (1399 - 1419)9. King Thammaracha IV (Borommabal) (1419 - 1438)

Ayudthaya Period (AD 1350-1767)

After the decline of Sukhothai (Nan River), Ayudthaya (Undefeatable) became the new power hub along the Chao Praya River in BE 1893 (AD 1350). It remained the center of the Siamese Thai for as long as 417 years. It declined in BE 2310 (AD 1767). Altogether five dynasties ruled the kingdom: (1) U-thong Dynasty, Supunnapoom Dynasty, Sukhothai Dynasty, Prasatthong Dynasty, and Ban Plooloung Dynasty.

Uthong Dynasty ราชวงศ์อั� �ทอัง (First reign, AD 1350 - AD 1370)

1. King Ramathibodi I (formerly Prince U Thong) (1350 - 1369)

It was uncertain to identify his former city (Lavo, Supanburi, Petchaburi, or simply the city across the river to the other side (the eastern side of the Chao Praya river).

during his reign, the administrative system was different from the Sukhothai period, as Ayudthaya adapted many aspects of the Khmere governing practices and traditions. The management of Ayudthaya was divided into four domains, Vien, Vang, Klang, and Na. (the capital, the palace, finance, and cultivation)

The king was regarded as ‘the reincarnation of a god’ or ‘devaraja’. However, the kings of Ayudthaya also followed to the teaching of Theravada Buddhism, similar to the practice of the Sukhothai period.

2. King Ramesuan (AD 1369 - 1370) (first rule, abdicated)

He was King U Thong's heir. However, about a year under the throne, he was forced by Khunluang pra Ngua from Supanburi to abdicate. He went to rule Lopburi. This was the end of the first rule of the U Thong Dynasty.

Suphannaphum Dynasty ราชวงศ์สุ�พรรณภู�มิ� (first reign, AD 1370-1388)

3. Somdej Pra Borommarachathiraj I (Khunluang Pha Ngua) (1370 - 1388)Known as Khunluang Pha Ngua. He was the elder brother of the queen of the first monarch of Ayudthgaya (King U Thong). He was a strong military warrior. Many military campaigns during his reign brought Sukhothai under the rule of Ayudthaya in BE 1921. He then attacked Lan Na Kingdom.

4. King Thong Lan (1388)

Son of Khunluang Pha Ngua, ascending the throne when he was only 15. He ruled for only 7 days. Prince Ramesuan came down from Lopburi and decided to dethrone him.

Thonburi Period (AD 1767-1782 or 28 December 1767 - 6 April 1782)

After the second fall of Ayudthaya in BE 2310, the capital of Siam was destroyed.

Ayudthaya was under the control of the Burmese authority for only 7 months.

King Thaksin the Great was the only king of this period.

We may not know what really happened. Some peeople say there is no 'if' in history. Whetever has happenned happened.

WE know that in AD 1767 or BE 2310, Ayudthauya fell due to the invasion of the Burmese. There were, however, internal conflicts within the kingdom. After the brief fall, the Siamese Thais were determined to reclaim their sovereignty and freedom, reflecting the independent spirit of the people. Ayudthaya was sacked and most temples were burned down. The Siamese warriors, in a few months, managed to expel its invaders. Its territory occupied was reclaimed.

The kingdom broke up into many different groups. It was King Thaksin the Great who unified the kingdom. History has it that he founded the new capital in the area called 'Thonburi'.

The resistance to Burmese rule was led by a noble of Chinese descent, Taksin, a capable military leader. Initially based at Chanthaburi in the south-east, within a year he had defeated the Burmese occupation army and re-established a Siamese state with its capital at Thonburi on the west bank of the Chao Phraya.

In 1767 he was crowned as King Taksin. He rapidly re-united the central Thai heartlands under his rule.

King Taksin demanded more. He was not satisfied with the mere fact of expelling the Burmese. He also aimed higher --- to demand loyalty from the former colonies of the great Ayudthaya Kingdom. He determined to turn crises into opportunities.

In 1769 he marched west and occupied western Cambodia.

He then marched south and re-established Siamese rule over the Malay Peninsula as far south as Penang and Terengganu.

Having secured his base in Siam, Taksin attacked the Burmese in the north in AD 1774 and captured Chiang Mai in 1776, permanently uniting Siam and Lanna.

Taksin's leading general in this campaign was Thong Duang, known by the title Chaophraya Chakri.

In 1778 Chakri led a Siamese army which captured Vientiane and re-established Siamese domination over Laos.

Despite these successes, by 1779 Taksin was in political trouble at home. He seems to have developed a religious mania, alienating the powerful Buddhist monkhood by claiming to be a sotapanna or divine figure.

In 1782 Taksin sent his armies under Chakri to invade Cambodia, but while they were away a rebellion broke out in the area around the capital. The rebels, who had wide popular support, offered the throne to Chakri.

Chakri marched back from Cambodia and deposed Taksin, who was secretly executed shortly after. Chakri ruled under the name King Rama I, first king of the Chakri dynasty.

One of his first decisions was to move the capital across the river to the village of Bang Makok (meaning "place of olive plums"), which soon became the city of Bangkok. The new capital was located on the island of Rattanakosin, protected from attack by the river to the west and by a series of canals to the north, east and south. Siam thus acquired both its current dynasty and its current capital.

In War and Peace (Volume Four), Leo Tolstry has discussed the concepts of 'chance' and 'genius'.

Why did it come to pass in this way and no other? asked Tolstoy.'Because it happened so.' was his ultimate answer.

Chance created the position; genius took advantage of it.

Rattana Kosin (Bangkok) Period (AD 1782 or BE 2325 - Today)

King Rama I was the founder of the Chakri Dynasty.

World War I and World War II

After World War II

The present king of Thailand is King Rama IX.

Thailand Today

Today Thailand is one of the most prosperous nations in South East Asia.

" Thailand is a middle-income country that has seen remarkable progress in human development in the last twenty years. Thailand now has a Human Development Rating of 0.768 . It will

achieve most if not all of the global Millennium Development Goals well in advance of 2015. Thailand has reduced poverty from 27% in 1990 to 9.8% in 2002, and the proportion of underweight children has fallen by nearly half. Most children are in school; universal primary school enrolment is likely to be achieved within a few years. Malaria is no longer a problem in most of the country. Annual new HIV infections have been reduced by more than 80% since 1991, the peak of the epidemic. Strides are being made toward gender equality."

Information about Thailand from CIA The World Fact Book, 2005:

The Kingdom of Thailand or Thailand (Former Siam) is "a unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14th century. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only Southeast Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power. A bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. In alliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US ally following the conflict. Thailand is currently facing armed violence in its three Muslim-majority southernmost provinces."

JAPAN CIVILIZATION

Japan is an archipelago made of 4 large islands: Honshū (the "mainland"), Shikoku, Kyūshū and Hokkaidō, and by numerous small islands and islets. The center of the country is crosses by the Japanese Alps, volcanic mountains that make 80 % of the surface of the country and which reach the highest point in Fujiyama ("Sacred Mountain"), 3,776 m (12,600 ft) in altitude, crowned by eternal snows. There are 196 Japanese volcanoes, of which 30 are still active. Japanese clime is temperate, with long, wet summers. Winter is quite cold in Hokkaido, due to the cold current Kuroshio (but the same current explains the abundance in fish of the Japanese waters), but milder in the rest of Japan. Japanese people are known to protect the beauty of the forests and mountains through sacred places, where nothing could be changed.

Japan has a surface similar to that of Italy and 0.3 % of the world's population (125 million inhabitants). The shores make 3,800 km (2,400 mi). 67 % of the Japan's surface is made of forests, coniferous (spruce, fir, Japanese cedar) in Hokkaido, deciduous (Japanese beech, Japanese oak, Manchurian ash, camphor tree (used for building Shinto temples), magnolias, tile, hazel, Japanese acacia) in the rest of the islands. Farmland makes 6 million hectares.

Traditional Japanese houses are small, with one level, and completely made of wood, straw and paper. They adapt perfectly to the landscape and all have minute gardens, being conceived to resist to the devastating Japanese earthquakes, which would easily destroy taller and solider dwellings. The floor of the house is covered with rice straw mats. Slipping screens made of wood and paper divide the rooms having little furniture, as objects, including mattresses and sheets which are kept in closets and cupboards dissimulated in the walls, and there are no chairs, as the mats offer a comfortable and warm seat. Instead, the rooms are decorated with blossomed branches, bonsai, painting and engravings.

During the 6th century, Buddhism entered Japan coming from China. Beautiful Buddhist monuments, temples (pagodas), monasteries and giant Buddha statues were raised. The giant Buddha statue from Nara Park dates from the 7th century and it is amongst the largest in the world. Not all the Japanese are Buddhist, but all follow the traditional Shinto religion, previous to the Buddhism, a type of animist religion based on the veneration of nature and the cult of the forebears. The most important Shinto deity is Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun. Other deities represent the fire, water, wind and other phenomena. On the other hand, plants, animals, stones, flowers, domestic objects, all have their spirits, which are objects of adoration. There are divinities protecting the home, the children, the women and others bringing richness, happiness or health. Fujiyama is considered a symbol of purity, venerated as a divinity by the Japanese. The volcano erupted last time in 1707, and numerous torii, gates heading the Japanese towards the sacred places, are raised in its surroundings.

Certain trees, rocks, islets, waterfalls and others represent special cult objects, with specific festivities and celebrations. One of the most important annual festivities is dedicated to the water: during this procession, large floats carrying sea animals made of bamboo and paper and swollen like balloons, painted in vivid colors and adorned with small headlights, are placed on rafts and dragged to the sea, to shallow waters.

Japanese people represent a mix of racial types. The Mongol type is a dominant one, and could have entered the island during an old invasion of people related to the Siberian Tungus tribes. These people are taller, have prolonged, lean faces, pronounced almond eyes and dark yellow skin. A southern originated population, coming from Taiwan or southeastern Asia, is represented by shorter individuals, with wide and rounded faces, small pug nose, robust bodies and more yellow skin. This mix produced the modern Japanese people. The first type is considered sober, quit people; the second type is regarded as cheerful, expansive and talky.

In the medieval Japan, women had an important role in arts and lyrics; they maintained a great independence, were respected and admired. Under the Chinese influence, things changed: the woman was submitted to the authority of her father (who could, at his will, sell her or marry her over her will) and then of the husband (which considered her a little more than a slave). Still, women received an exquisite education, all in order to make the husband's life more pleasant. The Japanese girl learned to brush her hair, move gently, learn to care of the garden, to make exquisite branches of flowers, paint and sing. In Japan, children are the kings of the family; they are nearly never scolded.

The medieval Japanese society was hierarchically organized and on top of the social hierarchy the emperor was found, whose origin was divine ("the Son of the Sky"). On the social ladder the nobles followed, then the middle class, traders, craftsmen and farmers. The samurais, noble warriors, made a caste even more important than the nobles; they were ruled by feudal lords, called daimios, who governed despotically the empire's provinces. The samurais followed a military code of honor, which imposed a strict asceticism and major sacrifices for defending their privileges and traditions, going to the ritual suicide, harakiri (seppuku) in case of defeat, dishonor or ruin. Japan was, in fact, ruled by these daimios, while the emperors were just puppets with formal power at the will of these lords. In 1853-1854, Japan was forced to end its isolation. In 1868, the Meiji (Lighted Rule) Epoch, under the emperor Mutsuhito (1868-1912) meant the passing of Japan from the medieval age to the contemporaneous era. The modern constitution of Japan eliminated the privileges of the nobles and samurais. The Satsuma revolt of the Samurais (1877) was easily defeated by the regular army, made of recruits and using western fire weapons. Japan turned into the first non-European power that defeated a European country during the colonial era: Russia, in 1904-1905.

The traditional Japanese theater has two classes of dramas: No and Kabuki, based on pantomime, which is realized by actors with masked faces and dressed in gritty attires. No has a tragic

character; Kabuki admits comedy.

The most popular Japanese sports in the western world are judo and karate, martial arts based on precision, ability, and a perfect knowledge of the human anatomy and its weak points. Sumo is a type of wrestling between fighters with enormous weights. Sumo is a ritual fight, and the combatants make prayers to the gods before fighting. They have special hairdo and adornments and specific grunts and yells are aimed to disconcert the opponent. The aim of sumo is that the fighter must throw his adversary out of the circle in whose center they wrestle.

Japan is the first country in the world in fish production (11 million tones, 16 % of the fish production of the world) and fish consumption, 95 kg (210 pounds) per capita annually.