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Humanism : The History of Early Ages of Intellectual and Scientific Impetus (Rennaisance) in Italy and Europe 1200 -
1500 A.D.
By Ahmad Daud ibn Ishak el-Merbawiy Centre for Islamic Thought and Understanding (CITU)
MARA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY TERENGGANU CAMPUS 23000 Dungun, Terengganu, MALAYSIA
INTRODUCTION
This writing tries to discover a rebirth of the new environment of
humanity, intellectual and liberty for European societies on their
capacity of knowledge, human right as individual, family, party and
society after long period been cramped by Feudalism and
Eccliasticism upon their freedom of thought, liberty, literature,
recognized nature. Humanist emerged to reshape the future
civilization. Generally humanism for us is usually refer to the
development of literature, language, poetry, art, social, human values1
and rhetoric in Latin or Greek. Indeed, humanism has the important
role in early ages of Rennaisance which was recognized and actually it
was the turning point to scientific revolution in Italy and western
Europe.
THE HUMANISM PHENOMENON
Etymological Aspect.
Humanism is derived from humanitas or humanus of Latin which used
by Cicero and Aulus Gellius referring to the study of human letters,
the languages and literature of Greece and Roman classics, where by
many humanists believed that the study was the only way to gain
humane culture.2 Thus humanity also means owing himself as man or
in sense of doctrina means mental cultivation befitting a man, liberal
1 Chales B. Shmitt, Humanism in The Cambridge History of Rennaisance Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ,1990 p.1132A.S.Rappoport, R.F. Patterson and John Dougall, Encyclopaedia Dictionary of The World, V.6, New Delhi : Akashdeep Publishing House, 1989, p.226.; See DPRE, p.137
education, good breeding, elegance of manners and language
refinement.3 It defines as an attitude of mind attaching to human
values and regards as the central theme of Rennaisance.4 In the sense
of philosophy, humanism recognizes the value, dignity of man, man as
the measure of all things or somehow puts human nature’s unlimited
interest as the theme.5 When humanism reached to the revolting
against the limitations on knowledge, they allowed reviving and
learning and emphasized on enjoying this existence to the utmost.6
Humanism will upgrading human over natures, participating, having
great desire and impressively develop their rational ability and
governing the world. The humanism has provided wide spectrum of
freedom in thought, liberty of educational desire, freedom of
expression their classical languages, arts, poets, social hierarchy and
human dignity been apprenticed. They become the center of every
things, having freedom in wills, discoveries, critics against pseudo-
doctrines and seeking the true knowledge.
Concept of Humanism
Humanism is a term applied to the literary and intellectual movement
which started at close of the middle ages about fourteenth century
until sixteenth century. The focused was on antiquity, emancipated
education and thought over the shackles scholasticism, accentuating
the meaning and worthy mundane of freedom in thought and act from
the Ecclesiastics slavery bondage.7 Paul Edward in The Encyclopedia
of Philosophy elaborates that humanism is a basic aspect of
3 Charton T. Lewis, A Latin Dictionary, Oxford : The Clarendon Press, 1987, p.8694 The New Encyclopedia Britanica, ver.Micropaedia Britanica, Vol. 6, New York : Encyclopedia Britanica Incorp., 1985 p.137; See DPRE. p.137.5 Paul Edwards, The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, New York : Macmillan; London : Collier Macmillan, Vol.4, 1972, p. 69.6.Dagobert D. Runes and Authors, Dictionary of Philosophy, Ancient, Medieval and Modern, New Jersey : Littlefield Adam Co., 1981, p.130.7 See EDTW . Vol.6, p.226
2
Rannaisance to reintegrate man into the nature of world from his
perspective by educating man, giving their rationale authority,
reshaping nature and their history and inheriting the positive ancient
literature for the future progressive activities. 8
Two major humanistic school of thought are firstly the intellectual
movement characterized the culture of literature of classical Greece
and Roman, where still perfectly consistence with belief in God and
particular Christianity and second school of thought in the late
fourteenth century was rejected all religious beliefs and insisted that
they would be exclusively concerned on human welfare and natural
world.9 Prof. Hans Baron who saying that there is no contradiction
between his books of De Vita Assiciabili et Operativa and De Seculo et
Religione of Colluccio Salutati (1331-1374) where the second book
tried to give a guidance for a friend who entered monastic order. He
asserted in his rescuer bookVita Activa, that although he suggested
contemplative life is the best, but yet it’s not always preferable.10
The seculum was established as the characteristic of Quotrocento
against the feudal authorities and Ecclesiastics who performed very
rigid towards worldly natures, humanities and religious practices.
Patrarach’s book on De Vita Solitaria and Vita Monastrica who saying
that there is no religious conformity stand for people who involved
actively in worldly activities to provide a proper way of life.11 Salutati
tried very hard to employ standards between two extremes and knew
precisely the distruction because of misinterpretation among the
humanist friends.8 Paul Edwards, The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, Vol. 4, New York : Macmillan ; London : Collier Macmillan , 1972, p.69-70.9 Deter A.Angeles, Dictionary of Philosophy, New York : Harperprennial, First Ed.,1991, p11610 Hans Baron, The Crisis of The Ealy Italian Rennaisance, New Jersey : Princeton University Press, (New Revision ) 1966. p. 105-108.11 Ibid, p.109-110
3
HUMANISM IN ITALY AND IMPACT TO RENNAISANCE
Europe in twelfth and thirteenth century has terribly low in general
knowledge. Only few of them could writing and majority knew nothing
about science, art etc. The famous two books; The Bible and The
Encyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge which compiled by Aristotle in
fourth century B.C. The Letters reached Northern Europe via the
Moors in Spain. Who ever opposed the two books, they might be
considered as propagating black magic and being executed by the
Holy Inquisition of papal court which has established since 13th
century. That was the age of the famous Christian theologian St.
Thomas Aquinas and the significant case of Nicholus Copernicus
(1473-1553) who explained the motion of heavenly bodies as the
result of rotation of the earth and has to withdraw it due to his
security. This moment of inspired the scholar and poet, Francesco
Petrarca (Ig. Petrarach) (1304-1374) who rouse the Italian people by
his stories about love and nature. Art and literature, became crazy for
newly discovered on beauty of the words in ancient Greece and
Roman. The learned scholars in 14th century called Humanists and
were considered the heroes of these period.12
Humanist The Founder and Intellectual Activists.
First of all, Italian humanist Pertrarach (1304-1374) whose
scholarship in classics Latin writings and the other groups gave
impetus to a movement that eventually spread from Italy to all over
the western Europe. Humanist has facilitated Latin language well in
every disciplinary of studies on literature especially in Latin and
Greece classics literature and poetry. They encouraged people an
attitude which exalting men’s receptionship to God, believe in free
12 S.W.Tromp, The Religion of Modern Science (Neo Materealism), Leiden : L.W. Sithoff’s Hitgeversmaatschappi, 1947 p. 353-354.
4
wills and superiority of men over nature. The antiquity as mentioned
before is concern about the finding on man’s request for truth and
goodness, confirmation on a system of philosophy, religious doctrine
and abstract reasoning which in favor for human values.13
It is very significance to explain that humanists were challenge the
order of Ecclaiscist bodies and influence human mind towards a new
paradigm shift of new interpretation of knowledge. A. S. Rappoport
and the authors listed out their functions as the scholars and poets,
great lover in learning the beauty of thought, broader outlook upon
life and humanity of spirit and regard human life as an independent
center of interest and at last, man will become the center of every
things and measure of their own superiority.14
Italian humanists had an ability and more powerful at playing these
roles and activities from inside the Ecclesiastic bodies, papal
institutions and the authority bodies in the name of literature,
learning ancient classics art, education and as leaders in high
institution such as Italian Universities were governed by humanism
activists. The humanist founder Petrarach was the great lyric poet,
very enthusiastic of Roman antiquity and untiring collector of ancient
manuscripts due to his concern on the important of a knowledge of
Greece. Dante (1265-13210) who gave final expression to the loftiest
spirit of medievalist. Boccaccio (1313-1375), who passionately
collecting all characteristics of early humanist, the first Grecian
Leotard Greek language from Leontius Pilatus in Florence and a
figure who was the first introduced to Greek language was Manuel
Chrysoloras a ‘native of Byzantine’ in Florence in 1396. They attained
the higher position and played major roles to influence people, as
13 Micropaedia Britanica, Vol.6, p.137 14 EDTW., Vol.6. p. 226
5
lectures to the numbers of all ranking society and also became
wealthy men who later became patrons of humanism. The
distinguished figures were Nicholas V, Pius II and Leo X and other
patrons were Cosmo and Lorenzo de Medici in Florence, Alfonso, King
of Naples and many others insisted humanists.15
Humanists and New Italian Mentality
Italian Humanists in fifteenth century were successfully influenced
people by numbers of efficient efforts including their professional
works, effective literary productions, their recognized achievements
and the contributions in philosophical foundation.16
The educators actually are very important part in delivering theories,
teaching and tutoring on reforming the higher learning institutions in
Europe. For instance the School of Guarno de Verona In Ferara and
Vitturino de Feltre in Mantua attracted students from all over
Europe17 to study there. They emitated on curriculum design, on
learning methodologies, classical languages, literary information and
intellectual disciplines as moral standards. The influenced educational
method flourished without interruption by the rapid changes and
surviving in many religions, political and social revolution. They were
professors at various universities including Florentine Studio, Luca,
Venice and Milan. Instead of servicing at universities, they also
involved as chancellors or secretaries, Master of Latin prose
composition, informal orators for King and Princes for instance
Petrarach had ever served the Princes of Milan and Padua.18
15 See EDWT, Vol.6, p. 227.16 Charles B.Shmitt and Editors, The Cambridge History of Rennaisance Philosophy,(CHRP) Cambridge :Cambridge University Press, 1990, p.114 -137.17 Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanis, CHRP, p. 114.18 Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanism, CHRP, p.115
6
In Universities, humanists played persistent roles in the curriculum of
the universities. They also served the papal Curia and the Florentine
Republic, the King of Naples, the dukes of Milan and other princes
republic,19 appeared in courts of foreign king and princes and pursued
career abroad.20Later on many humanist student also involved actively
in public as teachers, secretaries, churchmen, statesmen, bankers,
merchants, patrons of humanist scholarship, productive scholars and
writers such as Pius II, was writing after appointed as cardinal and
pope. They also happened to be bishops, clerics or monks, or member
of ruling circle in Florence or Venice.21 In the middle of the fifteenth
century, many humanists became lawyers, physicians, theologians
who learned humanists at universities and became part timer scholars
and writers.
In Academic field, humanists were among the book traders and have
established for mass production22 and they were book suppliers to
monastic and process cathedral libraries, for Ecclesiastical bodies,
princely and noble collectors, the university professors and students.23
By sixteenth century there were countless printing processes actively
operated in Europe and the leading institutional centers of publishing
and book traders were widespread in Venice, Lyons and Basle
whereby about the books of classical heritage and humanist contents.
19 Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanism, CHRP, p.116;See footnote 10, the listing name of orators like Colluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, Poggio Bracciolini, Antonio Beccadelli (Panormita), Giovanni Pontano, P.C. Decembro and many others.20 Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanism, CHRP, p.116 ; See fotenote 11, among the the abroad activies were Enea Silvio Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II, Served as sectretary at the imperial court; Philippus Callimacus in Poland and Polydore Vergil in England. 21Ibid, Professional Activities; Humanism, CHRP, p.116 See foonote 13 about the last group were include Donetto Acciauoli, Alamanno Rinnuccini, and Giannoz zo Manetti in Florence; Francesco and Ermolao Barbaro, Leornardo and Bernardo Giustiniani in Venice.22 The first established printing in Italy by Italian Humanists was in 1465.23 Ibid, Professional Activities, Humanism, CHRP, p.117-118,
7
As scholars of literature, humanists focused on their productions for
developing public opinion. Sometime they omitting technical
terminology to prioritize on conceptual precision which required for
adequate philosophical discourses.24One tendency which very
successful was replacing scholastic philosophy with rhetoric has done
by Lorenzo Valla. The fine genre and oration of humanist were used in
many functions like judiciary, deliberation in classical and the original
practice, funerals, wedding speeches, ambassador’s speeches, an
augral of newly elected popes or magistrates, speeches on graduation
occasions, speeches of the beginning school year, opening of laity
customs or religious gathering and state letters.25 According to the
contributions given by humanist, they were considered successful to
reconstruct Italian culture and new civilization through the classic
Latin and Greek literature.
The humanist achievement in fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and
among the glorious parts are the Latin literature was wide circulated
in manuscripts and printed editions.26They produced humanist scripts
on education, textual criticisms, interpretation of the ancient writers,
study Latin grammar, vocabulary, spelling and prosody.27 This period
of the west started to accept the Byzantine scholars to impose their
methods and traditions in teaching to western students and
colleagues.28.One step forwards success in second half of fifteenth 24 Ibid , Scholar Movements and Literary production, Humanism, CHRP. p.119-123.25Ibid, Scholar Movement and Literary Producttion, Humanism, CHRP p.124-127.The distinguished publisher Aldus Manitius was in Venice while Estienne and Morel families well known as scholarly editors, proofreaders and writers on their own of both Latin and Greek classic texts26 Ibid, The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Humanism, CHRP, p. 130-13327 The Greek’s translations into Latin in various parts of huamists were known intrested on them.28 Ibid, The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Humanism, CHRP, p. 131; See also footnote 48, They were included Cardinal Bessarion, Theodore Gaza, George of Thebizond and Agyropolos., Dematrius Chalcondylas and Marcus Musurus., Constantine and James Laccaris and many others. The most distinguished Greek scholars involved were Poliziano and Ermolao Barbaro; also see original on Geanalcoplos:1962 (ed. 1966).
8
century was extending their interested subject out of the humanist
traditions, later on many of them became philosophers, scientists,
physicians, medical scholars, jurists and even theologians.29
Aftermath, the humanists traveled on teaching abroad, communicated
with foreign patrons, students, scholars who visited Italian
universities and so on. Petrarach and friends reached Bohmia and
France in early fourteenth century and the leading center of Italian
humanism in Hungary was ‘The Court of Matthias’. Some of the
foreign humanists who surpassing Italian humanist movement
contemporaries.30 In late sixteenth century and early seventeenth,
humanist Latin poetry and prose were widespread in the north, west
and east of Europe like in Italy, and Flonshed in Scotland, Portugal,
Portland, England, Spain France and Germany. In France humanist
movements became the leading centers of classical scholarship, both
in Latin and Greek.31
Finally the main contribution of humanists was in philosophy which
happened direct or indirect contributions on the ancient ideas of
philosophy especially Aristotelian philosophers were famous as
scholastics; meanwhile Platonist metaphysics had influenced by
humanism and scholasticism including Plato’s and Neo-Platonist
works initiated by Ficino. Humanists still has significant or greater
contributions in philosophy ‘as a systematic and technical discussion’
of the subject matters,32 Actually humanism doesn’t contribute in
general but in individual form or small group of humanists like Valla
29 Ibid, The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Humanism, CHRP p.131-132; also see footnote 42, mentioned that the list of the figures involeved were Marsilo Ficino and Giovanni Pico; Leon Battista Alborti and Giorgio Valla; Niccolo Leoniceno; Andrea Alciato, Giles of Viterbo and many others.30 They were Johannes Reuchlin, Erasmus, Guillaume Bonde, Thomas More and Juan Luis Vives.31 Opcit, The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, Humanism, CHRP, p. 13332 As mentioned by the ancient or medieval period of scholars.
9
and Agricola up to Rasmus and Nizolio for example, they tried to
replace the conceptual precision with the syllogism of invention topic
and argument, the method of evidence, and deductive clarity.33
While indirect contributions were including providing sources of the
ancient philosophy and science, discussions or commentaries,
interpretation of materials which later on directed to mathematics,
medicine, botany or others sciences based on Greece commentators of
Aristotle influenced. The conducive environment for the intellectual
climate in the new science and philosophy provided by Rennaisance
humanism. Philosophers and few scholars has linked with humanism
rather than be associated with Platonism, yet all sources directly
provided by humanist.34 This proves are giving crystal clear that
humanist had played the important roles to be a foundation and early
stage of development in Italian mind, culture and intellectual
achievements.
The Humanist Legacies
Italian Humanists ventured many areas in writing productions on
their literary developments and achievements. The great achievement
were in Latin and Greek literature, scientific and philosophy, history
and human sciences, religion and education.35
It’s very precise that Italian humanism have their own legacies
to the world be proud off, as the concrete proved that they have done
a reformation upon Italy and citizens, and also to the society where’s
very close to her. From their amazing works in very basic of human
33 Opcit, Humanism and Philosophy, Humanism, CHRP, p.134-135.34 Ibid, Humanis and Philosophy, Humanism, CHRP, p. 135-13735 John O. Reidl, A Catalogue of Rennaisance Philosophers, Milwaukee : Marquete University Press, 1940, p.1-2; 35-59.
10
knowledge’s and inquiries, it must placed them as reformer to the
new era called Rennaisance.
HUMANISM : INTELLECTUAL AND SCIENTIFIC IMPETUS
Italian Humanism and Transferring Process to Europe.
Peter used verb ‘spread’ of humanism to show that Italian humanism
was spreading to all western Europe like an oil slicked.36That is
happened to Italian humanism transferring to western Europe in
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. There were many ways such as by
the Italian expatriates to European countries, immigrants to Europe
and European people were coming to the Italian famous cities.
Humanists were invited by European rulers or being encouraged on
working in Europe. The Protestant seeking for literary study in Greek
and Latin, moral literature and attractive model of education at higher
learning institutions. European students learnt humanist and
diplomatic which suited to Italian civilization. Meanwhile European
countries odder many books from Florence and finally European
academic terminology’s were used according to Italian humanist’s
frame work.37
Humanist Reformation in European Society.
Humanism urged great changes and tried to reform the European
countries directly or indirectly through the strong organizational
movements, political thought, in the court and art, also in magic and
36 Peter Burke, The Spread of Italian Humanism in Prof. Danys Hay compilation of Humanism Essays entitled The Impact of Humanism on Western Europe (IHWE), London and New York : Longman, 1990, p. 2-3. 37 Ibid, The Spread of Italian Humanism, see IHWE, p.3-20.
11
science area were not putting aside. That was wide range of the
reformation to the massive western European societies. Here it should
be discussed two significant reforms ever happened in Italian
humanism towards western Europe.
Humanist Movement
Apparently humanists had influenced people in religious practices,
education’s, developing institutional of higher learning, establishing
art and literary studies,38 social activities especially in seeking
knowledge and well behave with humanist ethics. So, the humanists
have their own way to reform the society39 without any antagonistic
action, anti establishment and sharp ideological contradictory.
They accustomed European people gradually to pursuit of holiness,40
shifted people mind into philosophic-theologically based on a ‘positive’
point of view like ‘Biblical Humanism’ of Erasmus, had closed
collaboration with church fathers, Judaic and Rabbinical writings and
performed alliance with the reformist groups in social activities such
as for educational application in all level of European society.
Humanist and Scientific Development
Angelo Poliziano and Giovanni Pica, the humanists started with
massive works on prescribing how far one should follow the ancient
poet rules. He said :
“I began to wonder, most learned Pico, if these ancient observations were derived from natural cases or from the crudity of vulgar.”41
38 Peter Materson, Humanism and Reform Movement, IHWE, p. 24 - 26.39 Ibid, IHWE, p. 27, See footnote 20 on the persuit of holiness in late medieval and Rennaisance Religion, ed. Trinkaus and O. Oberman, (Leiden : 1974).40 Ibid, IHWE, p.27 -32.41 Antony Grafton , Humanism, Magic and Science, IHWE, p.99 -100.; See original, that the relevent portions of pliticiono’s letters ( epistolae: Prose volgari imedite e poesie latine e greeko edite e enidite (Florence :1867) , p.326 -328.
12
In the late 1480s, and early 1490s two of them embarked on physical
and intellectual voyages of greatest novelty and interest. Poliziano
interested in the dialectic, metaphysics and natural philosophy of the
ancients and had change focus from the incomplete ‘Sucunda
Centuria’ of his ‘Miscellane’.42 During the second half of fifteenth
century, humanists literary studies has decisive effects on the history
of natural philosophy, the theory and practices magic and the original
modern science.
They also imposed Empirical Medical Science, history cases for
instance in Hippocratic epidemic and Galenic anotomae which was
on use of the part of the body. They applied empirical method in
consistent way like Vasalius, in making correction of textual errors,
establishing of genealogies of botany and natural history areas.
Humanists exactly offered the firm foundation on which new science
could be conveniently emerged.43
Humanists also reoriented the rhetoric of natural philosophy in
fundamental way, they discovered new ways of scientific provocative
and accessible in classic rhetoric. Cicero and Plutarch contemplated
on a helio centric rather than geocentric cosmos. This inspired
Nicholus Copernicus on his work ‘De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium’. They provided the sound environment for a new
sciences, a new culture of knowledge and were accommodating with
nature enthusiastically and energetically.44 Nancy Sirasi has traced
that Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine has been used as a basic text of
medieval medical learning in Italian medical schools. Seem to be 42 Ibid, IHWE, p. 100; Also refer to his book of Coronis Miscellaneorum, in an original Opera, p. 31043 Ibid, IHWE, p. 103; Also see original reference of C. Nauert, C. Plinnius, in Catalogus tranlationum et commentarium ( Washington D.C : 1960) Vol. IV, p. 297 - 422; K. Reeds, Rennaisance humanism and Botany, Annual of Sciences (1976), p.519 -542.44 Ibid, IHWE, p. 103-104.
13
humanism has controlled and managed the supremacy of scientific
methodology all over the fields; Philosophical and scientific as well as
philological and literature.45 This fact was proved by the statement of
Angelo Poliziano as he said:
“(The grammarian - refer to humanists) must inspect not only the school of philosophers, but the juriconsultants, and all who make up what call the encyclopedia of learning, and all the philologist - and not just inspect them but inspect them from close-up.”46
Humanism has merely no single approach towards nature or attitude
on magic and science, but also developed the nature of sixteenth
century to suit on it and shifted cosmic into a sense of intellectual
order. Furthermore they enhanced philological skill, philosophical
textual and empirical historically scientific realm.47
CONCLUSION
Even humanists started with small part of human culture, like
literature and language of ancient Greek and Latin, yet they are
clever enough to generate all the revolutionary thought and
civilization down to the practical activities for Italian people and
European society in general. As a conclusion here are the most
consequent efforts has been done by humanists to reshape Italian
mentality or European people.48
Italian humanists and European one did much more recovery
translations in humanist that focused on human nature, society and
art by establishing literary genres to enable realistic view of human 45 Ibid, IHWE, p. 104.46 Ibid , IHWE, p. 104-105; See also original of Angelo Poliziano, Opera. p.22947 Ibid, IHWE, p. 117
48 Ibid, IHWE, p. 135-136.
14
nature and their society. The most important part is presenting a
secular world view in the midst of the crisis of certainty between
religious stand point and worldly life working plan. The society was
allowed to withdraw the traditions of Christian philosophy and
theology. Finally humanism created an independent world view where
they exaggerated pursuit of single aspect of universe which can be the
dramatic and meaningful result like the emergence of modern
sciences.
Wa Allahu a‘ lam bissawaab.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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Press, 1984.
2. A.S. Rappopport, R.F.Patterson and John Dougall, Encyclopaedic
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Publishing House, 1989.
3. Charles B. Schmitt, The Cambridge History of Rennnaisance
Philosophy (CHRP), Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1990.
4. Dagobert D. Runes and authors, Dictionary of Philosophy Ancient,
Medieval and Modern, New Jersy : Littlefield Adam Co., 1981.
5. Danys Hay, The Impact of Humanism on Western Europe (IHWE),
London/ New York : Longman, 1990.
6. Hans Baron, The Crisis of Early Italian Rennaisance, Princeton :
Princeton University Press, 1966 (Second edition 1967).
7. John O. Riedl, A Catalogue of Rennaisance Philosophers,
Milwaukee : Maquete University, 1940.
15
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Macmillan; London: Collier Macmillan, 1967 (reprint 1972).
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10. S.W. Tromp, The Religion of the Modern Scientist (Neo-
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16