Human Human Resources Resources

ApproachesApproachesChapter Three

PREVIEWPREVIEW

The classical approaches sees worker as cogs in a machine that can be easily replaced. The role of workers in these theories is to provide physical labor.

Classical manager would look at employees with the perspective “workers work”, the human relations manager would look at employees with the perspective “workers feel”

Individuals in organizations have feelings that must be considered and also recognize contributions from employees: thoughts & ideas.

Human Resources Approach

Impetus for Human Resources Approach Humanistic theories were developed to promote the Humanistic theories were developed to promote the

CONCERNS of the individual worker in an CONCERNS of the individual worker in an atmosphere that was too focused on production atmosphere that was too focused on production (FOCUS ON RELATIONAL & MAINTENANCE (FOCUS ON RELATIONAL & MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS)FUNCTIONS)

The Hawthorne studies --- springboard the move from The Hawthorne studies --- springboard the move from classical to human relations.classical to human relations.

Human relations approach states that higher-order Human relations approach states that higher-order needs can be satisfied through job design, needs can be satisfied through job design, management style, other organizational factors. When management style, other organizational factors. When the higher-order needs are satisfied, employees the higher-order needs are satisfied, employees should be happier. When employees are happier, they should be happier. When employees are happier, they should be more productive.should be more productive.

Principles of Human Relations TheoryPrinciples of Human Relations Theory

Human relations theory is characterized by a shift in emphasis Human relations theory is characterized by a shift in emphasis from TASK to WORKERfrom TASK to WORKER

Go beyond physical contributions to include creative, cognitive, Go beyond physical contributions to include creative, cognitive, and emotional aspects of workersand emotional aspects of workers

Based on a more dyadic (two-way) conceptualization of Based on a more dyadic (two-way) conceptualization of communication.communication.

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS are at the heart of organizational SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS are at the heart of organizational behavior--effectiveness is contingent on the social well-being of behavior--effectiveness is contingent on the social well-being of workersworkers

Workers communicate opinions, complaints, suggestions, and Workers communicate opinions, complaints, suggestions, and feelings to increase satisfaction and productionfeelings to increase satisfaction and production

Origins (Hawthorne Studies & work of Chester Barnard)Origins (Hawthorne Studies & work of Chester Barnard) Human Relations School of Management - Elton Mayo (HarvardHuman Relations School of Management - Elton Mayo (Harvard

Origins of Human Relations TheoryOrigins of Human Relations Theory

““The Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne Studies Hawthorne Works of Western Hawthorne Works of Western

Electric CompanyElectric Company 1924 - Chicago1924 - Chicago Research focus: Relation of quality Research focus: Relation of quality

and quantity of illumination to and quantity of illumination to efficiency in industryefficiency in industry

Four Important StudiesFour Important Studies

““The Hawthorne Studies”The Hawthorne Studies”

Illumination Study (November 1924)Illumination Study (November 1924) Designed to test the effect of lighting intensity on worker productivityDesigned to test the effect of lighting intensity on worker productivity Heuristic value: influence of human relations on work behaviorHeuristic value: influence of human relations on work behavior

Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932) Assembly of telephone relays (35 parts - 4 machine screws) Assembly of telephone relays (35 parts - 4 machine screws) Production and satisfaction increased regardless of IV manipulationProduction and satisfaction increased regardless of IV manipulation Workers’ increased production and satisfaction related to supervisory practicesWorkers’ increased production and satisfaction related to supervisory practices Human interrelationships are important contributing factors to worker productivityHuman interrelationships are important contributing factors to worker productivity Bottom Line: Supervisory practices increase employee morale AND productivityBottom Line: Supervisory practices increase employee morale AND productivity

Interviewing Program (1928-1930)Interviewing Program (1928-1930) Investigate connection between supervisory practices and employee moraleInvestigate connection between supervisory practices and employee morale Employees expressed their ideas and feelings (e.g., likes and dislikes)Employees expressed their ideas and feelings (e.g., likes and dislikes) Process more important than actual resultsProcess more important than actual results

Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932) Social groups can influence production and individual work behaviorSocial groups can influence production and individual work behavior RQ: How is social control manifested on the shop floor?RQ: How is social control manifested on the shop floor? Informal organization constrains employee behavior within formal organizational Informal organization constrains employee behavior within formal organizational

structurestructure

Hawthorne Studies - ImplicationsHawthorne Studies - Implications

Illumination Study (November 1924)Illumination Study (November 1924) The mere practice of observing people’s behavior tends to alter their behavior The mere practice of observing people’s behavior tends to alter their behavior

(Hawthorne Effect)(Hawthorne Effect) Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)

Relationships between workers and their supervisors are powerfulRelationships between workers and their supervisors are powerful Human interrelationships increase the amount and quality of worker Human interrelationships increase the amount and quality of worker

participation in decision makingparticipation in decision making Interviewing Program (1928-1930)Interviewing Program (1928-1930)

Demonstrated powerful influence of upward communicationDemonstrated powerful influence of upward communication Workers were asked for opinions, told they mattered, and positive attitudes Workers were asked for opinions, told they mattered, and positive attitudes

toward company increasedtoward company increased Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)

Led future theorists to account for the existence of informal communicationLed future theorists to account for the existence of informal communication

Taken together, these studies helped to document the powerful nature of Taken together, these studies helped to document the powerful nature of social relations in the workplace and moved managers more toward the social relations in the workplace and moved managers more toward the interpersonal aspects of organizing.interpersonal aspects of organizing.

Hawthorne Studies - CriticismsHawthorne Studies - Criticisms

Not conducted with the appropriate scientific Not conducted with the appropriate scientific rigor necessaryrigor necessary

Too few subjects (N=5)Too few subjects (N=5) No control groupsNo control groups Subjects replaced with more “cooperative” Subjects replaced with more “cooperative”

participantsparticipants

WORTHLESSWORTHLESS GROSS ERRORSGROSS ERRORS INCOMPETENCEINCOMPETENCE

The Emergence of CommunicationThe Emergence of Communication

Chester BarnardChester Barnard Considered a bridge between classical and human relations theoriesConsidered a bridge between classical and human relations theories The Functions of the Executive (The Functions of the Executive (1938)1938) Argues for . . . Argues for . . .

• strict lines of communication - classical theorystrict lines of communication - classical theory• a “human-based system of organization”a “human-based system of organization”• The potential of every worker and the centrality of communication The potential of every worker and the centrality of communication

to the organizing processto the organizing process Six Issues Relevant to Organizational CommunicationSix Issues Relevant to Organizational Communication

• Formal vs. Informal OrganizationFormal vs. Informal Organization• CooperationCooperation• CommunicationCommunication• IncentivesIncentives• AuthorityAuthority• Zone of IndifferenceZone of Indifference

Six Issues Relevant to Organizational CommunicationSix Issues Relevant to Organizational Communication

Formal vs. Informal OrganizationFormal vs. Informal Organization Formal Organization - a system of consciously Formal Organization - a system of consciously

coordinated activities or forces of two or more coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons. (definite, structured, common purpose)persons. (definite, structured, common purpose)

• Persons are able to communicate with one anotherPersons are able to communicate with one another• Willing to contribute actionWilling to contribute action• To accomplish a common purposeTo accomplish a common purpose

Informal Organization - based on myriad interactions Informal Organization - based on myriad interactions that take place thourghout an organization’s history.that take place thourghout an organization’s history.

• IndefiniteIndefinite• StructurelessStructureless• No definite subdivisions of personnelNo definite subdivisions of personnel• Results: customs, mores, folklore, institutions, social Results: customs, mores, folklore, institutions, social

norms, ideals -- may lead to formal organizationnorms, ideals -- may lead to formal organization

Six Issues Relevant to Organizational CommunicationSix Issues Relevant to Organizational Communication

CommunicationCommunication Critical to cooperationCritical to cooperation The most universal form of human cooperation, and The most universal form of human cooperation, and

perhaps the most complex, is speechperhaps the most complex, is speech The most likely reason for the success of cooperation The most likely reason for the success of cooperation

and the reason for its failureand the reason for its failure System of communication: known, formal channels System of communication: known, formal channels

which are as direct (short) as possible, where the which are as direct (short) as possible, where the complete line of communication is used, the complete line of communication is used, the supervisory heads must be competent, the line of supervisory heads must be competent, the line of communication should not be interrupted, and every communication should not be interrupted, and every communication should be authenticated.communication should be authenticated.

Barnard’s system lacks relationship formation and Barnard’s system lacks relationship formation and maintenance mechanismsmaintenance mechanisms

Six Issues Relevant to Organizational CommunicationSix Issues Relevant to Organizational Communication

IncentivesIncentives Should be availableShould be available Not discussed in detailNot discussed in detail

AuthorityAuthority Associated with securing cooperation for Associated with securing cooperation for

organizational membersorganizational members The interrelationship among the originator of the The interrelationship among the originator of the

communication, the communication itself, and the communication, the communication itself, and the receiverreceiver

Authority of position OVER Authority of Leadership Authority of position OVER Authority of Leadership (knowledge & ability).(knowledge & ability).

Six Issues Relevant to Organizational Six Issues Relevant to Organizational CommunicationCommunication

Zone of Indifference - orders followedZone of Indifference - orders followed Marks the boundaries of what employees will Marks the boundaries of what employees will

consider doing without question, based on consider doing without question, based on expectations developed on entering the expectations developed on entering the organization.organization.

Barnard drew attention away from formal Barnard drew attention away from formal organizational structures toward organizational structures toward communication, cooperation, and the communication, cooperation, and the informal organization. informal organization. His work was integrated by other theorists in the human relations movement.

Work Factors

Satisfaction of Higher-Order

Needs

Job Satisfaction Productivity

Flowchart of Human Relations Principles

Work Factors

Satisfaction of Higher-Order

Needs

Job Satisfaction Productivity

Flowchart of Human Relations Principles

However, years of research have failed to support this. WHY?

Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregorTheory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregor Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)

Articulated basic principles of human relations theory The Human Side of Enterprise (1960, 1985) To understand human behavior, one must discover the

theoretical assumptions upon which behavior is based Especially interested in the behavior of managers toward workers “Every managerial act rests on assumptions, generalizations,

and hypotheses--that is to say, on theory . . . Theory and practice are inseparable.”

Two Objectives:• Predict and control behavior• Tap Unrealized potential

Theory X - Classical Theory Theory Y - Human Relations Theory FOCUS: Manager’s assumptions about HUMAN NATURE

Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregorTheory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregor

Theory X - Classical TheoryTheory X - Classical Theory Three Assumptions

• The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it.

• Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment

• The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, wants security.

Neither explains nor describes human nature

Theory Y - Human Relations TheoryTheory Y - Human Relations Theory AssumptionsAssumptions

• Physical and mental effort in work is similar to play / rest.Physical and mental effort in work is similar to play / rest.• External control and the threat of punishment are not the only strategiesExternal control and the threat of punishment are not the only strategies• Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with

their achievementtheir achievement• The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to

accept but to seek responsibilityaccept but to seek responsibility• The capacity to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and The capacity to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and

creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely distributed creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely distributed in the populationin the population

• Intellectual potentialities of the average human being are underutilizedIntellectual potentialities of the average human being are underutilized A more positive perspective of human natureA more positive perspective of human nature The KEY to control and quality production is commitment to The KEY to control and quality production is commitment to

organizational objectivesorganizational objectives

Theory Y Prototype: The Scanlon PlanTheory Y Prototype: The Scanlon Plan

Participative ManagementParticipative Management Two Central FeaturesTwo Central Features

Cost-reduction sharing for organizational members - sharing the Cost-reduction sharing for organizational members - sharing the economic gains from improvements in organizational performanceeconomic gains from improvements in organizational performance

Effective participation - a formal means of providing opportunities Effective participation - a formal means of providing opportunities to every member of the organization to contribute ideas for to every member of the organization to contribute ideas for improving organizational effectiveness.improving organizational effectiveness.

Must be implemented appropriatelyMust be implemented appropriately Wastes time and undermines managerial power?Wastes time and undermines managerial power? Magic formula for every organizational problem?Magic formula for every organizational problem? CONCERN for RELATIONSHIPS in the organization.CONCERN for RELATIONSHIPS in the organization. As the need to increase commitment grows, so does the need to As the need to increase commitment grows, so does the need to

develop strong, communication-based relationships among develop strong, communication-based relationships among organizational members, particularly between supervisor and organizational members, particularly between supervisor and subordinate.subordinate.

Miles’ Human Resources TheoryMiles’ Human Resources Theory

Difficult to adopt principles of human Difficult to adopt principles of human relations theory -- misapplications and relations theory -- misapplications and misunderstandings of both classical misunderstandings of both classical theory and human relations theory led to theory and human relations theory led to Human Resources TheoryHuman Resources Theory

The key element to Human Relations The key element to Human Relations Theory, participation, was used only to Theory, participation, was used only to make workers make workers feelfeel as if they were part of as if they were part of the organizational decision-making the organizational decision-making processesprocesses

Miles’ Human Resources TheoryMiles’ Human Resources Theory

Key to classical and human relations theory is compliance Key to classical and human relations theory is compliance with managerial authoritywith managerial authority

Workers are told that they are important but were not Workers are told that they are important but were not treated as suchtreated as such

Major Distinctions between Human Resources and Human Major Distinctions between Human Resources and Human Relations TheoryRelations Theory All people (not just managers) are reservoirs of untapped resources - All people (not just managers) are reservoirs of untapped resources -

manager responsibility to tap physical and creative resourcesmanager responsibility to tap physical and creative resources Many decisions can be made more effectively and efficiently by workers Many decisions can be made more effectively and efficiently by workers

most directly involved with their consequencesmost directly involved with their consequences Relationship between employee satisfaction and performance - improved Relationship between employee satisfaction and performance - improved

satisfaction and morale contribute back to improved decision making and satisfaction and morale contribute back to improved decision making and controlcontrol

Miles’ Human Resources TheoryMiles’ Human Resources Theory

Increased satisfaction is related to the Increased satisfaction is related to the improved decision making and self-control improved decision making and self-control that occurs due to participation that is that occurs due to participation that is genuinely solicited and heardgenuinely solicited and heard

Two prevalent Human Resources TheoriesTwo prevalent Human Resources Theories Rensis LikerRensis Liker Blake & Mouton (Blake & McCanse)Blake & Mouton (Blake & McCanse)

Four Systems of Management: Rensis Likert Four Systems of Management: Rensis Likert Management is crticial to all organizational activities Management is crticial to all organizational activities

and outcomesand outcomes Continuum that ranges from more classically oriented Continuum that ranges from more classically oriented

system to one based on human resources theorysystem to one based on human resources theory Of all the tasks of management, managing the human Of all the tasks of management, managing the human

component is the central and most important taskcomponent is the central and most important task High producing departments and organizations tend High producing departments and organizations tend

toward System IV; low producing units favor System Itoward System IV; low producing units favor System I• System I - Exploitative AuthoritativeSystem I - Exploitative Authoritative• System II - Benevolent AuthoritativeSystem II - Benevolent Authoritative• System III - ConsultativeSystem III - Consultative• System IV - ParticipativeSystem IV - Participative

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial GridBlake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid

Stresses interrelationship between production (task) and Stresses interrelationship between production (task) and peoplepeople

Management’s main purpose is to promote a culture in the Management’s main purpose is to promote a culture in the organization that allows for high production at the same time organization that allows for high production at the same time that employees are fostered in their professional and personal that employees are fostered in their professional and personal developmentdevelopment

Managerial Grid - now Leadership Grid (Blake & McCanse) Managerial Grid - now Leadership Grid (Blake & McCanse) (Figure 3.3, p. 59)(Figure 3.3, p. 59)

FOCUS: Manger’s Assumptions about CONCERN for FOCUS: Manger’s Assumptions about CONCERN for PEOPLE and CONCERN for PRODUCTIONPEOPLE and CONCERN for PRODUCTION

Assessment instrument does not represent personality traits Assessment instrument does not represent personality traits of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific orientation to of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific orientation to production and peopleproduction and people

Concern for PEOPLEConcern for PEOPLE Degree of personal commitment to one’s jobDegree of personal commitment to one’s job Trust-based accountability (vs. obedience-based Trust-based accountability (vs. obedience-based

accountability)accountability) Self-esteem for the individualSelf-esteem for the individual Interpersonal relationships with co-workersInterpersonal relationships with co-workers

Concern for PRODUCTIONConcern for PRODUCTION Use of people and technology to accomplish organizational Use of people and technology to accomplish organizational

taskstasks Concern for is not about quantity or qualityConcern for is not about quantity or quality

Assessment instrument does not represent Assessment instrument does not represent personality traits of the manager -- instead, indicate a personality traits of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific orientation to production and peoplespecific orientation to production and people

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial GridBlake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid

•Authority Compliance (9,1)

•Classical theory

•Country Club (1,9)

•Informal grapevine

•Impoverished (1,1)

•Laissez-faire

•Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)

•Compromise (carrot & stick)

•Team (9,9)

•Human Resources Approach

•Promote the conditions that integrate creativity, high productivity, and high morale through concerted team action

SUMMARYSUMMARY Humanistic Theories of OrganizationsHumanistic Theories of Organizations

Human Relations TheoryHuman Relations Theory• The Hawthorne Studies• Chester Barnard• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Human Resources TheoryHuman Resources Theory• Likert’s Systems Theory (Four Systems of Management)• Blake and Mouton’s (Blake and McCanse) Managerial Grid

The principles of human resources theory attempt to integrate the concern for production from classical theory with the concern for the worker from human relations theory -- more effective and satisfying!

PREVIEWPREVIEWClassical theorists – organizations could be best understood by comparing them to machines that are predictable and full of replaceable parts.

However, many theorists found this metaphor as unsatisfying and believed that organizations did not behave in predictable and machinelike ways.

Systems Systems ApproachesApproaches

Chapter Four

A new metaphor emerged -- organizations as complex organisms that must interact with their environment to survive. Systems or organismic.

Organization theory has become a kind of biology in which the distinctions and relations among molecules, cells, complex organisms, species, and ecology are paralleled in those between individuals, groups, organizations, populations (species) of organizations and their social ecology.

Systems approaches – consider how an organismic metaphor can provide insight into organizational communication processes.

A systems approach shifts our attention to how we should study behavior in an organization.

Three theoretical concepts:

1. Cybernatics

2. Karl Weick’s theory of organizing

3. “new science” systems

The systems Metaphor and Systems Concepts

1. System Components

2. Hierarchical Ordering

3. Interdependence

4. Permeability

5. System Processes

6. System Properties

The origins of Systems Theory

Systems theory originated from the fields of biology and engineering. Founded by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, a theoretical biologist who studied living systems. He published, General Systems Theory (1968) a book about systems theory that he believed as appropriate for social sciences.

Application of systems theory to organizational processes

The Social Psychology of Organizations -- Katz and Kahn (1966)

Organizations in Action – Thompson (1967)

Communicating and Organizing -- Farace, Monge, and Russell (1977)

The Social Psychology of Organizations – Katz and Kahn in 1966

“Organizations should be conceptualized as complex open systems that requires interaction among component parts and interaction with the environment to survive” (Katz and Kahn (1978).

System ComponentsSystem is made up of parts or components.

In a biological system the parts = cells and organs. In an organizational system, these components are people and departments, in society as a system, organizations, institutions make up the society.

Three concepts characterize system components:

1. Hierarchical Ordering

2. Interdependence

3. Permeability

Hierarchical OrderingSystem components are arranged in highly

complex ways that involve subsystems and supersystems. E.g. human body made up of cardiovascular system, the digestive systems, etc and these systems are made up of subsystems. E.g. cardiovascular system includes heart, lungs and blood vessels.

Organizational system

e.g. a hospital is made up of a number of departmental subsystems including surgical units, recovery units, the emergency room, etc. these subsystems are composed of smaller work groups and individuals.

What’s the difference between the term hierarchy

used by classical management theorists and

the system theorists?

Question

AnswerAccording to the classical theorists

hierarchy is the relatively straightforward lines of authority represented by the organizational chart. While the system theorists refer to hierarchy as hierarchical ordering within a system. It is how the system is made up of smaller subsystems and is embedded within a larger supersystem.

InterdependenceThe functioning of one component of a

system relying on other components of the system. E.g. the brain needs a constant supply of blood to function, the heart relies on the lungs to bring in the oxygen that fuels the blood. Both heart and lungs rely on brain for neurological signals that facilitate the functioning.

An organization as a system is also interdependent. E.g. In our hospital the surgical units function effectively with the assistance of laboratories to provide test results. The lab. depend on supplies department for test tubes, etc.

PermeabilityPermeable boundaries allow information and

materials to flow in and out. Some degree of permeability is required to survive. Permeability to the system (open to its environment) and components within the system. e.g. human body open to its environment to take in air, food, water and the human body must also be permeable to allow the flow of materials among organs and organs system.

System ProcessesSystems are characterized by input-

throughput-output processes.

A system “inputs” materials or information from the environment through its permeable boundaries.

The system then works on these inputs with some kind of transformational process – “throughout”

The system returns the transformed “output” to the environment.

e.g.

Furniture Factory chairs public

Raw materials

“input”

“throughput” “output”

Two kinds processes:1. Process of exchange -- input and output

require exchange processes with outside environment.

Exchange processes related to permeable boundaries. Some organizations have high permeable boundaries to facilitate change others may be relatively closed.

FeedbackFeedback – information that helps to

facilitate the interdependent functioning of system components.

a) negative feedback, corrective feedback, or deviation-reducing feedback.

b) Positive, growth, or deviation-amplifying

12 February 2008

HolismEquifinalityNegative entropyRequisite variety

System Properties

HolismTogetherness -- in a system there

is a need for interdependence. Members need to cooperate to ensure success of the system.

Instead of solving problems individually, members of a system should work it together.

EquifinalityThe system property states that “a system

can reach the same final state from differing initial conditions and by a variety of paths” components of a system is integrated in highly complex ways.

There are various ways to get to the end.

Negative entropyAbility to sustain and grow. An open system

that allow for the flow of information and materials between the environment and the system.

An open system engages in interchanges with the environment and that interchange is essential for the viability of the system.

Requisite varietyInternal workings of a system must be as

diverse and complicated as the environment in which it is embedded. Needs for “matching complexity”

Such would allow for organization to be able to deal with info and problems in the environment.

SummaryOrganization is a system made up of

collection of components that are hierarchically arranged, interdependent, and permeable to each other and the environment.

The organizational system is characterized by input– throughput – output processes.

Summary of Systems Basics

System Components Principle

Hierarchically ordered A system consists of smaller subsytems and is embedded within larger supersytems.

Interdependence System components depend on each other for effective functioning.

Permeable A system is open to its environment and system components are open to each other.

Input-throughput-output Processes

Principle

Exchange processes Input and output processes require exchange between the system and the environment. Throughput require exchange among system components.

Feedback processes System control is maintained through feedback. Corrective (negative) feedback serves to keep a system on a steady course. Growth (positive) feedback serves to transform or change a system.

System Properties Principle

Holism Because of component interdependence, a system is more than sum of its part.

Equifinality Because of component interdependence, there are multiple paths to any system outcome.

Negative entropy Because of system openness, a system has the ability to avoid deterioration and thrive.

Requisite variety Because of system openness, a system should maintain the internal complexity necessary to cope with external complexity.

Chapter 5CULTURAL APPROACHES

Classical approaches conceptualize organizations as machine.System approaches look at the organismic aspects of organizational structure and functioning.Anthropological approaches regarded organization from the cultural perspectives.

What is Culture? When you think of

Malaysia, what comes to mind?

Values?

Cultural metaphor allow us to look at organization as “What it is” i.e. its qualities.

What makes McDonald’s different from Burger King?

Pizza Hut different from Domino Pizza?

What makes UPM different from UKM?

What makes Maxis different from Celcom?

Each organization has its own way of doing what it does and its own way of talking about what it is doing.

2 different perspective about culture

1.What an organization has

2.What an organization is

Prescriptive Views of Culture

Increasing interest to examine organizational culture during the last part of the 20th century.

The concept was accepted:

1.The cultural metaphor resonated with both academics and practitioners.

2.Cultural metaphor open up new and fruitful areas of research

Four components of a strong culture:

1.Values

2.Heroes

3.Rites and rituals

4.Cultural network

Excellent Cultures

1. A Bias for Action – Excellent organization react quickly and do not spend excess time planning and analyzing

2. Close Relations to the Customer – Excellent organizations gear decisions and actions to the needs of customers.

3. Autonomy and Entrepreneurship – Excellent organizations encourage positive and respectful relationships among management and employees.

4. Productivity through People – Excellent organizations encourage positive and respectful relationships among management and employees.

5. Hands-On, Value-Driven – Excellent organizations have employees and managers who share the same core value of productivity and performance

Excellent Cultures

6.Stick to the Knitting – Excellent organizations stay focused on what they do best and avoid radical diversification.

7.Simple Form, Lean Staff – Excellent organizations avoid complex structures and divisions of labor.

8.Simultaneous Loose-Tight Properties – Excellent organizations exhibit both unity of purpose and the diversity necessary for innovation.

Success in the business world can be achieved when employees hold on to strong culture.

Value engineering – effective cultural leaders could create “strong” cultures, built around their own values.

Weaknesses of prescriptive approaches:

1.There is no one single cultural formula that can ensure organizational success.

2.Prescriptive approaches treat “culture” as thing that an organization has.

Alternative Approaches to Culture

Culture is being seen as the emerging and sometimes fragmented values, practices, narratives, and artifacts that make a particular organization “what it is”

Louis (1980) stated that the approach seek to describe an organization’s unique sense of place.”

Putnam (1983) introduced this interpretive approach requires a consideration of “to the way individuals make sense of their world through their communicative behaviors.”

Four elements distinguishing between prescriptive approaches to culture and the approaches taken by most cultural scholars:

1. Culture is complicated

2. Culture is emergent

3. Culture is not unitary

4. Culture is often ambiguous

Organizational cultures are complicated

Beyer and Trice (1987) argue that an organization’s culture is revealed through its rites.

Rites of passage, rites of degradation, rites of enhancement, rites of renewal, rites of conflict reduction, and rites of integration.

Dandridge (1986) looks at organizational ceremonies as indicators of culture.

Quinn and McGrath (1985) focus on the role of values and belief systems in the transformation of organizational cultures.

Boje (1991) and Meyer (1995) contend that culture can best be revealed through stories that organizational members tell.

Organizational cultures can be studied through rites, ceremonies, values, belief systems, metaphors, stories, communication rules.

Assimilation Processes

Chapter 7

Prepared by: Dr. Hamisah Prepared by: Dr. Hamisah Zaharah HasanZaharah Hasan

Introduction Assimilation refers to “those ongoing behavioral and cognitive processes by which individuals join, become integrated into, and exit organizations.

Socialization, Individualization Socialization -- occurs when individual learns about the requirements of the job.Individualization -- occurs when employee may try to change some aspect of the organization in order to better suit his/her needs/abilities/ desires.

Models of Organizational Socialization

Phases of Socialization:Process that individual experience as

they enter organizations.1) Anticipatory socialization2) Encounter3) Metamorphosis

Anticipatory socialization Socialization that occurs before entry into organization. Encompasses both socialization to an occupation and socialization to an organization.

Anticipatory socialization involves ideas about the nature of specific careers or occupation.“ When you’re growing up what is it that you want to be when you grow up?”

Encounter Sensemaking stage that occurs when a new employee enters the organization. The newcomer must let go of old roles and values in adapting to the expectations of the new organization.

….. encounter Encounter experience are change, contrast, and surprise, and newcomer must work to make sense of the new organizational culture.

Metamorphosis The state reached at the “completion” of the socialization process. The new employee is now accepted as an organizational insider.

……..metamorphosis Adjustment to new job. Being accepted, a participating member of the organization by learning new behaviors and attitudes and/ or modifying existing ones.

Content of Socialization

What must be learned to adapt to What must be learned to adapt to work.work.1) role-related -- skills, procedures, 1) role-related -- skills, procedures, rules.rules.2) Organizational culture – cultural 2) Organizational culture – cultural values and assumptions.values and assumptions.

Summary of Socialization Models

a)a) The “when” of socializationThe “when” of socializationb)b) The “what” of socializationThe “what” of socializationThrough the “when” and “what” are a Through the “when” and “what” are a

variety of processes; formal variety of processes; formal training programs, mentoring, training programs, mentoring, interviewing, relationships, etc.interviewing, relationships, etc.

Communication Process during Assimilation

a)a) The Employment InterviewThe Employment Interviewb)b) The Interview as a Recruiting and The Interview as a Recruiting and

Screening ToolScreening Toolc)c) The Interview as an Information-The Interview as an Information-

Gathering ToolGathering Toold)d) The Interview as a Tool for The Interview as a Tool for

SocializationSocialization

…………cont.

e)e) Newcomer Information-Seeking Newcomer Information-Seeking TacticsTactics

f)f) Role-Development ProcessesRole-Development Processesg)g) Role-Taking PhaseRole-Taking Phaseh)h) Role-Making PhaseRole-Making Phasei)i) Role-Routinization PhaseRole-Routinization Phase

a) The Employment Interview

Recruitment: College placement Recruitment: College placement center, career day, the center, career day, the organization, employment office, organization, employment office, phone interview.phone interview.

The Interview as a Recruiting and Screening Tool

Gather information in a structured ways. Gather information in a structured ways. Communication ability is the most Communication ability is the most important element. “Fluency of speech, important element. “Fluency of speech, composure, appropriateness of content, composure, appropriateness of content, ability to express ideas in an organized ability to express ideas in an organized fashion.”fashion.”

The Interview as an Information-Gathering Tool

Interview – provides glimpse of Interview – provides glimpse of a possible future employer. a possible future employer. Applicants prefer open-ended Applicants prefer open-ended questions as that allowed them questions as that allowed them to better expressed to better expressed themselves.themselves.

The Interview as a Tool for Socialization

Employment interview Employment interview serves as newcomer’s serves as newcomer’s adaptation to the adaptation to the organization if she/he is organization if she/he is offered the job.offered the job.

Newcomer Information-Seeking Tactics

Seven modes of information-Seven modes of information-seeking; Overt questions, Indirect seeking; Overt questions, Indirect questions, Third parties, Testing questions, Third parties, Testing limits, Disguising conversations, limits, Disguising conversations, Observing, Surveillance.Observing, Surveillance.

Overt questions Newcomer solicits information by asking direct questions of information targets.

Indirect questions Soliciting info by asking noninterrogative questions or by hinting.

Third parties Soliciting info by asking a secondary source e.g. co-worker rather than primary source e.g. supervisor.

Testing limits Solicits info by breaking or deviating from organizational rules and observing reactions.

Disguising conversations Solicits info by disguising the info-seeking attempt as a natural part of the conversation.

Observing Solicits info by watching behavior in salient situations.

Surveillance Solicits info by making sense of past observed behavior.

Role-Development Processes

Organizational members Organizational members accomplish their work accomplish their work through roles. Individual through roles. Individual developed their roles developed their roles through interaction with through interaction with others in the organization.others in the organization.

Three Phases of Role Development

Role-taking phaseRole-taking phaseRole-making phaseRole-making phaseRole-routinization Role-routinization phasephase

Role-taking phase

Evaluation by superior through Evaluation by superior through the role played by the new the role played by the new member. E.g a leader may request member. E.g a leader may request his/her new member to conduct a his/her new member to conduct a certain assignment and he/she certain assignment and he/she will observe and evaluate the will observe and evaluate the performance.performance.

Role-making phase

Involves the social Involves the social exchange process. The exchange process. The member can offer time, member can offer time, skills, and effort. The leader skills, and effort. The leader can offer formal rewards, can offer formal rewards, info., support, attention.info., support, attention.

Role-routinization phase

The phase where members The phase where members understand the role of understand the role of subordinates and the expected subordinates and the expected behavior of supervisors. The behavior of supervisors. The formation of relationships formation of relationships between supervisors and between supervisors and subordinates.subordinates.

Organizational Exit

Leaving the Leaving the organization due to organization due to retirement, layoff, retirement, layoff, frequently changing frequently changing jobs.jobs.