46

HUMAN MACHINE INTERACTION IN AUTOMOBILES

By Abshishek Kumar

Vinay Dubey

46

INDEX

HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE (INTRO)

3

HUMAN MACHINE INTERACTION IN VEHICLES

5

EFFICACIES 35SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE 38REFERENCE 46

46

Human Machine Interface An IntroductionA human machine interface (HMI) is an interface which permits interaction between a human being and a machine Human machine interfaces vary widely from control panels for nuclear power plants to the screen and input buttons on a cell phone

Two components are needed in a human machine interface

The first is an input A human user needs some way to tell the machine what to do to make requests of the machine or to adjust the machine Examples of input devices include keyboards toggles switches touch screens joysticks and mice All of these devices can be utilized to send commands to a system or even an interlinked set of systems

The interface also requires an output which allows the machine to keep the human user updated on the progress of commands or to execute commands in physical space On a computer for example users have a screen which can display information A robot on the other hand may move in response to commands and store data on a hard drive so that people can see how the robot responds learns and navigates the world Outputs can also include things as simple as status lights which alert people when toggles or switches have been activated

In complex systems the human-machine interface is typically computerized The term Human-computer interface refers to this kind of systems

The engineering of the human-machine interfaces is by considering ergonomics (Human Factors) The corresponding disciplines are Human Factors Engineering (HFE) and Usability Engineering (UE) which is part of Systems Engineering

HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth

MEMEX

Fundamental inspirations in digital information practices sprouted from the

hypothetical electro-mechanical device lsquoMemexrsquo proposed by renowned scientist

Vannevar Bush in 1945 The Memex (Memory + Index) concept entailed a system

where a user could add associative trails to notes books communication and audio-

visual experiences involving both him and others Memex in Bushrsquos view was to

create trails of links in temporal sequences of subjective experiences of a person

accessible to him (and others) anytime mdash a sort of augmented and extended

memory So implausible was considered this ambitious proposal of his that the word

46

lsquovannevarrsquo has entered the dictionary as a noun used to describe something that is

unfeasibly fantastic and imaginative

Hyperlink and X-Y IndicatorThe Memex idea had an immediate bearing on the conception of the World Wide Web and also influenced Ted Nelsonrsquos coinage of lsquohyperlinkrsquo that mapped a single word in a document to other associative content Douglas Engelbart invented an interface that aided the very metaphor of pinpointed navigation through hyperlinks mdash the X-Y Indicator mdash that later came to be known to the world as the Computer Mouse

VideoplaceIn the mid-1970s Myron Krueger established an artificial reality laboratory called the Videoplace His idea with the Videoplace was the creation of an artificial reality that surrounded the users and responded to their movements and actions without being encumbered by the use of goggles or gloves The Videoplace used projectors video cameras special purpose hardware and onscreen silhouettes of the users to place the users within an interactive environment

Kinect CameraA landmark event was the massively viral YouTube video of Johnny Lee Cheung hacking the Nintedo Wiimotersquos infrared sensor to track the head movement of a user in real time and provide an illusion of 3-Dimensional Virtual Reality Within a year Microsoft hired Cheung to develop the Kinect Camera for gestural interaction with itrsquos X-box gaming console

Kinect (codenamed in development as Project Natal) is a line of motion sensing input devices by Microsoft for Xbox 360 consoles and Windows PCs Based around a webcam-style add-on peripheral it enables users to control and interact with their consolecomputer without the need for a game controller through a natural user interface using gestures and spoken commands

Leap MotionLeap Motion technology was developed by Leap Motion Inc is an American company that manufactures and markets a computer hardware sensor device that supports hand and finger motions as input analogous to a mouse but requiring no hand contact or touching

46

Human Machine Interface in Vehicles

Automobile has become a complex interactive system Mechanical devices are transformed to the digital realm It is common that drivers operate a vehicle and at the same time interact with a variety of devices and applications Looking up an address in the map and taking a phone call are such examples that help the driver in driving but also increase the risk on the road The need to have a car with decent and safer usability from driver drives the researchers and auto companies discover the possibilities of driving with a friendlier and more powerful human computer interaction interface in the car As a result various inventions on usability have been made and they together make the interaction with automobile an easy and safe thing The design of usability in automotive domain generally focuses on multiple goals including safety comfort enhancement networking etc Actually in some cases the convenience is the same meaning with safety ie the easier the driver finishes one task when driving the safer he would be Generally manufacturers improve the feeling of convenience by adding automatic features to devices in the car a proper example here is power window which greatly reduce the complexity of controlling window in driving For the need of entertainment manufacturers usually upgrade the interaction with audio system ndash more functional buttons and better effect ndash since people need to take an eye on the traffic but their ears are available Beyond the basic enhancements in HCI in automobile recent years manufacturers are trying to integrate some more amazing features into the car by providing a powerful microcomputer and a central console with touch screen named vehicle telematics These novel features include navigation system auto drive and remote control etc Imagine this scenario you start a new day with a cup of coffee in the car watching the morning news from holographic projection that projected on the windshield Following the presetting route the car drives you to office after sending your children to school You have a quick review on the whole day agenda while the car looks for a best place to park After the car is parked you leave it without locking with a key ndash the car will unlock itself when sensing your biometric identification around Some parts of this fantastic scenario have been realization by the cutting edge technologies in automotive usability aspect

FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREENHuman-machine interfaces existed long before anybody ever referred to them as such The steam engine for example had a manometer that told the engine operator what the pressure was in the boiler The operator could then adjust pressure as needed by turning wheels and lifting or lowering levers The first automobiles had steering wheels (without hydraulic or electrical assistance of course) but braking was carried out with levers and gears were switched via a complicated system of switch-through coupling At that time speedometers tachometers and lights and indicators of oil pressure fuel levels and tire pressure were still a long way off

46

It wasnrsquot until 1902 that the eddy current speedometer was patented as the first speed measurement device that could function properly in a motor vehicle By 1910 this instrument had become standard equipment in all cars Almost all HMIs remain one-way devices down to this day which means that they provide users with information that the latter can only react to via a different channel ndash eg by hitting the gas or brake pedals in a car or by pushing various buttons on a machine toolItrsquos only very recently that vehicle systems have been developed which allow information input and response via a single channel Such systems generally take one of two forms Electronic driver assistance systems utilize some traditional controls such as the steering wheel or the brakes to warn drivers via slight shakes or vibrations that they are about to unintentionally veer out of a lane for example or else to alert them that they need to carry out an evasive or braking maneuver This can also be done acoustically of courseState-of-the-art display technology on the other hand provides for complete two-way interactive communication Touchscreens or multi-touchscreens display information the user can directly react to at the same spot ndash eg by means of context-controlled menus of various alternatives on the screen This makes it possible to consolidate the information received from several instruments and devices onto a single output medium on the one hand and to reduce the number of switches slide controls (eg for air conditioners) etc on the other

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz 250 S (1965)

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz Concept A-

46

SAFETYAutomobile safety is the study and practice of design construction equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design One of the first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Labs of Buffalo New York The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards However the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim the pedestrian In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every 8 minutes and are 15 times more likely than a vehicles occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily reduced injury and death rates in all first world countries Nevertheless auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths an estimated total of 12 million in 2004 or 25 of the total from all causes Of those killed by autos nearly two-thirds are pedestrians Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives

Almost all of the navigation devices included some form of warning or caution against use while driving these specifically targeted significant interactions with the unit such as programming a destination Warnings were incorporated into product start-up screens user manuals and sometimes integrated so that advisory messages are displayed when attempting to access a function while driving Figure 11 depicts some example warning screens which are displayed upon system start-up These require drivers to read and confirm or ldquoagreerdquo with the warning before launching into the application The following warning content or information elements were commonly found in these types of messages (irregardless whether lockouts were or were not available)

Driver responsibility for safe driving and compliance with traffic regulations Glancing at the display screens only when it is safe Programming the system or making selections only when the vehicle is

stopped Data may not be 100 reliable some errors in maps Becoming distracted as a result of using the device

46

Two Systems Technology is increasingly being seen to have a critical role to play in alleviating the negative aspects of road transport such as congestion pollution and road traffic accidents (Bishop 2005) Many technological initiatives are considered under the umbrella term Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) where ldquoITS provides the intelligent link between travelers vehicles and infrastructurerdquo (wwwitsaorg September 2006) In this respect in-vehicle computing systems are an important facet of ITS Specifically there are two core types of computing and communications systems which are either being implemented or developed for use in vehicles Information-based systems which provide information relevant to components of the driving environment the vehicle or the driver Examples of systems include navigation (facilitating route planning and following) travel and traffic information (traffic conditions car parking availability etc) vision enhancement (providing an enhanced view of the road ahead when driving at night in fog or in heavy rain) driver alertness monitoring (informing the incapacitated driver if they are unfit to drive) and collision warnings (presenting warningsadvice regarding hazards) Typically all lamps in panel should be classified into this kind of system These lamps can warn you whether your car is in a good condition is there something wrong with your engine Also when you leave your car with door opened you will be warned by hearing continues sound Information-based systems can improve safety for you and your car Control-based systems which affect the routine operational elements of the driving task Examples of systems include adaptive cruise control (where the car is kept at a set time gap from a lead vehicle) speed limiting (the car speed cannot exceed the current limit) lane keeping (the driverrsquos vehicle is kept within a given lane) self parkin (vehicle automatically steers in low speed operation to position itself within a selected parking space) and collision avoidance (the vehicle automatically responds to an emergency situation) Clearly such systems fundamentally change the nature of what we consider to be lsquodrivingrsquo

1) Driver assistance A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle Driver assistance systems include

Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

INDEX

HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE (INTRO)

3

HUMAN MACHINE INTERACTION IN VEHICLES

5

EFFICACIES 35SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE 38REFERENCE 46

46

Human Machine Interface An IntroductionA human machine interface (HMI) is an interface which permits interaction between a human being and a machine Human machine interfaces vary widely from control panels for nuclear power plants to the screen and input buttons on a cell phone

Two components are needed in a human machine interface

The first is an input A human user needs some way to tell the machine what to do to make requests of the machine or to adjust the machine Examples of input devices include keyboards toggles switches touch screens joysticks and mice All of these devices can be utilized to send commands to a system or even an interlinked set of systems

The interface also requires an output which allows the machine to keep the human user updated on the progress of commands or to execute commands in physical space On a computer for example users have a screen which can display information A robot on the other hand may move in response to commands and store data on a hard drive so that people can see how the robot responds learns and navigates the world Outputs can also include things as simple as status lights which alert people when toggles or switches have been activated

In complex systems the human-machine interface is typically computerized The term Human-computer interface refers to this kind of systems

The engineering of the human-machine interfaces is by considering ergonomics (Human Factors) The corresponding disciplines are Human Factors Engineering (HFE) and Usability Engineering (UE) which is part of Systems Engineering

HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth

MEMEX

Fundamental inspirations in digital information practices sprouted from the

hypothetical electro-mechanical device lsquoMemexrsquo proposed by renowned scientist

Vannevar Bush in 1945 The Memex (Memory + Index) concept entailed a system

where a user could add associative trails to notes books communication and audio-

visual experiences involving both him and others Memex in Bushrsquos view was to

create trails of links in temporal sequences of subjective experiences of a person

accessible to him (and others) anytime mdash a sort of augmented and extended

memory So implausible was considered this ambitious proposal of his that the word

46

lsquovannevarrsquo has entered the dictionary as a noun used to describe something that is

unfeasibly fantastic and imaginative

Hyperlink and X-Y IndicatorThe Memex idea had an immediate bearing on the conception of the World Wide Web and also influenced Ted Nelsonrsquos coinage of lsquohyperlinkrsquo that mapped a single word in a document to other associative content Douglas Engelbart invented an interface that aided the very metaphor of pinpointed navigation through hyperlinks mdash the X-Y Indicator mdash that later came to be known to the world as the Computer Mouse

VideoplaceIn the mid-1970s Myron Krueger established an artificial reality laboratory called the Videoplace His idea with the Videoplace was the creation of an artificial reality that surrounded the users and responded to their movements and actions without being encumbered by the use of goggles or gloves The Videoplace used projectors video cameras special purpose hardware and onscreen silhouettes of the users to place the users within an interactive environment

Kinect CameraA landmark event was the massively viral YouTube video of Johnny Lee Cheung hacking the Nintedo Wiimotersquos infrared sensor to track the head movement of a user in real time and provide an illusion of 3-Dimensional Virtual Reality Within a year Microsoft hired Cheung to develop the Kinect Camera for gestural interaction with itrsquos X-box gaming console

Kinect (codenamed in development as Project Natal) is a line of motion sensing input devices by Microsoft for Xbox 360 consoles and Windows PCs Based around a webcam-style add-on peripheral it enables users to control and interact with their consolecomputer without the need for a game controller through a natural user interface using gestures and spoken commands

Leap MotionLeap Motion technology was developed by Leap Motion Inc is an American company that manufactures and markets a computer hardware sensor device that supports hand and finger motions as input analogous to a mouse but requiring no hand contact or touching

46

Human Machine Interface in Vehicles

Automobile has become a complex interactive system Mechanical devices are transformed to the digital realm It is common that drivers operate a vehicle and at the same time interact with a variety of devices and applications Looking up an address in the map and taking a phone call are such examples that help the driver in driving but also increase the risk on the road The need to have a car with decent and safer usability from driver drives the researchers and auto companies discover the possibilities of driving with a friendlier and more powerful human computer interaction interface in the car As a result various inventions on usability have been made and they together make the interaction with automobile an easy and safe thing The design of usability in automotive domain generally focuses on multiple goals including safety comfort enhancement networking etc Actually in some cases the convenience is the same meaning with safety ie the easier the driver finishes one task when driving the safer he would be Generally manufacturers improve the feeling of convenience by adding automatic features to devices in the car a proper example here is power window which greatly reduce the complexity of controlling window in driving For the need of entertainment manufacturers usually upgrade the interaction with audio system ndash more functional buttons and better effect ndash since people need to take an eye on the traffic but their ears are available Beyond the basic enhancements in HCI in automobile recent years manufacturers are trying to integrate some more amazing features into the car by providing a powerful microcomputer and a central console with touch screen named vehicle telematics These novel features include navigation system auto drive and remote control etc Imagine this scenario you start a new day with a cup of coffee in the car watching the morning news from holographic projection that projected on the windshield Following the presetting route the car drives you to office after sending your children to school You have a quick review on the whole day agenda while the car looks for a best place to park After the car is parked you leave it without locking with a key ndash the car will unlock itself when sensing your biometric identification around Some parts of this fantastic scenario have been realization by the cutting edge technologies in automotive usability aspect

FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREENHuman-machine interfaces existed long before anybody ever referred to them as such The steam engine for example had a manometer that told the engine operator what the pressure was in the boiler The operator could then adjust pressure as needed by turning wheels and lifting or lowering levers The first automobiles had steering wheels (without hydraulic or electrical assistance of course) but braking was carried out with levers and gears were switched via a complicated system of switch-through coupling At that time speedometers tachometers and lights and indicators of oil pressure fuel levels and tire pressure were still a long way off

46

It wasnrsquot until 1902 that the eddy current speedometer was patented as the first speed measurement device that could function properly in a motor vehicle By 1910 this instrument had become standard equipment in all cars Almost all HMIs remain one-way devices down to this day which means that they provide users with information that the latter can only react to via a different channel ndash eg by hitting the gas or brake pedals in a car or by pushing various buttons on a machine toolItrsquos only very recently that vehicle systems have been developed which allow information input and response via a single channel Such systems generally take one of two forms Electronic driver assistance systems utilize some traditional controls such as the steering wheel or the brakes to warn drivers via slight shakes or vibrations that they are about to unintentionally veer out of a lane for example or else to alert them that they need to carry out an evasive or braking maneuver This can also be done acoustically of courseState-of-the-art display technology on the other hand provides for complete two-way interactive communication Touchscreens or multi-touchscreens display information the user can directly react to at the same spot ndash eg by means of context-controlled menus of various alternatives on the screen This makes it possible to consolidate the information received from several instruments and devices onto a single output medium on the one hand and to reduce the number of switches slide controls (eg for air conditioners) etc on the other

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz 250 S (1965)

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz Concept A-

46

SAFETYAutomobile safety is the study and practice of design construction equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design One of the first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Labs of Buffalo New York The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards However the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim the pedestrian In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every 8 minutes and are 15 times more likely than a vehicles occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily reduced injury and death rates in all first world countries Nevertheless auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths an estimated total of 12 million in 2004 or 25 of the total from all causes Of those killed by autos nearly two-thirds are pedestrians Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives

Almost all of the navigation devices included some form of warning or caution against use while driving these specifically targeted significant interactions with the unit such as programming a destination Warnings were incorporated into product start-up screens user manuals and sometimes integrated so that advisory messages are displayed when attempting to access a function while driving Figure 11 depicts some example warning screens which are displayed upon system start-up These require drivers to read and confirm or ldquoagreerdquo with the warning before launching into the application The following warning content or information elements were commonly found in these types of messages (irregardless whether lockouts were or were not available)

Driver responsibility for safe driving and compliance with traffic regulations Glancing at the display screens only when it is safe Programming the system or making selections only when the vehicle is

stopped Data may not be 100 reliable some errors in maps Becoming distracted as a result of using the device

46

Two Systems Technology is increasingly being seen to have a critical role to play in alleviating the negative aspects of road transport such as congestion pollution and road traffic accidents (Bishop 2005) Many technological initiatives are considered under the umbrella term Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) where ldquoITS provides the intelligent link between travelers vehicles and infrastructurerdquo (wwwitsaorg September 2006) In this respect in-vehicle computing systems are an important facet of ITS Specifically there are two core types of computing and communications systems which are either being implemented or developed for use in vehicles Information-based systems which provide information relevant to components of the driving environment the vehicle or the driver Examples of systems include navigation (facilitating route planning and following) travel and traffic information (traffic conditions car parking availability etc) vision enhancement (providing an enhanced view of the road ahead when driving at night in fog or in heavy rain) driver alertness monitoring (informing the incapacitated driver if they are unfit to drive) and collision warnings (presenting warningsadvice regarding hazards) Typically all lamps in panel should be classified into this kind of system These lamps can warn you whether your car is in a good condition is there something wrong with your engine Also when you leave your car with door opened you will be warned by hearing continues sound Information-based systems can improve safety for you and your car Control-based systems which affect the routine operational elements of the driving task Examples of systems include adaptive cruise control (where the car is kept at a set time gap from a lead vehicle) speed limiting (the car speed cannot exceed the current limit) lane keeping (the driverrsquos vehicle is kept within a given lane) self parkin (vehicle automatically steers in low speed operation to position itself within a selected parking space) and collision avoidance (the vehicle automatically responds to an emergency situation) Clearly such systems fundamentally change the nature of what we consider to be lsquodrivingrsquo

1) Driver assistance A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle Driver assistance systems include

Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Human Machine Interface An IntroductionA human machine interface (HMI) is an interface which permits interaction between a human being and a machine Human machine interfaces vary widely from control panels for nuclear power plants to the screen and input buttons on a cell phone

Two components are needed in a human machine interface

The first is an input A human user needs some way to tell the machine what to do to make requests of the machine or to adjust the machine Examples of input devices include keyboards toggles switches touch screens joysticks and mice All of these devices can be utilized to send commands to a system or even an interlinked set of systems

The interface also requires an output which allows the machine to keep the human user updated on the progress of commands or to execute commands in physical space On a computer for example users have a screen which can display information A robot on the other hand may move in response to commands and store data on a hard drive so that people can see how the robot responds learns and navigates the world Outputs can also include things as simple as status lights which alert people when toggles or switches have been activated

In complex systems the human-machine interface is typically computerized The term Human-computer interface refers to this kind of systems

The engineering of the human-machine interfaces is by considering ergonomics (Human Factors) The corresponding disciplines are Human Factors Engineering (HFE) and Usability Engineering (UE) which is part of Systems Engineering

HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth

MEMEX

Fundamental inspirations in digital information practices sprouted from the

hypothetical electro-mechanical device lsquoMemexrsquo proposed by renowned scientist

Vannevar Bush in 1945 The Memex (Memory + Index) concept entailed a system

where a user could add associative trails to notes books communication and audio-

visual experiences involving both him and others Memex in Bushrsquos view was to

create trails of links in temporal sequences of subjective experiences of a person

accessible to him (and others) anytime mdash a sort of augmented and extended

memory So implausible was considered this ambitious proposal of his that the word

46

lsquovannevarrsquo has entered the dictionary as a noun used to describe something that is

unfeasibly fantastic and imaginative

Hyperlink and X-Y IndicatorThe Memex idea had an immediate bearing on the conception of the World Wide Web and also influenced Ted Nelsonrsquos coinage of lsquohyperlinkrsquo that mapped a single word in a document to other associative content Douglas Engelbart invented an interface that aided the very metaphor of pinpointed navigation through hyperlinks mdash the X-Y Indicator mdash that later came to be known to the world as the Computer Mouse

VideoplaceIn the mid-1970s Myron Krueger established an artificial reality laboratory called the Videoplace His idea with the Videoplace was the creation of an artificial reality that surrounded the users and responded to their movements and actions without being encumbered by the use of goggles or gloves The Videoplace used projectors video cameras special purpose hardware and onscreen silhouettes of the users to place the users within an interactive environment

Kinect CameraA landmark event was the massively viral YouTube video of Johnny Lee Cheung hacking the Nintedo Wiimotersquos infrared sensor to track the head movement of a user in real time and provide an illusion of 3-Dimensional Virtual Reality Within a year Microsoft hired Cheung to develop the Kinect Camera for gestural interaction with itrsquos X-box gaming console

Kinect (codenamed in development as Project Natal) is a line of motion sensing input devices by Microsoft for Xbox 360 consoles and Windows PCs Based around a webcam-style add-on peripheral it enables users to control and interact with their consolecomputer without the need for a game controller through a natural user interface using gestures and spoken commands

Leap MotionLeap Motion technology was developed by Leap Motion Inc is an American company that manufactures and markets a computer hardware sensor device that supports hand and finger motions as input analogous to a mouse but requiring no hand contact or touching

46

Human Machine Interface in Vehicles

Automobile has become a complex interactive system Mechanical devices are transformed to the digital realm It is common that drivers operate a vehicle and at the same time interact with a variety of devices and applications Looking up an address in the map and taking a phone call are such examples that help the driver in driving but also increase the risk on the road The need to have a car with decent and safer usability from driver drives the researchers and auto companies discover the possibilities of driving with a friendlier and more powerful human computer interaction interface in the car As a result various inventions on usability have been made and they together make the interaction with automobile an easy and safe thing The design of usability in automotive domain generally focuses on multiple goals including safety comfort enhancement networking etc Actually in some cases the convenience is the same meaning with safety ie the easier the driver finishes one task when driving the safer he would be Generally manufacturers improve the feeling of convenience by adding automatic features to devices in the car a proper example here is power window which greatly reduce the complexity of controlling window in driving For the need of entertainment manufacturers usually upgrade the interaction with audio system ndash more functional buttons and better effect ndash since people need to take an eye on the traffic but their ears are available Beyond the basic enhancements in HCI in automobile recent years manufacturers are trying to integrate some more amazing features into the car by providing a powerful microcomputer and a central console with touch screen named vehicle telematics These novel features include navigation system auto drive and remote control etc Imagine this scenario you start a new day with a cup of coffee in the car watching the morning news from holographic projection that projected on the windshield Following the presetting route the car drives you to office after sending your children to school You have a quick review on the whole day agenda while the car looks for a best place to park After the car is parked you leave it without locking with a key ndash the car will unlock itself when sensing your biometric identification around Some parts of this fantastic scenario have been realization by the cutting edge technologies in automotive usability aspect

FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREENHuman-machine interfaces existed long before anybody ever referred to them as such The steam engine for example had a manometer that told the engine operator what the pressure was in the boiler The operator could then adjust pressure as needed by turning wheels and lifting or lowering levers The first automobiles had steering wheels (without hydraulic or electrical assistance of course) but braking was carried out with levers and gears were switched via a complicated system of switch-through coupling At that time speedometers tachometers and lights and indicators of oil pressure fuel levels and tire pressure were still a long way off

46

It wasnrsquot until 1902 that the eddy current speedometer was patented as the first speed measurement device that could function properly in a motor vehicle By 1910 this instrument had become standard equipment in all cars Almost all HMIs remain one-way devices down to this day which means that they provide users with information that the latter can only react to via a different channel ndash eg by hitting the gas or brake pedals in a car or by pushing various buttons on a machine toolItrsquos only very recently that vehicle systems have been developed which allow information input and response via a single channel Such systems generally take one of two forms Electronic driver assistance systems utilize some traditional controls such as the steering wheel or the brakes to warn drivers via slight shakes or vibrations that they are about to unintentionally veer out of a lane for example or else to alert them that they need to carry out an evasive or braking maneuver This can also be done acoustically of courseState-of-the-art display technology on the other hand provides for complete two-way interactive communication Touchscreens or multi-touchscreens display information the user can directly react to at the same spot ndash eg by means of context-controlled menus of various alternatives on the screen This makes it possible to consolidate the information received from several instruments and devices onto a single output medium on the one hand and to reduce the number of switches slide controls (eg for air conditioners) etc on the other

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz 250 S (1965)

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz Concept A-

46

SAFETYAutomobile safety is the study and practice of design construction equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design One of the first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Labs of Buffalo New York The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards However the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim the pedestrian In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every 8 minutes and are 15 times more likely than a vehicles occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily reduced injury and death rates in all first world countries Nevertheless auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths an estimated total of 12 million in 2004 or 25 of the total from all causes Of those killed by autos nearly two-thirds are pedestrians Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives

Almost all of the navigation devices included some form of warning or caution against use while driving these specifically targeted significant interactions with the unit such as programming a destination Warnings were incorporated into product start-up screens user manuals and sometimes integrated so that advisory messages are displayed when attempting to access a function while driving Figure 11 depicts some example warning screens which are displayed upon system start-up These require drivers to read and confirm or ldquoagreerdquo with the warning before launching into the application The following warning content or information elements were commonly found in these types of messages (irregardless whether lockouts were or were not available)

Driver responsibility for safe driving and compliance with traffic regulations Glancing at the display screens only when it is safe Programming the system or making selections only when the vehicle is

stopped Data may not be 100 reliable some errors in maps Becoming distracted as a result of using the device

46

Two Systems Technology is increasingly being seen to have a critical role to play in alleviating the negative aspects of road transport such as congestion pollution and road traffic accidents (Bishop 2005) Many technological initiatives are considered under the umbrella term Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) where ldquoITS provides the intelligent link between travelers vehicles and infrastructurerdquo (wwwitsaorg September 2006) In this respect in-vehicle computing systems are an important facet of ITS Specifically there are two core types of computing and communications systems which are either being implemented or developed for use in vehicles Information-based systems which provide information relevant to components of the driving environment the vehicle or the driver Examples of systems include navigation (facilitating route planning and following) travel and traffic information (traffic conditions car parking availability etc) vision enhancement (providing an enhanced view of the road ahead when driving at night in fog or in heavy rain) driver alertness monitoring (informing the incapacitated driver if they are unfit to drive) and collision warnings (presenting warningsadvice regarding hazards) Typically all lamps in panel should be classified into this kind of system These lamps can warn you whether your car is in a good condition is there something wrong with your engine Also when you leave your car with door opened you will be warned by hearing continues sound Information-based systems can improve safety for you and your car Control-based systems which affect the routine operational elements of the driving task Examples of systems include adaptive cruise control (where the car is kept at a set time gap from a lead vehicle) speed limiting (the car speed cannot exceed the current limit) lane keeping (the driverrsquos vehicle is kept within a given lane) self parkin (vehicle automatically steers in low speed operation to position itself within a selected parking space) and collision avoidance (the vehicle automatically responds to an emergency situation) Clearly such systems fundamentally change the nature of what we consider to be lsquodrivingrsquo

1) Driver assistance A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle Driver assistance systems include

Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

lsquovannevarrsquo has entered the dictionary as a noun used to describe something that is

unfeasibly fantastic and imaginative

Hyperlink and X-Y IndicatorThe Memex idea had an immediate bearing on the conception of the World Wide Web and also influenced Ted Nelsonrsquos coinage of lsquohyperlinkrsquo that mapped a single word in a document to other associative content Douglas Engelbart invented an interface that aided the very metaphor of pinpointed navigation through hyperlinks mdash the X-Y Indicator mdash that later came to be known to the world as the Computer Mouse

VideoplaceIn the mid-1970s Myron Krueger established an artificial reality laboratory called the Videoplace His idea with the Videoplace was the creation of an artificial reality that surrounded the users and responded to their movements and actions without being encumbered by the use of goggles or gloves The Videoplace used projectors video cameras special purpose hardware and onscreen silhouettes of the users to place the users within an interactive environment

Kinect CameraA landmark event was the massively viral YouTube video of Johnny Lee Cheung hacking the Nintedo Wiimotersquos infrared sensor to track the head movement of a user in real time and provide an illusion of 3-Dimensional Virtual Reality Within a year Microsoft hired Cheung to develop the Kinect Camera for gestural interaction with itrsquos X-box gaming console

Kinect (codenamed in development as Project Natal) is a line of motion sensing input devices by Microsoft for Xbox 360 consoles and Windows PCs Based around a webcam-style add-on peripheral it enables users to control and interact with their consolecomputer without the need for a game controller through a natural user interface using gestures and spoken commands

Leap MotionLeap Motion technology was developed by Leap Motion Inc is an American company that manufactures and markets a computer hardware sensor device that supports hand and finger motions as input analogous to a mouse but requiring no hand contact or touching

46

Human Machine Interface in Vehicles

Automobile has become a complex interactive system Mechanical devices are transformed to the digital realm It is common that drivers operate a vehicle and at the same time interact with a variety of devices and applications Looking up an address in the map and taking a phone call are such examples that help the driver in driving but also increase the risk on the road The need to have a car with decent and safer usability from driver drives the researchers and auto companies discover the possibilities of driving with a friendlier and more powerful human computer interaction interface in the car As a result various inventions on usability have been made and they together make the interaction with automobile an easy and safe thing The design of usability in automotive domain generally focuses on multiple goals including safety comfort enhancement networking etc Actually in some cases the convenience is the same meaning with safety ie the easier the driver finishes one task when driving the safer he would be Generally manufacturers improve the feeling of convenience by adding automatic features to devices in the car a proper example here is power window which greatly reduce the complexity of controlling window in driving For the need of entertainment manufacturers usually upgrade the interaction with audio system ndash more functional buttons and better effect ndash since people need to take an eye on the traffic but their ears are available Beyond the basic enhancements in HCI in automobile recent years manufacturers are trying to integrate some more amazing features into the car by providing a powerful microcomputer and a central console with touch screen named vehicle telematics These novel features include navigation system auto drive and remote control etc Imagine this scenario you start a new day with a cup of coffee in the car watching the morning news from holographic projection that projected on the windshield Following the presetting route the car drives you to office after sending your children to school You have a quick review on the whole day agenda while the car looks for a best place to park After the car is parked you leave it without locking with a key ndash the car will unlock itself when sensing your biometric identification around Some parts of this fantastic scenario have been realization by the cutting edge technologies in automotive usability aspect

FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREENHuman-machine interfaces existed long before anybody ever referred to them as such The steam engine for example had a manometer that told the engine operator what the pressure was in the boiler The operator could then adjust pressure as needed by turning wheels and lifting or lowering levers The first automobiles had steering wheels (without hydraulic or electrical assistance of course) but braking was carried out with levers and gears were switched via a complicated system of switch-through coupling At that time speedometers tachometers and lights and indicators of oil pressure fuel levels and tire pressure were still a long way off

46

It wasnrsquot until 1902 that the eddy current speedometer was patented as the first speed measurement device that could function properly in a motor vehicle By 1910 this instrument had become standard equipment in all cars Almost all HMIs remain one-way devices down to this day which means that they provide users with information that the latter can only react to via a different channel ndash eg by hitting the gas or brake pedals in a car or by pushing various buttons on a machine toolItrsquos only very recently that vehicle systems have been developed which allow information input and response via a single channel Such systems generally take one of two forms Electronic driver assistance systems utilize some traditional controls such as the steering wheel or the brakes to warn drivers via slight shakes or vibrations that they are about to unintentionally veer out of a lane for example or else to alert them that they need to carry out an evasive or braking maneuver This can also be done acoustically of courseState-of-the-art display technology on the other hand provides for complete two-way interactive communication Touchscreens or multi-touchscreens display information the user can directly react to at the same spot ndash eg by means of context-controlled menus of various alternatives on the screen This makes it possible to consolidate the information received from several instruments and devices onto a single output medium on the one hand and to reduce the number of switches slide controls (eg for air conditioners) etc on the other

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz 250 S (1965)

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz Concept A-

46

SAFETYAutomobile safety is the study and practice of design construction equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design One of the first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Labs of Buffalo New York The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards However the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim the pedestrian In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every 8 minutes and are 15 times more likely than a vehicles occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily reduced injury and death rates in all first world countries Nevertheless auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths an estimated total of 12 million in 2004 or 25 of the total from all causes Of those killed by autos nearly two-thirds are pedestrians Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives

Almost all of the navigation devices included some form of warning or caution against use while driving these specifically targeted significant interactions with the unit such as programming a destination Warnings were incorporated into product start-up screens user manuals and sometimes integrated so that advisory messages are displayed when attempting to access a function while driving Figure 11 depicts some example warning screens which are displayed upon system start-up These require drivers to read and confirm or ldquoagreerdquo with the warning before launching into the application The following warning content or information elements were commonly found in these types of messages (irregardless whether lockouts were or were not available)

Driver responsibility for safe driving and compliance with traffic regulations Glancing at the display screens only when it is safe Programming the system or making selections only when the vehicle is

stopped Data may not be 100 reliable some errors in maps Becoming distracted as a result of using the device

46

Two Systems Technology is increasingly being seen to have a critical role to play in alleviating the negative aspects of road transport such as congestion pollution and road traffic accidents (Bishop 2005) Many technological initiatives are considered under the umbrella term Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) where ldquoITS provides the intelligent link between travelers vehicles and infrastructurerdquo (wwwitsaorg September 2006) In this respect in-vehicle computing systems are an important facet of ITS Specifically there are two core types of computing and communications systems which are either being implemented or developed for use in vehicles Information-based systems which provide information relevant to components of the driving environment the vehicle or the driver Examples of systems include navigation (facilitating route planning and following) travel and traffic information (traffic conditions car parking availability etc) vision enhancement (providing an enhanced view of the road ahead when driving at night in fog or in heavy rain) driver alertness monitoring (informing the incapacitated driver if they are unfit to drive) and collision warnings (presenting warningsadvice regarding hazards) Typically all lamps in panel should be classified into this kind of system These lamps can warn you whether your car is in a good condition is there something wrong with your engine Also when you leave your car with door opened you will be warned by hearing continues sound Information-based systems can improve safety for you and your car Control-based systems which affect the routine operational elements of the driving task Examples of systems include adaptive cruise control (where the car is kept at a set time gap from a lead vehicle) speed limiting (the car speed cannot exceed the current limit) lane keeping (the driverrsquos vehicle is kept within a given lane) self parkin (vehicle automatically steers in low speed operation to position itself within a selected parking space) and collision avoidance (the vehicle automatically responds to an emergency situation) Clearly such systems fundamentally change the nature of what we consider to be lsquodrivingrsquo

1) Driver assistance A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle Driver assistance systems include

Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Human Machine Interface in Vehicles

Automobile has become a complex interactive system Mechanical devices are transformed to the digital realm It is common that drivers operate a vehicle and at the same time interact with a variety of devices and applications Looking up an address in the map and taking a phone call are such examples that help the driver in driving but also increase the risk on the road The need to have a car with decent and safer usability from driver drives the researchers and auto companies discover the possibilities of driving with a friendlier and more powerful human computer interaction interface in the car As a result various inventions on usability have been made and they together make the interaction with automobile an easy and safe thing The design of usability in automotive domain generally focuses on multiple goals including safety comfort enhancement networking etc Actually in some cases the convenience is the same meaning with safety ie the easier the driver finishes one task when driving the safer he would be Generally manufacturers improve the feeling of convenience by adding automatic features to devices in the car a proper example here is power window which greatly reduce the complexity of controlling window in driving For the need of entertainment manufacturers usually upgrade the interaction with audio system ndash more functional buttons and better effect ndash since people need to take an eye on the traffic but their ears are available Beyond the basic enhancements in HCI in automobile recent years manufacturers are trying to integrate some more amazing features into the car by providing a powerful microcomputer and a central console with touch screen named vehicle telematics These novel features include navigation system auto drive and remote control etc Imagine this scenario you start a new day with a cup of coffee in the car watching the morning news from holographic projection that projected on the windshield Following the presetting route the car drives you to office after sending your children to school You have a quick review on the whole day agenda while the car looks for a best place to park After the car is parked you leave it without locking with a key ndash the car will unlock itself when sensing your biometric identification around Some parts of this fantastic scenario have been realization by the cutting edge technologies in automotive usability aspect

FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREENHuman-machine interfaces existed long before anybody ever referred to them as such The steam engine for example had a manometer that told the engine operator what the pressure was in the boiler The operator could then adjust pressure as needed by turning wheels and lifting or lowering levers The first automobiles had steering wheels (without hydraulic or electrical assistance of course) but braking was carried out with levers and gears were switched via a complicated system of switch-through coupling At that time speedometers tachometers and lights and indicators of oil pressure fuel levels and tire pressure were still a long way off

46

It wasnrsquot until 1902 that the eddy current speedometer was patented as the first speed measurement device that could function properly in a motor vehicle By 1910 this instrument had become standard equipment in all cars Almost all HMIs remain one-way devices down to this day which means that they provide users with information that the latter can only react to via a different channel ndash eg by hitting the gas or brake pedals in a car or by pushing various buttons on a machine toolItrsquos only very recently that vehicle systems have been developed which allow information input and response via a single channel Such systems generally take one of two forms Electronic driver assistance systems utilize some traditional controls such as the steering wheel or the brakes to warn drivers via slight shakes or vibrations that they are about to unintentionally veer out of a lane for example or else to alert them that they need to carry out an evasive or braking maneuver This can also be done acoustically of courseState-of-the-art display technology on the other hand provides for complete two-way interactive communication Touchscreens or multi-touchscreens display information the user can directly react to at the same spot ndash eg by means of context-controlled menus of various alternatives on the screen This makes it possible to consolidate the information received from several instruments and devices onto a single output medium on the one hand and to reduce the number of switches slide controls (eg for air conditioners) etc on the other

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz 250 S (1965)

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz Concept A-

46

SAFETYAutomobile safety is the study and practice of design construction equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design One of the first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Labs of Buffalo New York The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards However the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim the pedestrian In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every 8 minutes and are 15 times more likely than a vehicles occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily reduced injury and death rates in all first world countries Nevertheless auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths an estimated total of 12 million in 2004 or 25 of the total from all causes Of those killed by autos nearly two-thirds are pedestrians Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives

Almost all of the navigation devices included some form of warning or caution against use while driving these specifically targeted significant interactions with the unit such as programming a destination Warnings were incorporated into product start-up screens user manuals and sometimes integrated so that advisory messages are displayed when attempting to access a function while driving Figure 11 depicts some example warning screens which are displayed upon system start-up These require drivers to read and confirm or ldquoagreerdquo with the warning before launching into the application The following warning content or information elements were commonly found in these types of messages (irregardless whether lockouts were or were not available)

Driver responsibility for safe driving and compliance with traffic regulations Glancing at the display screens only when it is safe Programming the system or making selections only when the vehicle is

stopped Data may not be 100 reliable some errors in maps Becoming distracted as a result of using the device

46

Two Systems Technology is increasingly being seen to have a critical role to play in alleviating the negative aspects of road transport such as congestion pollution and road traffic accidents (Bishop 2005) Many technological initiatives are considered under the umbrella term Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) where ldquoITS provides the intelligent link between travelers vehicles and infrastructurerdquo (wwwitsaorg September 2006) In this respect in-vehicle computing systems are an important facet of ITS Specifically there are two core types of computing and communications systems which are either being implemented or developed for use in vehicles Information-based systems which provide information relevant to components of the driving environment the vehicle or the driver Examples of systems include navigation (facilitating route planning and following) travel and traffic information (traffic conditions car parking availability etc) vision enhancement (providing an enhanced view of the road ahead when driving at night in fog or in heavy rain) driver alertness monitoring (informing the incapacitated driver if they are unfit to drive) and collision warnings (presenting warningsadvice regarding hazards) Typically all lamps in panel should be classified into this kind of system These lamps can warn you whether your car is in a good condition is there something wrong with your engine Also when you leave your car with door opened you will be warned by hearing continues sound Information-based systems can improve safety for you and your car Control-based systems which affect the routine operational elements of the driving task Examples of systems include adaptive cruise control (where the car is kept at a set time gap from a lead vehicle) speed limiting (the car speed cannot exceed the current limit) lane keeping (the driverrsquos vehicle is kept within a given lane) self parkin (vehicle automatically steers in low speed operation to position itself within a selected parking space) and collision avoidance (the vehicle automatically responds to an emergency situation) Clearly such systems fundamentally change the nature of what we consider to be lsquodrivingrsquo

1) Driver assistance A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle Driver assistance systems include

Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

It wasnrsquot until 1902 that the eddy current speedometer was patented as the first speed measurement device that could function properly in a motor vehicle By 1910 this instrument had become standard equipment in all cars Almost all HMIs remain one-way devices down to this day which means that they provide users with information that the latter can only react to via a different channel ndash eg by hitting the gas or brake pedals in a car or by pushing various buttons on a machine toolItrsquos only very recently that vehicle systems have been developed which allow information input and response via a single channel Such systems generally take one of two forms Electronic driver assistance systems utilize some traditional controls such as the steering wheel or the brakes to warn drivers via slight shakes or vibrations that they are about to unintentionally veer out of a lane for example or else to alert them that they need to carry out an evasive or braking maneuver This can also be done acoustically of courseState-of-the-art display technology on the other hand provides for complete two-way interactive communication Touchscreens or multi-touchscreens display information the user can directly react to at the same spot ndash eg by means of context-controlled menus of various alternatives on the screen This makes it possible to consolidate the information received from several instruments and devices onto a single output medium on the one hand and to reduce the number of switches slide controls (eg for air conditioners) etc on the other

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz 250 S (1965)

Control panel of the Mercedes-Benz Concept A-

46

SAFETYAutomobile safety is the study and practice of design construction equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design One of the first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Labs of Buffalo New York The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards However the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim the pedestrian In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every 8 minutes and are 15 times more likely than a vehicles occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily reduced injury and death rates in all first world countries Nevertheless auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths an estimated total of 12 million in 2004 or 25 of the total from all causes Of those killed by autos nearly two-thirds are pedestrians Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives

Almost all of the navigation devices included some form of warning or caution against use while driving these specifically targeted significant interactions with the unit such as programming a destination Warnings were incorporated into product start-up screens user manuals and sometimes integrated so that advisory messages are displayed when attempting to access a function while driving Figure 11 depicts some example warning screens which are displayed upon system start-up These require drivers to read and confirm or ldquoagreerdquo with the warning before launching into the application The following warning content or information elements were commonly found in these types of messages (irregardless whether lockouts were or were not available)

Driver responsibility for safe driving and compliance with traffic regulations Glancing at the display screens only when it is safe Programming the system or making selections only when the vehicle is

stopped Data may not be 100 reliable some errors in maps Becoming distracted as a result of using the device

46

Two Systems Technology is increasingly being seen to have a critical role to play in alleviating the negative aspects of road transport such as congestion pollution and road traffic accidents (Bishop 2005) Many technological initiatives are considered under the umbrella term Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) where ldquoITS provides the intelligent link between travelers vehicles and infrastructurerdquo (wwwitsaorg September 2006) In this respect in-vehicle computing systems are an important facet of ITS Specifically there are two core types of computing and communications systems which are either being implemented or developed for use in vehicles Information-based systems which provide information relevant to components of the driving environment the vehicle or the driver Examples of systems include navigation (facilitating route planning and following) travel and traffic information (traffic conditions car parking availability etc) vision enhancement (providing an enhanced view of the road ahead when driving at night in fog or in heavy rain) driver alertness monitoring (informing the incapacitated driver if they are unfit to drive) and collision warnings (presenting warningsadvice regarding hazards) Typically all lamps in panel should be classified into this kind of system These lamps can warn you whether your car is in a good condition is there something wrong with your engine Also when you leave your car with door opened you will be warned by hearing continues sound Information-based systems can improve safety for you and your car Control-based systems which affect the routine operational elements of the driving task Examples of systems include adaptive cruise control (where the car is kept at a set time gap from a lead vehicle) speed limiting (the car speed cannot exceed the current limit) lane keeping (the driverrsquos vehicle is kept within a given lane) self parkin (vehicle automatically steers in low speed operation to position itself within a selected parking space) and collision avoidance (the vehicle automatically responds to an emergency situation) Clearly such systems fundamentally change the nature of what we consider to be lsquodrivingrsquo

1) Driver assistance A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle Driver assistance systems include

Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

SAFETYAutomobile safety is the study and practice of design construction equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of automobile accidents Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design One of the first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Labs of Buffalo New York The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards However the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim the pedestrian In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every 8 minutes and are 15 times more likely than a vehicles occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily reduced injury and death rates in all first world countries Nevertheless auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths an estimated total of 12 million in 2004 or 25 of the total from all causes Of those killed by autos nearly two-thirds are pedestrians Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives

Almost all of the navigation devices included some form of warning or caution against use while driving these specifically targeted significant interactions with the unit such as programming a destination Warnings were incorporated into product start-up screens user manuals and sometimes integrated so that advisory messages are displayed when attempting to access a function while driving Figure 11 depicts some example warning screens which are displayed upon system start-up These require drivers to read and confirm or ldquoagreerdquo with the warning before launching into the application The following warning content or information elements were commonly found in these types of messages (irregardless whether lockouts were or were not available)

Driver responsibility for safe driving and compliance with traffic regulations Glancing at the display screens only when it is safe Programming the system or making selections only when the vehicle is

stopped Data may not be 100 reliable some errors in maps Becoming distracted as a result of using the device

46

Two Systems Technology is increasingly being seen to have a critical role to play in alleviating the negative aspects of road transport such as congestion pollution and road traffic accidents (Bishop 2005) Many technological initiatives are considered under the umbrella term Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) where ldquoITS provides the intelligent link between travelers vehicles and infrastructurerdquo (wwwitsaorg September 2006) In this respect in-vehicle computing systems are an important facet of ITS Specifically there are two core types of computing and communications systems which are either being implemented or developed for use in vehicles Information-based systems which provide information relevant to components of the driving environment the vehicle or the driver Examples of systems include navigation (facilitating route planning and following) travel and traffic information (traffic conditions car parking availability etc) vision enhancement (providing an enhanced view of the road ahead when driving at night in fog or in heavy rain) driver alertness monitoring (informing the incapacitated driver if they are unfit to drive) and collision warnings (presenting warningsadvice regarding hazards) Typically all lamps in panel should be classified into this kind of system These lamps can warn you whether your car is in a good condition is there something wrong with your engine Also when you leave your car with door opened you will be warned by hearing continues sound Information-based systems can improve safety for you and your car Control-based systems which affect the routine operational elements of the driving task Examples of systems include adaptive cruise control (where the car is kept at a set time gap from a lead vehicle) speed limiting (the car speed cannot exceed the current limit) lane keeping (the driverrsquos vehicle is kept within a given lane) self parkin (vehicle automatically steers in low speed operation to position itself within a selected parking space) and collision avoidance (the vehicle automatically responds to an emergency situation) Clearly such systems fundamentally change the nature of what we consider to be lsquodrivingrsquo

1) Driver assistance A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle Driver assistance systems include

Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Two Systems Technology is increasingly being seen to have a critical role to play in alleviating the negative aspects of road transport such as congestion pollution and road traffic accidents (Bishop 2005) Many technological initiatives are considered under the umbrella term Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) where ldquoITS provides the intelligent link between travelers vehicles and infrastructurerdquo (wwwitsaorg September 2006) In this respect in-vehicle computing systems are an important facet of ITS Specifically there are two core types of computing and communications systems which are either being implemented or developed for use in vehicles Information-based systems which provide information relevant to components of the driving environment the vehicle or the driver Examples of systems include navigation (facilitating route planning and following) travel and traffic information (traffic conditions car parking availability etc) vision enhancement (providing an enhanced view of the road ahead when driving at night in fog or in heavy rain) driver alertness monitoring (informing the incapacitated driver if they are unfit to drive) and collision warnings (presenting warningsadvice regarding hazards) Typically all lamps in panel should be classified into this kind of system These lamps can warn you whether your car is in a good condition is there something wrong with your engine Also when you leave your car with door opened you will be warned by hearing continues sound Information-based systems can improve safety for you and your car Control-based systems which affect the routine operational elements of the driving task Examples of systems include adaptive cruise control (where the car is kept at a set time gap from a lead vehicle) speed limiting (the car speed cannot exceed the current limit) lane keeping (the driverrsquos vehicle is kept within a given lane) self parkin (vehicle automatically steers in low speed operation to position itself within a selected parking space) and collision avoidance (the vehicle automatically responds to an emergency situation) Clearly such systems fundamentally change the nature of what we consider to be lsquodrivingrsquo

1) Driver assistance A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle Driver assistance systems include

Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Infrared night vision systems to increase seeing distance beyond headlamp range

Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight beams to light the drivers way through curves and maximize seeing distance without glaring other drivers

Reverse backup sensors which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing

Backup camera

Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front

Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel

Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems

Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin

Electronic Stability Control which intervenes to avert an impending loss of control

Anti-lock braking systems

Electronic brakeforce distribution systems

Emergency brake assist systems

Cornering Brake Control systems

Precrash system

Automated parking system

2) Crashworthiness Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening It includes Seatbelts limit the forward motion of an occupant stretch to absorb energy to lengthen the time of the occupants deceleration in a crash reducing the loading on the occupants body They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Airbags inflate to cushion the impact of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicles interior The most important being the prevention of direct impact of the drivers head with the steering wheel and door pillar Laminated windshields remain in one piece when impacted preventing penetration of unbelted occupants heads and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car immediately following a collision It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally sharp edges rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the deceleration impact force on the vehicle occupants Vehicles will include a front rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too Safety Cell - the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials at places subject high loads in a crash in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants[4] Side impact protection beams also called anti-intrusion bars Collapsible universally jointed steering columns along with steering wheel airbag The steering system is mounted behind the front axle - behind and protected by the front crumple zone This reduces the risk and severity of driver impact or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash

Pedestrian protection systems Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs station wagons and vans These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover

Visual DisplaysAll of the systems inventoried included some form of visual display which drivers could use to program destinations view maps receive systems status information access visual-based routing and guidance information and perform other navigation related tasks Our review of available systems only found a single device on the market (the AudioNav AN221 developed by Pronounced Technologies) that did not have a visual display relying exclusively on voice interactions Over 80 of the systems examined consisted of a single common unit with integrated displays and controls Exceptions were the Alpine which used a remote control and the Infinity which incorporated a popup display positioned on the dashboard Although a host of parameters were documented three general characteristics associated with visual displays were of particular concern (1) the location of the display (2) the size and quality of the display and (3) the type and amount of information content presented on the display

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Mounting PositionAs shown in Figure 8 the vast majority of systems (80) located their visual display in the center stack area of the instrument panel where conventional radio and HVAC controls are traditionally found A few systems positioned the display on the dash area over the center stack closer to the driverrsquos line of sight controls for these types of systems tended to be located in the center stack areaThe Infinity system used this type of configuration which featured a retractable display that is only visible when the system is in operation This design positions the display closer to the driverrsquos line of sight yet limits distraction when the system is not in operation Other manufactures also offer retractable displays but not all are necessarily located along the top of the dashboard A few manufacturers mount or position displays low in the vehicle cab near the floor console some of these systems such as the Hertz NeverLost were mounted on a pedestal All systems allowed the display to be easily viewed by a front seat passenger

It is important to note that there can be considerable variation across systems and vehicle models in terms of where displays are positioned Aftermarket systems in particular are generally subject to greater variation than OEM systems since they are not part of the vehiclersquos original equipment

Type and Amount of InformationAs in-vehicle visual display screens become increasingly larger so too does the potential to make available more and more of information to drivers Since drivers oftentimes desire significantly more information than necessary to guide performance or decision making (Llaneras et al 2000) it is important to assess which specific information items drivers need to accomplish a particular task inorder to avoid overloading displays Display format may also play a significant role influencing not only usability (including the ability to efficiently extract information) but safety as well Moving map displays for example can be potentially distracting because they may induce the driver to glance at the display Displays presented while driving should be as simple as possible to avoid information overload and distraction Limiting the amount of information presented to drivers as they are driving is critical Displays that require frequent and lengthy glances might prevent drivers from monitoring the environmentMost navigation systems rely on three primary guidance display screens to communicate navigation information to drivers (1) maps (2) maneuver lists with sequenced turn directions and

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

(3) turn-by turn guidance displays which generally ldquopop-uprdquo in advance of a turn The overall utility of each depends on the particular task being performed Maps for example can be effectively used to plan a route (Bartram 1980) since they provide a pictorial representation of an area or region while ordered lists of directions can limit information processing and lead to fast and accurate navigation performance (Streeter et al 1985) Systems tend to use or make available all three types of information displays

IconsSymbolsCurrent research sponsored by the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is attempting to provide in-vehicle product designers with design guidelines for the development and evaluation of in vehicle display icons Early work in this area suggests that the process of developing and choosing icons is very subjective with no defined or systematic standards in place to drive their development or selection As a result multiple icons for the same messages are common (Carney Campbell and Mitchell 1998) This practice appears evident with respect to the design and selection of icons and symbols for navigation systemsAlthough the number and type of icons used varied all navigation systems employed some form of visual icons andor symbols Icons were used for a variety of purposes as menu items associated with text (address point of interest previous destination) map-based representation to denote landmarks and roadways and to denote system status information (GPS receptionsignal availability of system features etc) Common uses for IconsSymbols encountered in our set of reviewednavigation systems included among others the following representations

1048707 Vehicle Icon1048707 GPS Indicator1048707 WarningCaution1048707 Origin amp Destination1048707 Heading1048707 Turn Direction1048707 AudioSpeech Command Function Availability1048707 Destination Entry Methods (Address Book Street Address Point of InterestIntersection)1048707 Map Scale1048707 Points of Interest (Gasoline Station Hotel Food etc)

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMSMobile communication and productivity devices have become increasingly popular in recent years fuelled by advances in wireless technology increased processing power customization options pocketsized devices and a growing dependence on connectivity The Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association estimates that as of June 2001 there were 118 million mobile-phone users in the UnitedStates more than 4 of every 10 Americans As the US mobile phone market reaches maturity the future growth of the mobile industry is likely to depend in large part on multifunctional devices that possess a number of features such as communication (voice and text) Internet access time management tools and personal computingThough mobile devices have the potential to increase personal productivity these products also have the potential for distraction if used while driving The use of mobile phones while driving has become a controversial topic Many recent studies both epidemiological and experimental have cited the use of a mobile phone while driving as a significant contributor to driver distraction As a result various state andlocal governments have considered banning the use of handheld mobile phones while driving Some bans have been passed most notably in the state of New York

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMSAlthough the concept of in-vehicle entertainment is not new rear-seatinfotainment systems featuring video game portals and computeraccess is a recent introduction to the automotive market GeneralMotors led the OEMs with the introduction of their rear-seatentertainment system first launched onto the market in 1998 with itsOldsmobile Silhouette Premier minivan Sales exceeded expectationswith almost 12000 units sold during the first year Since that timeinfotainment systems have become increasing popular (particularly with the minivan and SUV market) with more and more automobilemanufacturers offering these systems as factory-installed optionsAftermarket suppliers have also introduced a wide range ofinfotainment systems available to consumers

Rear-seat entertainment systems offer a wide array of entertainment options including video cassetteplayers DVD music CD TV tuners standard radio and plug-in-play interface ports for gamesystems such as Nintendo 64 Sega or Sony PlayStation Systems generally include a basic controlunit (housing the player etc) an LCD flat-screen monitor infra-red remote control unit and

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

headphones As illustrated in Figure 20 three basic configurations exist (1) systems which attach to a seat-back (2) systems which are mounted on the floor console and (3) systems which are integrated into the vehiclersquos headliner Portable and retrofit models are also available these typically come equipped with power jacks that plug into the vehiclersquos cigarette lighter or power receptacle Some systems are integrated ldquoall-in-onerdquo display and control units while others locate the main control console separately from the display unit In most systems audio is presented via the vehicle speaker system with the capability to plug-in headphones for privacy thereby eliminating potential driver distraction from the audio Many provide the capability for front-seat occupants to listen to music while rear-seat passengers watch videos or play games

Auditory DisplaysMany automotive and Telematics industry representatives (and system designers) are relying on speech recognition technology (and other forms of auditory interactions such as text-to-speech) to keep the driverrsquos eyes on the road and hands on the wheel ndash a philosophy adopted by many OEMs While speech recognition systems may address some forms of distraction voice systems are not apanacea Speech-based interfaces can potentially reduce the visual and biomechanical demands associated with executing certain tasks making them more usable while driving but these types of interfaces are not resource independent and may still place considerable cognitive demands on drivers Llaneras Lerner Dingus and Moyer (2000) demonstrated in an on-road study various driving deficits associated with concurrent auditory displays including variations in speedmaintenance Further a host of outstanding human factors issues still need to be addressed if the benefits of auditory and voice response systems are to be fully realized and consistently applied (Llaneras 2000) These include among others determination of appropriate message lengths nature of voice commands diversity of the vocabulary error handling and recovery procedures system time-out protocols and impacts on situational awareness and objectevent detection There are also unique problems and aspects of speech recognition related to their application to the automotive environment Vehicles for example are subject to a wide variety of noises that can confuse speech recognition software and systems

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

relying on cellular links introduce other problems such as echoes electrical interference and poor signal strength Unreliable systems and those with low recognition rates can impose greater cognitive loads on the driver and may lead to increased errors and frustration

COMFORT

A Original Entertainment Equipments More and more people not only care about the driving experience of a car but also care about the comfort of a car this is the reason why more and more advertisement focusing on interior trim With CDFM becomes the common equipment in a car more and more people treat car as a ldquosmall homerdquo not only a driving tool Of course if you want to pay more money you can have more entertainment equipment in your car In-Car Entertainment is a collection of hardware devices installed into automobiles or other forms of transportation to provide audio andor audiovisual entertainment as well as automotive navigation systems (SatNav) This includes playing media such as CDs DVDs Free viewTV USB andor other optional surround sound or DSP systems Also increasingly common in ICE installs are the incorporation of video game consoles into the vehicle In-Car Entertainment systems have been featured TV shows such as MTVs Pimp My Ride In Car Entertainment has been become more widely available due to reduced costs of devices such as LCD screenmonitors and the reducing cost to the consumer of the converging media playable technologies Single hardware units are capable of playing CD MP3 WMA DVD

B New Facilities As the time change In-Car Entertainment systems also involved new features such as AUX heat seat and Internet When you get tired of listening FM music and tired of changing CD one by one You can just link iPod or MP3 into your car by AUX Then you can listen all music in that iPod or MP3 For heat seat imagine this in a cold winter you got up really early and you saw snow covered everything near you Is there something better than seating into a warm seat while driving to company Internet is an increasingly popular option in cars According to a study by market researcher Invensity that by the year 2013 every new car built in Europe will be equipped with Internet connection [7] Comfort of car may make us love to drive however it also bring negative effect to our safety while driving It is important to note that there is actually a third category of in-car computing system include those systems which do not provide any functionality to support the driving task These systems are an important consideration though as they can negatively influence safety particularly through the potential for distraction (Young Regan and Hammer 2003)Such systems may aim to enhance work oriented productivity whilst driving (eg mobile phones emailinternet access) or be primarily conceived for entertainmentcomfort purposes (eg musicDVD players games)

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

NETWORKINGBefore the computer technology evolved to be good enough manufacturers brought the usability of automobile to customers with a focus mostly on driving itselfThe traditional solution were consist of a bunch of on-board embedded electronics systems that performing various operational functions focusing on different purposes such as seat heating for comfort cruise control for enhancement parking sensor for safety etc While these helpers are already utilized in most of todayrsquos modern vehicle new need on networking is raising recent years due to the development of Internet digit devices such as tablet and smart phone Seeing this potential usability area manufacturers begin to research and install more and more in-vehicle embedded system that focus on providing better functionalities robust operation and higher degree of convenience to the in-vehicle users in the networking level Within this trend advance of wireless communication and information technology in the digital era has promoted new killer applications to the in-vehicle drivers and occupants Among these advanced killer applications services provided in the area of the telematics and informationentertainment have attracted most attention in the automotive industry

F Telematics Service Telematics were considered as the system that provides location-based services for mobile vehicles over wireless communication networks Typical example of automotive telematics services includes emergency call system which instantly connects vehicle users to a service center for emergency assistance or roadside services while automatically reporting the vehiclersquos position Normally the emergency call system requires a wireless transceiver for voice and data communication and an on-board GPS receiver for positioning Telematics system was considered as the core technology in an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and applications of telematics services to ITS have been proposed and developed in some countries An integrated positioning system were developed to realize an efficient and cost-effective GPS based electronic road pricing system by He Law and Ling [14] In the importance of ldquosituational awarenessrdquo in conveying the state of the automobile to other parties across a communication link was addressed and a novel interactivity environment for integrated intelligent transportation and telematics systems was proposed

G InformationEntertainment Services As more and more people are traveling with Internet-enabled information appliances (IA) such as laptops tablets smart phones digital cameras MP3 players etc there is a desire to connect to the Internet permanently from anywhere at any time without any disruption of service particularly for those people who spend a significant amount of time in mass transportation systems in weekdays or in their own vehicle during weekend In order to access the Internet an in-vehicle local area network or personal area network environment must be established and the in-vehicle embedded system shall become the mobile gateway for these Internet-enabled IA Ernst Uehara and Mitsuya detailed the networking requirements for connecting vehicles to the Internet by displacing an entire IPv6 network and network mobility support in the InternetCAR project The software and hardware

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

requirements in designing human-computer interface for an in-vehicle information system were proposed such that the safety of the in-vehicle drivers is discussed A distributed service-based architecture were proposed to provide fault tolerant application services to remote in-vehicle computers and mobile devices such as Wifi-enabled tablet and smart phone It seems that research trend has shifted to providing an infotainment server system for the in-vehicle users such that the network-enabled IA can access the information from the in-vehicle network and also obtain the entertainment services from the entertainment server

ENHANCEMENT Modern world has completely changed our lives by providing us with new technology and advancements Automobiles possesses an important place in everybody life Even though there are lots of types of cars that serve different purposes of various customer groups the very basic functionality of automobiles is always driving As automobile industry is such a large and profitable industry manufacturers make every effort to research and apply new technologies to enhance peoples driving experience Automatic transmission has made driving an easy task to almost every person Other techniques like cruise control and auto-piloting aims at continuing save people further from 5 8 HCI Symposium One of the most significant challenges in implementing safe Telematics devices is understanding driver cognitive load and determining what elements or design features contribute to distraction The relationship between particular system design elements or configurations and distraction is not fully understood Some basic human factors principles and guidelines do exist which can potentially reduce or minimize distraction associated with the design of a device or system but these tend to address higher-level principles Moreover the impact of a particular strategy ordesign on distraction may be difficult to predict some designs may appear to reduce task complexity or restrict information flow to drivers but in fact may have opposite or unintended effects Additional research is needed to assess design impacts on distraction both overall effects as well as situations under which a design element may be distracting Research examining the safety impacts must also consider driver use patterns (frequency of use circumstances of use etc) recognizing that the quality and convenience of particular features and devices may influence their use More work is also needed to advance the state of ldquodriver assistrdquo type systemswhich monitor workload and adjust system capabilities accordingly Since driver discretion and judgment are central to the distraction issue even well designedsystems are not immune to distraction induced problems System design is only part of the distraction issue Potential distracters of many sorts are often present but significant distraction does not always occur One major determinant of risk and distraction is the driver ndash their experience capabilities and skills Willingness to engage and the relationship between system design and driver experience with the system is an area which needs additional researchFinally this effort represents a snapshot of HMI elements and industry practices for a small set of Telematics devices at a given point in time It provides a benchmark Future efforts should follow-up using the same approach and a greater sample of devices in order to more accurately gauge industry trends

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

A Automatic transmission Automatic transmission is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves freeing drivers from having to shift gears manually Besides automatics there are also other types of automated transmissions such as a continuously variable transmission and semi-automatic transmissions which free the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmissions computer to change gear if for example the driver were redlining the engine Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and continuously variable transmissions A conventional 5-speed manual transmission is often the standard equipment in a base-model car Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions However the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions For most people there is a slight learning curve with a manual transmission which is likely to be intimidating and unappealing for an experienced driver And because manual transmission require the operation of an extra pedal and keeping the car in the correct gear at all times they require a bit more concentration especially in heavy traffic situations The automatic transmissions on the other hand simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed with the car doing the work of choosing the correct gear [9]

B Automotive Navigation System An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in automobiles Many modern vehicles are equipped with in-vehicle navigation systems that utilize global positioning systems (GPS) digital maps and automatic route calculation An navigation system typically uses a GPS navigation device to acquire position data to locate the user on a road in the units map database Using the road database the unit can give directions to other locations along roads also in its database Just entering a destination will typically generate an accurate route that is displayed to the driver Although the activity of entering a destination is not easy especially while driving voice activated systems are bringing to the market to solve this problem These systems can greatly improve the driving experience by helping drivers navigate in unfamiliar setting and reduce the mental load of remembering where to go Navigation systems rely on good human-computer interaction A quality design here helps drivers find their location and directions easily As the driver approaches a change in direction the application warns him in advance of an upcoming change These systems typically include calculations and displays of time and range to destination It would be easy to ignore safety issues by pointing out the troubles with driving and looking at a paper map The introduction of information systems into vehicles is a growing trend that can provide drivers with useful tools for navigation communication and exploration However in-vehicle information system (IVIS) cannot be allowed to distract users from the demanding task of driving Among these IVIS car navigation systems have been among the most widely adopted technologies The decision to open up the map is the drivers own However car navigation system manufacturers have a responsibility to society to produce safe systems in addition to possible liability

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

caused by their systems facilitating accidents There are lot of research focusing on exploring the safest ways to present navigational vehicles

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

C Cruise control Cruise control sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver Modern cruise control was invented in 1945 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked Daniel Aaron Wisher invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control is 1968 His invention was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry Two decades lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed and as a result cruise control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard equipment

D Autopilot When it comes to driving human beings have an appalling safety record With motor-vehicle accidents claiming more than a million lives worldwide annually car companies are pushing the development o technology that increasingly borrows control from erratic human beings allowing the car to drive itself An autopilot is a mechanical electronically or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being An autopilot usually refers specifically to aircraft self-steering gear for boats or auto-guidance of space craft and missiles But because of its technical constraints and great expenses autopilot has been evolved to common motor vehicles until the recent years However low-level autonomous safety features have been around in various forms for decades Antilock brake systems which automatically sense when a wheel is skidding and reduce brake pressure were introduced back in 1971 In 1997 General Motors introduced an Electronic Stability Control system that can sense the difference between the direction a car is going and the angle of the steering wheel and then pump the brakes to keep the car on course These safety features are so commonplace today that federal legislation requires they be installed on all new cars along with airbags and seatbeltsAnd the next generation of autonomy is already here The 2010 Ford Flex boasts Active Park Assist mdash just target a spot and the car uses ultrasonic range finders to park itself The 2010 Toyota Prius has a Lane Keep Assist system that uses a camera to detect lane markers and automatically steers the car toward the center of the lane And the Honda Accord comes standard with Adaptive Cruise Control which uses a radar pulse to scan ahead for other vehicles and then increases or decreases speed to maintain a safe following distance The current set of semi-autonomous safety features can quickly combine into something more For example a car could use Lane Keep Assist and Adaptive Cruise Control together to drive itself under highway conditions sticking to one lane and not hitting the car in front The next step is to expand these capabilities Adaptive Cruise Control currently works only over 25 mph but the next version (called Full Speed Range ACC) lowers that number to zero so that cars can begin to handle traffic jams in the city

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

E Driverless car Fully autonomous vehicles also known as robotic cars or driverless cars already exist in prototype and are expected to be commercially available around 2020 According to urban designer and futurist Michael E Arth driverless electric vehiclesmdashin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work travel and pleasuremdashcould reduce the worlds 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers which are not in use and parked 90 of the time would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular needmdasha bus could come for a group of people a limousine could come for a special night out and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety DUIs would no longer exist and 41000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone

H Products in practice The Telematics industry is dynamic with new products and partnerships continuously emerging to meet market demands Delphi Automotive Systems and Palm for example have teamed to launch MobileAria offering hands-free access to e-mail and internet features in their cars Microsoftrsquos CarNET connects home office and car by enabling information to be transferred among pagers cellular phones and desktop computers It will also lockout certain functions while driving (eg typing or reading text messages) The system makes use of Microsoft Windows CE for Automotive 30 operating system Ford and Qualcomm have collaborated in a new Telematics venture known as Wingcast The company will develop and deliver a host of mobile communication services including voice entertainment Internet access and safety services into cars and trucks offering a hands-free voice-activated interface inside vehicles and via other hand-held devices while outside the vehicleWingcast is working with automotive OEMs to supply reference designs for the Telematics hardware interface as well as system integration for cars and trucks Ford of Europe and Vondafone Group Pic are also partnering to provide in-vehicle Telematics services in Europe The Focus is the first European Ford with a Telematics system featuring emergency and roadside assistance traffic information dynamic routing and voice controlled services Some new concepts and product designs are presented below even though they represent prototype systems not currently available on the market they provide a sense of one possible the direction the industry is heading

OnStar A well-known example of telematics system is GMrsquos OnStar service which provides multiple emergency services Typically the OnStar in installed in the bottom of rearview mirror The OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile phone voice and data communications well as location information using GPS technology Drivers and passengers can use its audio interface to contact OnStar representatives for emergency services vehicle diagnostics and directions The OnStar service allows users to contact OnStar call centers during an emergency In the event of a collision

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

detected by airbag deployment or other sensors Advanced Automatic Collision Notification features can automatically send information about the vehicles condition and GPS location to OnStar call centers This Advanced Automatic Collision Notification service is designed to assist emergency response effortsAll OnStar equipped vehicles have Stolen Vehicle Tracking which can provide the police with the vehicles exact location speed and direction of movement

BMW iDriveImmersion and BMW have collaborated to developthe iDrive system featuring a single control dialmounted on the center console iDrive consists of a computer that controls several hundred functions(including basic climate and stereo settings) a centermountedLCD screen and a console-mounted rotarypushbutton knob that works as the systems primarycontrol The driver slides the dial to choose betweenmultiple control menus displayed on the in-dash LCDscreen The operating unit in the center console givesthe driver direct access to many other driving functions and information and communication options

The Controller can be moved in eight different directionsmatching the eight items on the main menu Rotating the dialmoves it through menus and lists while pushing the dialaxially selects a list item All changes and selections madewithin the control menus are saved each menu is presented in the same configuration as the last time it was used The dialalso returns automatically to its central position The iDrivecontroller allows the driver to have instant control of everycomfort element in the car from the on-board navigationsystem to the air conditioner to the mobile telephoneOne unique aspect of the controller is that it provides tactilefeedback which changes depending on the currently activemenu The controller ldquoclicksrdquo through each item as the user scrolls through it The manufacturers claim that the drivers sense of touch makes it possible to use the controller with minimal distractionfrom the road The tactile feedback of the controller is powered by Touchsensetrade technology fromImmersion (wwwimmersioncom) Confirmation of the selected mode is displayed on a dashmountedscreen Operating functions are also structured into three levels and prioritized onimportance and frequency of use

The BMW iDrive system includes a SiemensVDO Telematics link to the Internet enablingdrivers to check the weather at their destinationand call up addresses of destinations using aWireless Access Protocol (WAP)

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Ergonomical Interventions Through the Decades in Automobile HMI

Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)Over the course of the first half-century after the invention of the automobile event of a collision [1] The steering mechanism in very early automobiles was a tiller a lever arm that connected to the pivot point of the front wheels a design derived from small boats Tillers were easy to use for very slow speeds and lightweight vehicles (such as those with three wheels) However steering a jolting tiller with sheermuscle power was difficult for heavy four-wheel vehicles moving at high speedA bar handle with grips at both ends to be held with bothhands was introduced that could be held more firmly than the tiller A round steering wheel able to be turned by muscle power and easier to hold in the hands was first introduced around 1895The brake system for very early self-powered vehiclesconsisted of a wooden block pressed against one of the wheels using a hand-operated lever a technology adapted from horse carriages A foot pedal to operate the band brake firstappeared in Benz Velo in 1894 (Figure 2) The foot-operatedpedal could exert greater force than a hand brake and alloweda driver to use both hands to hold a steering wheel This could be why the steering wheel and the foot pedal appeared in thesame periodEarly automobiles were not equipped with any gaugesOil-pump gauges were the first instruments installed inside vehicles allowing drivers to confirm the oil flow and to inject additional oil when necessary Water-pressure gauges were also introduced around 1900 Durability was the biggest issue in the early stage of automobiles Therefore general monitoring of the condition of unreliable vehicles by the driver was critical and consumed considerable attentionThe speedometer was introduced after 1900 It wasmounted outside of the bulkhead separating the engine and cab where its cable easily fits The speedometer was introduced to highlight the vehiclersquos high-speed capability

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

After around 1910 instruments such as tachometers and clocks were installed inside automobiles These were directly fixed on the surface of the bulkhead and visibility to the driver was poor (Figure 3(a)) In the late 1910s instrument panels (or dashboards) were installed separately from the bulkheads (Figure 3(b)) The instrument panel configurations were inconsistent Some manufacturers concentrated the gauges in the central area of the panel and others distributed them across the panelAn indication of the importance of the industry was the growth of organizations to support it In 1901 the later German Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) association of automotive industry was founded as Verein Deutscher Motorfahrzeug-Industrieller (VDMI)VDMI was established to promote road transport defend against ldquoburdensome measures by the authoritiesrdquo (taxation liability obligations) support customs protection and monitor motor shows In 1923 the VDMI was renamed the Reichsverband der Automobilindustrie (RDA) The present name Verband der Automobilindustrie (VDA) was given to this umbrella organization of the German automotive industry in 1946

Meters on bulkhead (Alpha Romeo 24PH 1910 (a)) meters in instrument panel (Dodge Brothers Touring 1915 (b)) and meter cluster (Buick Series 50 1932 (c))

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)During these two decades the basic controls and displays of the motor vehicle continued to evolve An ignitiontiming lever had accompanied the steering wheel from early on Horn buttons began to be installed in the center of the steering wheel in the late 1920sWith regard to information presentation gauge clusters first appeared in 1920s often on a separate panel Grouping gauges allowed drivers to read them at a glance However most gauge clusters were placed in the center of the instrumentpanel Before the 1920s switches or knobs typically did not include labels to indicate their function Drivers had to learn and memorize the function of each Labels first appeared on controls and on the surface of instrument panels in the 1920sIn the 1930s speedometers and other instruments began to be installed directly in front of drivers to improve their visibility (Figure 3(c)) a practice that became common in the 1940s American and many European luxury automobiles in this period were equipped with a shift lever on the steering column In early vehicles one signaled the intention to turn using a winker a mechanically operated arm or flag that extended from the side of the vehicle first appearing in the 1910sThe exterior signal became a mechanical semaphore in the 1930s (Figure 4) and finally an electric light in the 1950s in Germany A turn-signal switch or turn-signal lever was also being installed in the steering column by the late 1930sThus basic human factors design features such as easy to- operate steering equipment and switches visible gauges and a reasonable driving position were introduced during the 1930s and 1940sNote that throughout that period design decisions to accommodate human operators and passengerswere based largely on heuristics from engineersrsquo experienceAlso numerous features were designed and implemented to ease the driving task such as synchronized gears and improved windshield wipers as well as switchable low and high beams

Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and SafetyEstablishment of Human Factors as a Field of Endeavor (1940 to 1949) Although one can identify the roots of human factors being in early work in industrial engineering such as that of Taylor and Gilbreth activities at Bell Labs on communication quality and other examples human factors as a profession did not take off until WWII [8] Human factors research was introduced duringWorldWar II to adapt military technologies to human operators to make systems more effective and

Turn indicator (BMW 335 1939)

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

reliable This research field was then expanded to the commercial aviation and automotive industries after WorldWar II There was not an immediate transfer of human factors ideas from military to civilian activities In part this was because the initial transfer was from military organizations to defense contractors which took several years and Europe and Japan were recovering fromWorldWar IIHowever this period was not without some progress Passive-safety technology was introduced at the end of the 1940s The instrument panel was covered with sponge rubber in American automobiles by Tucker in 1948 and Chrysler in 1949Also there was considerable growth in the organizations interested in automotive research some shortly after World War II others later The earliest one was British Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) (UK) founded in 1946

Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research A survey of the literature on human engineering in the 1950s conducted by the US Army Human Engineering Laboratory indicated that studies at that time focused on driving visibility (including glare) cab layout based on anthropometric data and the design of controls

Human Factors Research Activity in 1960sIn the 1950s automobile manufacturers recognized that anthropometric data could be the basis for laying out the cab to ensure that the driver (1) could see the road traffic signals and other vehicles outside of the cab (2) could see controls and displays inside the cab and (3) would be able to reach controlsIn 1959 the SAE Manikin Subcommittee began developing an easy-to-use tool for ergonomic design based on anthropometric data The SAE two-dimensionalmanikin (2DM) and three-dimensional manikin (3DM) were codified in SAE J826 which was published in 1962 The hip-point (H-point) which was the origin on the human body for automotive cab design was defined in this standardtogether with specific measurement procedures The 2DM was used to design the side view of the vehicle and the 3DM was used to design cab mockups With the

Turn signal lever in instrument pane (Mercedes-Benz 500K 1935) and that in steering column (Morris Eight Series I 1937)

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

development of control theory studies were conducted to apply this theory to steering maneuvers Studies to measure mental workload introducing methodsfrom physiology and the cognitive sciences began in the 1960s Brown and Poulton assessed driversrsquo spare mental capacity using auditory subsidiary tasks requiring the driver to identify a digit that differed from the previous one One pioneering study on driving behavior was Senderrsquos 1967 study to measure visual demand while driving using an occlusion device with a moving frosted plastic visor on the helmet

Human Factors Research in the 1970sSymbols to indicate control functions were introduced in the 1950s mainly for European cars to avoid the need to produce a different instrument panel for each language region in which a vehicle was sold These symbols did not require reading written words and were intended to be intuitive However when different symbols were used to indicate the same function drivers could become confused

Human Factors Research in the 1980sAs with every recent decade in the USA the 1980s had a particular vehicle that received attention forissues related to crashworthiness Head-up displays (HUDs) were initially developed for aviation and superimpose information of aircraft air speed altitude and angle of attack onto the forward view As eye transition and accommodation times were reduced the user could spend more time looking at the forward sceneIn motor vehicles HUDs have been used to show vehicle speed warnings turn signals and more recently navigation information The first studies with HUD prototypes were conducted by Rutley [62] who showed that HUDs can havebenefits without the negative distracting effects reported in aviation applications HUDs were introduced in the market at the end of the 1980s (General Motors 1988 Nissan 1988) As the initial application was to present speed which was not as time-critical as the flight data shown in aircraft the customer demand for automotive HUDs when introduced was not great The end of the 1980s saw the beginning of an era of driver information and driver-assistance systems One early human factors study of driver information systems involved measuring glance time and number of glances for a variety of conventional tasks and navigation tasks using a prototype computer map navigation system One study indicated that centerline deviationincreased when the driver used a CRT touch screen

The 1980s were the decade of the computer Digital computers and software began to see wide use in human factors research including digital human models for designing cabinaccommodations thermal manikins for evaluating thermalcomfort in the cabin and video systems for measuringdrowsiness Computer technology reduced design time andmade handling complex data easier The questionnaire andthe secondary-task methods were established for mentalworkloadmeasurement based on resource models from psychologyThese measurement methods and driving-simulatortechnology would become useful human factors researchtools for the intelligent vehicles and connected vehicles in thefollowing decades

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Human Factors Research Since 1990sResearch on automotive human factors reached a turningpoint in 1990 with the introduction of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) previously known as Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS)With the aimof enhancing vehiclemobility and safety using information and communicationtechnologies government projects began in the USA andJapan The Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) wasconducted in the late 1960s in the USA [84] The Japaneseprojects included the Comprehensive Automobile TrafficControl System (CACS) (1973) RoadAutomobile CommunicationSystem (RACS) (1984) Advanced Road TransportationSystem (ARTS) (1989) and Vehicle Information ControlSystem (VICS) (1990) [85] Europersquos research initiativeProgramme for European Traffic of Highest Efficiency andUnprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS) (1987ndash1995) initiatedthe research era of driver information and driverassistancesystems [86] PROMETHEUS was followed by asequence of projects (eg DRIVE GIDS EMMIS HASTEand AIDE) that focused on the development of integratedHMI concepts [87] and suitable evaluation methods [88]The automotive industry also promoted ITS technologydevelopments during this period In 1981 Honda releasedGyrocator the first in-vehicle navigation system with a mapusing a transparency sheet At about the same time Toyotareleased NAVICOM which indicated the direction of adestination using a simple arrow Etak Navigator the firstafter-market car navigation system using a digital map wasreleased in 1985 in the USA The digital map was storedin cassette tapes and location was determined by a deadreckoningsystem using a compass In 1987 Toyota launchedElectroMulti Vision which was a predecessor of present-dayin-vehicle car navigation systems (Figure 11) An in-vehiclenavigation system manufactured by Sumitomo Electric wasinstalled in the Nissan Cima in 1989 [89] The Bosch Travelpilotwas delivered in the same year in Europe In-vehiclenavigation systems spread after GPS became available in 1990(officially in 1993) The first on-board installed navigationsystem including a GPS unit and mapmaterial in Europe wasdelivered in 1994 by BMWusing a color-TFT display and abutton-operated softwaremenu system Later versionswhichsupported audio and communication functions were movedto the center console andor operated by a touchscreendepending on the OEMs human-machine interface (HMI)concept This development steadily led to unique integratedsolutions for each brand as well as unique mobile navigationsystemsThere were various efforts to design integrated driverinterfaces for in-vehicle information and other existing invehiclesystems (audio and climate) as the number of functionswas increased Toyota developed the integrated joystick(Toyota Ardeo 1998) BMW introduced i-Drive Mercedesintroduced Command Audi introduced MMI (Multi MediaInterface) as well (2001) which similarly included interactionusing a rotary control knob in the center console [63] Nissanintroduced its integrated driver interface in the same year(Figure 12) The position of a central information display close to the windscreen became common at the end of the1900sAs with other decades in the USA the 90s was notwithout its media controversies over crash risk the mostnoteworthy of which was the 1977ndash1983 CK pickup the mostpopular vehicle sold by General Motors

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Until 1990 the driver was regarded as an element ofthe driver-vehicle system interacting with the vehicle byoperating the steering wheel and pedals to manage theprimary driving taskWhen a navigation system was installedinside the vehicle the driver had to performnot only vehiclecontroltasks by operating the vehicle but also navigationtasksWhen drivers used a papermap reading themap whilethe vehicle was in motion was not easy Often drivers hadto stop the vehicle and read a map to find their way to adestination When a navigation system was installed insidethe vehicle and the system indicated where to turn thenavigation task could easily be performed in parallel withdriving tasks (ie a dual-task condition)

In addition backup monitors utilizing the navigationsystemrsquos display were introduced in the 1990s to reducebacking crashes The 2000s saw the introduction of lanekeepingsystems which assist drivers by steering to help themstay in the lane (Nissan 2001) and the collision-mitigationbraking systems which intervene with active braking whendistance-sensor data indicates that a collision is unavoidableThese systems are an extension of lane-departure warningsystems and blind-spot warning systems Recent entries intothe market are the lane-change decision-aid systems whichprovide warnings when the driver begins to change lanes butanother vehicle is in the adjacent lane

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Efficacies

Increased functionality

Perception of the external environment So far the fusion of available sensors and artificial intelligence is not capable of ldquoseeingrdquo and understanding the vehiclersquos surroundings as accurately as a human being can Humans use a combination of stored memories and sensory input to interpret events as they occur and anticipate likely scenarios For example if a ball were to roll onto a road a human might expect that a child could follow Artificial intelligence cannot yet provide that level of inferential thinking nor can it communicate in real time with the environment ldquoThese algorithms are very complex and will need to replace over 16 years of human learningrdquo explained Christian Schumacher Head of Systems amp Technology for Continental Automotive Systems

New threats to personal privacy Even now with pervasive connectivity in and outside of our vehicles we are finding it increasingly difficult to preserve our privacy As the use of autonomous and connected vehicle solutions expands maintaining individual privacy within the transportation system may become even more arduous Although the increased use of sensing tracking and real-time behavior evaluation creates new privacy issues as well as ethics and policy dilemmas the benefits to be derived from vehicle sensor and communication technologies make them an appealing pursuit for most stakeholders

Privacy concerns must be resolved to enable the deployment of integrated sensor-based and cooperative vehicle technologies A balance between privacy protection interests and other affected interests is essential to resolve conflicts between the stakeholders who will make decisions about how information is collected archived

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

and distributed Potential stakeholder concerns are numerous disclosure of vehicle data could reveal trade secrets public personalities such as politicians and celebrities could be connected to potentially embarrassing locations or routes and ordinary citizens could find themselves spammed or stalked as the data enables a variety of harmful applications such as commercial misuse public corruption and identity theft

Travel Time Dependability

Anticipated travel time is the most useful information to support trip decisions and assess the operational status of a transportation network and convergence provides the opportunity to eliminate or at least substantially reduce uncertainty in travel times Non recurrent congestion can account for as much as 30 percent of the delay faced by drivers31 In addition with unpredictable traffic patterns traffic congestion can occur at any time of day In large urban areas such as Los Angeles ldquorush hourrdquo congestion regularly lasts more than six hours and approximately 40 percent of total traffic delay occurs in off-peak hours when travelers and freight companies expect relatively free-flow conditions

Workload Driving Task Effects

Workload describes the amount of mental stress a driver experiences while performing his driver task For exampleworkload may increase when crossing a busy intersection or when entering a highway Workload is relatively low whilecruising a lowtraffichighway with constant speed Performing multiple tasks at the same time tends to increase workloadA theory describing the causes and effects of multitasking by humans is Wickens Multiple Resource Theory The attention and performance of the human brain is divided into separate specific parts each part handling for example visual tasks or verbal tasks According to the theory workload can be reduced by offering information in three different states (early or late processing) modalities (auditory or visual) or codes (spatial or verbal) Multiple tasks can be performed without decreasing quality as long as they are offered for example in a combination of visual and verbal tasks In case of the driver a secondary task like talking to an onboard computer can be performed while maintaining safe longitudinal distance and lateral position

Problems Regarding the Interface

The design of a user interface relies heavily on the underlying system This system provides the interface with a challenge namely to let the user cooperate with or use the system The interaction between user and system involves different fields of science which makes interface design a challenge

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Suggestions For FutureAdaptive Interface

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

The focus of this concept is on adaptability The interface shows information depending on the system state always providing both sufficient and efficient information Adaptability can be achieved using software or hardware

InputInput for this concept is given through voice commands Feedback on voice commands is given by auditory and visual cues The steering wheel contains backup buttons for interface control but voice commands should be the main source of input

Adaptive softwareFollowing the current trend of increasing use of displays instead of conventional vehicle instruments the output of the software version is given through a digital display On the display the usual dials and indicator can be shown along with ADAS output With system states changing to more supportive modes the display will show more ADAS output and minimise other systems

Adaptive hardware Using hardware the dashboard can be altered according to system use Dials and indicators can slide or rotate in order to be visible or not This way the user can get more in touch with the system and may better understand whats happening

Grouping InformationThe adaptive character of this concept introduces a possible problem with recognition and expectancy Users may not always receive information from the same location For example when driving in the informing state the vehicle speed is displayed large and in the centre left part of the screen After switching to a higher state of support the speed maybe displayed smaller and in a different locationTherefore its necessary to define groups of information as also recommended in several interface guidelines53ndash Conventional vehicle dynamics including speed engine revolutions fuel statusndash System failure indicators warning lights and sounds for system failure either vehicle or ADASndash ADAS output the visual display offers opportunities for ADAS output as described below In combination with buttons or voice control it may also be used as part of the input system for ADASndash Secondary system output the display may also be used for secondary assistant applications like parking assistance and nightvision systems The instrument cluster is not considered a suitable location for multimedia output

The hardware version should support grouping by placing information output devices on separate interiorcomponents The software version can simply use a digital display to support this

OutputBoth concepts use a visual display to show which system state is active and which ADAS systems are running The following drawing shows the basic workings of such a display

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

FuturisticThis concept uses relatively new and unproven technology54 to provide the user with information The main information output is shown on the windscreen using an augmented reality display On this display the information is shown within the line of sight of the driver

Interactive Driver AssistantThe driver assistant is a physical or virtual appearance in the car providing the driver with tips and advice on driving safety Ideas for this concept include actual robots computerised voices and virtual road buddiesA physical form of driver assistant can also express certain traffic conditions or vehicle status For example a scanning movement of some kind can indicate system alertnessWith this concept focus is on interactions between the driver and the system as well as with system intelligenceIntelligence should prevent the assistant from assisting too much or its unwanted

InputThe input method for this concept is voice control By being able to communicate naturally with the car a certainamount of trust and comfort can be created The assistant will reply with voice answers To control the system states a physical robot could be aimed at a traffic situation For example aiming the face on the road would put the car in the controlling mode aiming the face on the dashboard would put the car in assisting mode

OutputSystem output is given through voice commands visual cues and expressions of the assistant These output channels may also be used by other car systems like information and navigational applications The assistant should use expressions or movements to indicate alertness or inattention The user should be able to trust the assistant to watch out if he wants him to do so

System IntegrationThe assistant concept is also able to present information and entertainment to the driver Not only is the assistant aware of the traffic safety situation he should also know when to play music and which music to play A personal bond with the assistant may also increase trust between him and the driver

Workload amp Driving Task EffectsThe integration of a workload management system should prevent mental overload A problem with such a solution is the lack of modularity of it In the Car of the Future the user may add or remove parts and components like PDAs phones etcetera The workload manager should be designed to be adaptable so that it adapts to every car configurationIf successful the system concept offers a lot of time space for secondary driving tasks or even nondriving related tasks like work or leisure The workload manager is capable of combining ADAS systems with these other applications

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

HMI in 2020

Key Trends Automotive HMIs are influenced by global trends in several key areas personal mobile devices consumer electronics car technology demography economy and legislation

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Personal Mobile Devices Introduction of Apple‟s iPhone back in 2008 gave the smartphone market a powerful boost Since then the growth rates have been nothing short of spectacular with Gartner predicting that more than 1bn smartphones will be shipped in 2015 [Gartner] meaning that almost every driver will have one or more of these personal mobile devices Every new generation of smartphones becomes more powerful enabling users to perform increasingly more complex interactions in such areas as entertainment shopping social networking or gaming Some key trends will shape the smartphone market between now and 2020 First mobile devices are increasingly customized by 3rd party applications IDC predicts that in 2015 more than 183bn applications will be downloaded [IDC] generating a revenue of $37bn [Canalys] Second mobile services will increasingly become cloud-based making use of ever higher connection speeds and improving network coverage Users now access the same set of data in the cloud from various devices they own using the same personalized UI Third user interfaces on smartphones are being defined by touch voice and motion with users routinely using voice to complete various tasks New services make use of user‟s ldquomobile contextrdquo which incorporates user‟s location and situation personal preferences and attitude Finally smartphones continue to use a multitude of mobile operating systems with no OS gaining dominant position Influence on Automotive HMI Since drivers want to use their smartphones also while driving automotive HMI has to allow seamless integration of various brought-in personal devices based on various software and hardware standards It should enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices such as shopping social networking or communication In order to help users deal with an ever growing number of tasks of increasing complexity automotive UI has to be simple intuitive and flexible Another requirement is the ability to cope with downloadable apps in a safe way because the same apps are used in the car and on the go using cloud-based profiles Automotive HMI has to use concepts and technologies that users know from personal devices where UI innovation happens at a faster pace buttons and visual indicators are being replaced by motion recognition touch speech commands and alerts voice biometrics and handwriting recognition Driverrsquos ldquomobile contextldquo- location preferences and emotions - has to be used to make the HMI more intuitive Just like mobile devices in-car HMI is connected to the internet all the time and is upgradeable over the air but is also usable off-line

Consumer Electronics While the consumer electronics market does not witness the dramatic developments seen in the personal devices market it continues to exert important influence on the automotive HMI evolution The key trend in consumer electronics is that of the connected home Various home appliances are now connected to the Internet and therefore can interact with other appliances or be controlled remotely Consumer electronics OEMs increasingly introduce speech technology as a way of simplifying user interfaces on the devices which often have limited screen size or no screen at all Influence on Automotive HMI As consumer electronics gets connected consumers expect their cars to do the same Therefore most cars will be connected to the internet all the time and automotive HMI will be used to control and communicate with connected CE devices left at home

Car Technology The automotive industry is being shaped by four mega trends emission reduction safety convenience and affordability [Roland Berger] While there is no lack of innovation in the industry longer product cycles mean that it takes longer for cutting edge innovations to reach the market The number of models is on the increase - from 4400 in 2010 to 6000 in 2020 [ATKearney] - with new segments being defined yearly Penetration of infotainment and telematics systems is also on the rise with affordable solutions like Ford Sync and Fiat BlueampMe

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

bringing them to the lower end segments of the market Connected car is the most important trend in car telematics and infotainment with 50m connected cars expected to be sold in 2015 [IMS] Importantly consumer research suggests that key in-car applications are mostly car- and travel-centric (real-time traffic and weather off-board and on-board navigation emergency calling off-board vehicle information) ie different from those on personal mobile devices or PCs

Influence on Automotive HMI Mega trends in the car industry have direct influence on the evolution of the automotive HMI Proliferation of market segments brings demand for customizable solutions that can fit into numerous models rather than one or several Connected car means that HMI has to be designed with connectivity in mind And while safe completion of core automotive tasks stays in the focus automotive HMI should also enable safe completion of non-automotive tasks that users usually perform on their mobile devices (shopping social networking entertainment) The growing importance of the Asian markets drives broader adoption of such UI concepts as handwriting recognition Automotive HMI will increasingly make use of UI concepts and technologies that users are familiar with from CE in a safe way

Social and Demographic There are important social and demographic trends that affect the way drivers perceive and use their cars One social phenomenon observed in developed but also in developing markets is that a car starts to lose its position as a status symbol and thus its utility aspect gets more attention Another social trend that is directly influencing the automotive HMI is the universal desire of people to stay connected wherever they are Continued urbanization fuels demand for smaller but ldquosmarterrdquo cars A new category of drivers is emerging non-buyers with car sharing projected to grow at CARG of 30 until 2016 [FrostampSullivan] Analysis of the global demographic situation shows a diverging picture while drivers get older in the developed countries car buyers in new economies are younger and technology-savvy

Influence on Automotive HMI Aging of drivers in mature markets means that automotive HMI has to be built on simple and intuitive concepts suitable for older drivers speech commands and alerts voice biometrics gesture recognition Also demand for new types of related in-car services will grow driver health monitoring concepts emergency services etc Young drivers will embrace new HMI concepts as long as they are convenient and intuitive to use The increased popularity of car sharing brings the need for personalization for many drivers in the same vehicle Because customers want and expect connectivity in their cars HMI should enable safe and convenient use of connected services and access to personal data stored in the cloud In some segments innovative and cutting edge HMI concepts can become an important differentiator to counteract overall decline in the importance of the car brand

Economic Development A key economic trend affecting the automotive industry is the shift of economic power to Asia Indeed it is predicted that in 2020 more cars will be sold in Asia than in North America and Western Europe combined [Economist] This means that almost all growth in the car industry comes from the emerging markets but cars sold there are cheaper cars with less sophisticated telematics and infotainment systems

Influence on Automotive HMI As more and more cars are sold in Asia demand for low-cost infotainment and telematics solutions with possibly degraded quality or functionality increases Many of the systems in these markets will replace the screen and most of the buttons by voice technology eliminating the need for expensive hardware components Support for local languages and dialects as well as handwriting recognition will be an important feature in these systems

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Legislation There are constant efforts in all regions of the world to raise safety and environmental standards for personal transportation These efforts often result in laws that prescribe certain always-on telematics services (e-Call ERA-GLONASS) to be installed in all cars or make the use of hands free mandatory when making calls while driving For example in the US talking on a hand-held phone while driving is banned in 10 states while texting at the wheel is prohibited in 36 states Influence on Automotive HMI Smaller and cheaper car resulting from the introduction of tighter environmental standards require lower-cost HMI solutions At the same time initiatives like eCall make the connected car a requirement and ensure broad adoption Similarly mandatory hands-free solutions result in a broader uptake of voice technologies

Automotive HMI fit for 2020 All trends mentioned above have their influence on the evolution of automotive infotainment systems in general and their UI in particular While predicting how a car HMI will look like in 2020 is no easy task certain traits and features can be predicted with reasonable certainty The first key aspect that is already being widely adopted is connectivity In a connected car the user interface is designed with connectivity in mind significantly enhancing the possibilities of such technologies as speech synthesis and especially speech recognition However when connectivity is not available the UI stays functional by making use of the embedded technologies Such a hybrid solution is powerful flexible and robust

Voice motion touch biometrics and handwriting technologies form the backbone of a car HMI in 2020 There are less buttons to press or knobs to rotate making the UI not only more intuitive and suitable for more complex tasks but also safer and easier to use for older people The UI of new automotive services is built around the ldquomobile contextrdquo of the driver ie the car takes into account driver‟s location and driving situation as well as personal preferences and attitude For example for a careful driver in a difficult traffic situation the car will keep distractions to the minimum and only show the most urgent notifications Since many of the tasks drivers perform are travel-related automotive HMI is specifically tailored for top performance in such areas as off-board and on-navigation real-time traffic and weather information vehicle diagnostics messaging etc At the same time the proliferation of smartphones music players and tablets means that another defining feature of the automotive HMI is seamless interoperability with brought-in mobile devices and consumer electronic devices at home This interoperability goes beyond the simple ability to operate various devices in the car and means for example that the same UI profiles and data are shared across cars mobile devices and consumer electronics A driver uses the same familiar UI across all his devices instead of learning different UI concepts for each device Another crucial feature is safe execution of downloadable applications in the car environment As cars are being shared by several (or even many) drivers fast and reliable driver identification using voice biometrics becomes important After the driver has been identified the car HMI is personalized according to his or her preferences However it is not only a matter of convenience but also a security feature since cars store or provide access to more and more personal information Finally unlike the current situation where the car UI normally does not change after the car is manufactured it will be possible to upgrade the UI over-the-air adding newly released features or fixing problems Drivers will additional UI features (like identification by voice) and get them activated without going to a service station And as the number of car models increases car manufacturers will seek to reuse the same HMI solutions across greater number of cars meaning that these solutions have to be modular and easily customizable

Convergence of system based Solution and Sensor based Solutions

Sensor-Based Solutions

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

The automotive industry is currently developing sensor-based solutions to increase vehicle safety in speed zones where driver error is most common at lower speeds when the driver is stuck in traffic and at higher speeds when the driver is cruising on a long stretch of highway (see Figure 3) These systems known as Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) use a combination of advanced sensors such as stereo cameras and long- and short-range RADAR combined with actuators control units and integrating software to enable cars to monitor and respond to their surroundings Some ADAS solutions such as lane-keeping and warning systems adaptive cruise control back-up alerts and parking assistance are available now Many others are in the pipeline

Connectivity-Based SolutionsConnected-vehicle systems use wireless technologies to communicate in real time from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) and from vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vice versa (Note that we use the expression V2X as shorthand for communication between vehicles and any other object) According to the USDOT as many as 80 percent of all crashesmdashexcluding those in which the driver is impairedmdashcould be mitigated using connected-vehicle technology

The Benefits to Convergence The convergence of communication- and sensor-based technologies could deliver better safety mobility and self-driving capability than either approach could deliver on its own As Pri Mudalige staff researcher for General Motorsrsquo Global RampD puts it ldquoV2V technologyhellipmay simplify the all-sensor-based automotive advanced driver-assist systems enhance their performance and make them more cost effectiverdquo18 Indeed our list of top benefits to convergence corresponds with Mudaligersquos and includes

a) Timing and Cost Convergence would help reduce the cost and complexity of stand-alone solutions Adding DSRC would eliminate the need for the more expensive sensors and bring down the cost of the overall package

b) Proxy for Human Senses Convergence would increase the inputs that are available for decision making and reduce the need for more sophisticated artificial intelligence The

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

combination of sensors and connected-vehicle solutions would allow self-driving vehicles to collect the requisite information to make real-time ldquodecisionsrdquo and respond to the myriad on-road scenarios drivers face every day Whereas sensors can see what is directly within their frame of vision V2V communication adds the potential for trajectory prediction as vehicles communicate their intentions to each other lessening the reliance on artificial intelligence

c) Functionality Redundancy There is no room for error with safety-critical functionality The technology has to work 100 percent of the time the combination of connected vehicle technologies and sensor solutions would provide a necessary level of redundancy

d) Infrastructure Investment Connected vehicle solutions require large-scale infrastructure investments Convergence could help mitigate some of this requisite investment by covering some use cases using sensors

REFERENCE

1) Automotive Technology and Human Factors Research

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality

46

Past Present and FutureMotoyuki Akamatsu1 Paul Green2 and Klaus Bengler3

1 Human Technology Research Institute AIST Japan2University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) USA3 Institute of Ergonomics Technische Universitumlat Mumlunchen GermanyCorrespondence should be addressed to Motoyuki Akamatsu akamatsu-maistgojpReceived 14 February 2013 Accepted 7 May 2013

2) AIDE TOWARDS FUTURE AUTOMATIVEBY Dominic Paul Piamonte

Volvo Technology

3) ADAS for the Car of the FutureInterface Concepts for Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Sustainable Mobility Concept of 2020

4) AUTOMATIVE USER INTERFACES amp INTERACTIVE VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS ( UNIVERSITAT SALZURG 2011)

5) AUTOMATIVE HMI FIT FOR 2020 BY ALEXANDER DAVYDOV amp NUANCE COMMUNICATION

• HUMAN MACHINE INERACTION - Inception to Growth
• • MEMEX
  • Hyperlink and X-Y Indicator
  • Videoplace
  • Kinect Camera
  • Leap Motion
  • • FROM HAND WHEEL TO MULTI TOUCH SCREEN
    • SAFETY
    • • Two Systems
      • 1) Driver assistance
      • 2) Crashworthiness
      • Pedestrian protection systems
      • Visual Displays
      • Mounting Position
      • Type and Amount of Information
      • IconsSymbols
      • • COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE PC SYSTEMS
        • ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
        • Auditory Displays
        • • COMFORT
          • A Original Entertainment Equipments
          • B New Facilities
          • • NETWORKING
            • F Telematics Service
            • G InformationEntertainment Services
            • ENHANCEMENT
            • • B Automotive Navigation System
              • • C Cruise control
                • D Autopilot
                • E Driverless car
                • H Products in practice
                • OnStar
                • • BMW iDrive
                  • • Early Stage of Automobiles (1886ndash1919)
                    • The Dawn of Automotive Human Factors Design (1920ndash1939)
                    • Human Factors Activities after World War II until 1989 The Era of Occupant Accommodation and Safety
                    • • Human Factors Research Activities in 1950s First Decade of Human Factors Research
                      • Human Factors Research Activity in 1960s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1970s
                      • Human Factors Research in the 1980s
                      • Human Factors Research Since 1990s
                      • • Increased functionality