Human Development Indicators and Spatial Development and ...
Transcript of Human Development Indicators and Spatial Development and ...
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Human Development Indicators and Spatial Development and Planning: Opportunities
and Challenges
Maida Fetahagić
Maida Fetahagić is Deputy Director in the Development Planning Institute of the Sarajevo Canton,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a Ph.D. candidate in the University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Science,
Department of Spatial/Regional Planning
Abstract
Connections and relations between human development concept and spatial
development and planning are explored and application of human development indicators in
creating spatial plans are considered in this paper.
Universal use of human development indicators implies their application in preparing
and creating spatial plans as well. Beside the standard human development indicators that
have been used so far, Spatial Development Index is presented for the needs of spatial
planning. Contribution of this paper is reflected in the methodology of spatial development
index that can be applied at the level of municipalities, cantons, regions or any other territorial
spatial units for preparation of spatial development plans.
Experiences of Bosnia and Herzegovina in national human development reports are a
special part of this paper. The need for spatial planning at the level of the BiH state was
underlined, as an instrument for arrangement of unique space of the state of BiH.
Consideration of the EU context of spatial planning imposes a new role of spatial planning in
BiH: this is also an instrument for successful integration into international and interregional
trends.
Key words: human development indicators, spatial development and planning, disparities in
development, Spatial Development Index, accessibility, European Union, Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Introduction remarks
In the first decade of this century, in the period of financial and economic crisis, social
issues and poverty and significant climate changes, the International Community continuously
appeals for measuring the progress of well-being and quality of life at global level.1
By introducing human development concept, the UN has also developed measuring
indicators of human development. Human Development Index (HDI) is the fundamental
indicator, combining indicators of health and education with GDP in a special way. This is a
contribution to quantification of the entire socio-economic aspect of the progress, Human
development indicators have provided the possibility of innovative thinking about the
progress in society, by introducing a simple, but powerful idea that development is much
1 OECD organized several world’s forums on statistics, knowledge and policies (Palermo 2004, Istanbul 2007
and Bussan 2009). European Commission, along with other partners, organized the conference entitled ―Beyond
GDP‖ in 2007, as well as in 2009, entitled ―GDP and beyond: Measuring progress in a changing world‖. Within
the global project ―Measuring progress of society‖, a special commission was established. According to its
report, the time has come for significance of measuring economic performances to be replaced by measuring
human well-being. Commission consisting of Joseph Stiglitz (The President) Amartya Sen (advisor) and Jean
Paul Fitoussi. Report is available at http://www.stiglitz-sen-fitoussi.fr/en/index.htm
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more than economic growth. Using human development indicators is a step towards
measuring the overall socio-economic progress.
Human development has significantly changed the way the world sees development
nowadays, while conception of human development has become a developmental paradigm of
the 21st century.
1. Measuring Human Development
1.1. Notion of human development
In the first published Human Development Report 1990, the UN introduced the
concept of human development, with holistic vision of development that puts people in the
focus of all developmental processes: all aspects of life – economic, social, political, cultural
and environmental are viewed from the perspective of expansion of the freedom of choice and
possibilities and improvement of human lives.
The notion of human development originates from the visions of Mahbub ul-Hag2,
Pakistani economist who wanted the world’s economic and social progress to be evaluated in
a way that is different than usual analyses of incomes and economic growth. The approach to
human development has been deeply inspired by Amartya Sen’s3 pioneer works on welfare
economics, social choice, poverty and famines, as well as developmental economy. Sen’s
―capability approach‖ and conception of ―development as freedom‖ has provided a basis for
new paradigm in economy and social sciences in general.
The first HDR 1990 affirms human development as a process of expansion of human
choices and levels of the achieved well-being. This is a core of the idea of human
development. In general, these choices are not final and they change over time. Regardless of
the level of a country’s development, people find the three essential choices the most
important: to achieve a long and healthy life, to acquire education and to have access to
resources necessary for a decent living standard. Unless these choices are available, many
other possibilities remain inaccessible.
After over 20 years of practice and academic papers on human development and
capability-based approach, the latest HDR 2010 redefines human development: ―Human
development is the expansion of people’s freedoms to live long, healthy and creative lives; to
advance other goals they have reason to value; and to engage actively in shaping development
equitably and sustainably on a shared planet.4 People are both the beneficiaries and the drivers
of human development, as individuals and in groups.‖
Human development reports are published annually and all reports tend to articulate
the perspective of human development in one set of issues5. Besides the annual global report,
some 100 countries make their own state and regional human development reports nowadays.
Over 650 national regional reports have been published so far. The goal of these reports is to
evaluate quality of the life of populations and to be a tool for its improvement.
1.2. Human development indicators
2 Mahbub ul Hag (1937-1998) 3 Amartya Sen got the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998, for his contribution to welfare
economics. 4 HDR 2010 p. 2 5 Human development reports, beside the concept and measurement of human development, deal with the issues
of financing human development, global dimension of human development, people’s security and participation,
relation between economic growth and human development, poverty in the context of human development,
globalization, consumption, millennium development goals, democracy, fight against climate changes,
international cooperation, etc.
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Broad definition of human development concept, in general, imposes the issue of the
possibility of its measurement, quantification, planning, management and control. The
concept itself is much broader than the ways of its measurement.
The most important human development indicator is Human Development Index –
HDI. Other indicators are either derived from or obtained by analysis of this indicator.
Gender-Related Development index – GDI, Gender Empowerment Index – GEM, Human
Poverty Index – HPI were thus developed. Besides these indices, the possibilities for
calculation of other indices were studied, such as Human Freedom Index – HFI, Technology
Achievement Index – TAI, etc.
UNDP evaluates and improves the methodologies for calculation of the index, as well
as other human development indicators, on an annual basis.
The latest Human Development Report6 marks 20 years of human development
concept and promotes new indicators, introducing new aspects of inequality adjustments (The
Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index), gender inequality (Gender Inequality Index)
and multidimensional measurement of poverty (The Multidimensional Poverty Index)..
Report involves 169 countries, classification of which was carried out according to human
development index achieved, using new methodology.
Human Development Index
Human Development Index is a result of looking for a common measure for economic
and social development, referring to achievements of a country in fundamental human
development dimensions.
Human Development Index (HDI) includes three fundamental human development
dimensions, which refer to the capabilities that people expect to achieve. Those are the
following:
- life expectancy is achieved by the capability to live a long and healthy life,
- the achieved education is realized by the capability to acquire knowledge.
- the achieved living standard is realized by the capability to provide decent incomes for
life.
For calculation of HDI, as well as other human development indicators, it is necessary
to calculate the index for each dimension. Each dimension is measured by one or more
variables, combined into the index on the basis of the determined minimum and maximum
value of the given variable.
Use of the index of variables enables their combined application in a single indicator,
which would be usually impossible, since the variables are expressed in different units of
measurement (years, percentages, dollars). It is calculated by simple geometric mean of the
index of fundamental dimensions.
Changes introduced in HDR 2010 refer to the choice of dimension indicators,
transformation in the calculation of dimension index, as well as aggregation method; GNI/pc
is used instead of GDP/pc.
6 UNDP (2010): Human Development Report 2010, The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development,
Palgrive Macmillan, New York
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Table 1. Summary review of human development reforms, according to HDR 2010
Dimension
Until 2010 From 2010
Indicator Maximum Minimum
Indicator
Observed
maximum Minimum
Transformation Transformation
Long and
healthy life
Life
expectancy 85 25 Life expectancy
83,2 (Japan, 2010)
20
Knoledge
Adult
literacy rate 100 0
Expected years
of schooling 20,6
(Australia, 2002) 0
Combined
gross enrolment
ratio
100 0 Mean years of
schooling 13,2
(USA, 2000) 0
A decent
standard of
living
GDP/pc
(PPP US$) 40.000 100
GNP/pc
(PPP US$) 108.211
(UAE, 1980)
163 (Zimbabwe,
2008)
Aggregation
methods Aritmetic mean Geometric mean
Source: adapted from HDR 2010
2. Use of human development indicators
2.1. As an indicator of development
Human development indicators provide simple methods for users to analyze
development, refer to the condition of development, trends, gaps, etc. These indicators
provide a basis for development planners and development policy and strategy creators to set
priorities and define human development policy. At global level, the indicators are a basis of
comparison between the countries and regions of the world. ―The Index rests on a robust
conceptual framework - the capabilities approach of Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen—and is
based on a road-tested international tool that is the global gold standard for measuring human
well-being‖ (Burd-Sharps,S. and Lewis, K. 2011, p.5.).
The values of indicators – indices obtained can vary from 0 to 1 in theory and value
based countries classification is done at low, medium, high and very high development levels.
Human Development Report 2010, taking into account the changes in methodology,
classifies the countries by the value of the index obtained through quarterly distribution of all
countries (presented in Table 2).
Table 2. Classification of countries in relation to Human Development Index Countries in the context of
human development
HDI value Average HDI achieved in
2010 until 2010 since 2010
Very high development ≥ 0.900 ≥ 0.785 0.878
High development 0.800 – 0.899 0.675 – 0.784 0.717
Medium development 0.500 – 0.799 0.475 – 0.674 0.592
Low development < 0.500 < 0.475 0.393
Source: The Author, adapted from HDR 2010 and HDR 2009
According to HDR 2010, Norway is the most developed country and takes the 1st
position, with the achieved HDI in the value of 0.938. Considering HDI, Norway is 1.5 times
as developed as the world’s average and 6.7 times as Zimbabwe, which takes the last HDI
position, with HDI of 0.140.
Bosnia and Herzegovina takes the 68th
position, with the achieved HDI of 0.710, and
belongs to the group of countries with high human development.
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2.2. Disaggregation indicators
HDI disaggregation into components is one of important possibilities for the use of
HDI. HDI can be disaggregated in relation to regions, as well as given structure of population.
Depending on the purpose and goals of the study, as well as availability of data, it is possible
to carry out a number of disaggregation of the index dimensions. (See Table 3.)
HDI is, therefore, a valuable tool, not only for the international comparison, but also
for analysis of the levels of developmental capabilities in different regions within a country
with various socio-economic conditions. Value of the index at national level indicates the
position of a country in terms of human development, in relation to other countries in the
world. Disaggregated HDI, i.e. its value at the level of given parts of the country, or at the
level of given social groups, can suggest which position (and why) different administrative
units or groups within a country take in relation to others, as well as advantages and
disadvantages and, therefore, what priorities should be set at the level of central and local
authorities.
Table 3. Dimensions of Disaggregation
Spatial dimensions
National
Regional
Provincial
District level
Urban/rural
Urban slum/non-slum
Individual characteristics Gender
Physical/mental ability
Ethnic group
Children
The elderly
Migrant/non-migrant
Income Wealth quintile
Poverty line (above poverty line/below poverty
line)
Education Attainment (primary school, secondary school,
university)
Literacy
Employment Sector (agriculture, industry, services)
Status (formal, informal))
Other possible dimensions Other minority groups
Conflict-prone areas
Other economic classes requiring special policy
guidance
Source: Human Development Journey, Course, available at
http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/learnmore/title,20584,en.html
The use of disaggregated indices at national and sub-national levels contributes to
clarification of significant disparities and gaps between the regions, genders, between urban
and rural areas, etc. Analyses contribute to policy-making and taking actions directed towards
the gaps and inequalities. For example, it can contribute to restructuration of public
expenditures in the region or group of population with low HDI.
―A Portrait of California‖ is an illustrative example, created within the American Human
Development Project - Measure of America Series. The Portrait presents American Human
Development Index scores for different regions, metropolitan areas, and over two hundred
neighborhood clusters. Scores are also available for women and men as well as for racial and
ethnic groups. Perhaps the most innovative and exciting aspect of the report is sorting of
different parts of the state into the ―Five California’s‖, each with its own distinct profile. The
gaps in well-being within California that this report lays bare are startling. The analysis
reveals that some Californians are enjoying the highest levels of well-being and access to
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opportunity in the nation today, while others are experiencing levels of well-being that
characterized the nation decades ago.7 (Burd-Sharps,S. and Lewis, K.,2011, p.7).
Disaggregated HDI have been used for analyses in many countries, including Brazil,
China, Colombia, Egypt, Greece, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Turkey, Ukraine, USA,
South Africa, Peru, Bulgaria, etc.
2.3. Specific human development indicators
In order to address specific priorities and issues of the areas and in order to better
respond to development level of the areas, basic HDI components expressed at global level of
human development can be modified or replaced by other significant components specific for
the research area. Each country should choose the HDI components that refer to their
priorities.
Many national reports, starting from specific context of the country, developed new
indices, such as the Human Government Index (HDR South Asia 1999), Health Index (HDR
China 2002), Expanded Human Development Index (Argentina 2002), Service Deprivation
Index (HDR South Africa 2003), Cantonal Security Index, Insecurity Perception Index and
Individual Freedom Index (HDR Costa Rica, 2005) etc.
Extensive research was performed for the needs of creating the Peru Human
Development Report 2009 ―A State Density that Serves the People‖.
The two volumes of the Report explore a vision of the Peru from two angles. The first
volume analyses the concept of the State as basic service provider in the entirety of the
Peruvian territory. To achieve this, the expert team developed a State Density Index (SDI –
IDE in Spanish) composed by the following variables: identity cards/birth certificates,
physicians per habitants, secondary school assistance rate, households with potable water and
sanitation installations, and access to electricity in the housing.
The second volume explores the concept of the State based on the geographical
criterion defined by the natural territory and determined by available resources and their
relation to human development. In this way, the analysis addresses specific problems and
existing and latent vulnerabilities in the perspective of climate change and food insecurity.
From this perspective, the report draws a particular attention to the theme of the country’s
hydrological resources, which constitute the natural framework to facilitate communication
and sustainable development.8
Taking into account the specific situation in BiH, the EU context of social exclusion
and the concept and measurement of human development in ―Human Development Report
2007 – Social Inclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina‖, the methodology for calculation of
social exclusion index was developed for the first time. The General Social Exclusion Index
(HSEI), The Extreme Social Exclusion Index (HSEI-1) and The Long-term Social Exclusion
Index (HSEI-2) were evaluated.
HSEI suggests that 50.32% of BiH population is socially excluded BiH; HSEI-1
signifies that 21,85% of BiH's population is extremely socially excluded from the most basic
7 • Asian American women in California can expect to live up to 88.6 years, over eighteen years longer than
African American men.
• A stunning $58,000 gap in median personal earnings separate the top earners in the Santa Clara–Cupertino,
Saratoga, Los Gatos area (about $73,000) from the lowest earners in the LA–East Adams–Exposition Park area
(about $15,000)—a gap double the median personal earnings for the country as a whole. • While only about seven in one hundred white adults in California never completed high school, this figure
rises to forty-five in one hundred Latino adults in the Los Angeles metro area. (Ibid, at p.7) 8 The Report is available on:
http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/nationalreports/latinamericathecaribbean/peru/name,20206,en.html
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processes and needs; and HSEI-2 shows that 47% of the BiH population is at risk of long-
term exclusion.
This Report on B&H got two eminent world’s awards: UNDP award for excellence in
measuring human development, New York, 2009 and the award for innovations in
measurement, at the OECD World Forum ―Statistics, Knowledge and Policy‖, Bussan, Korea,
October 2009.9 Besides, NHDR B&H 2007 was referred to in HDR 2010, as an example of a
broader multidimensional concept of social exclusion at the national level. (HDR 2010 p. 86)
Therefore, the benefits and universal use of human development indicators, as an
analytic developmental took at national and sub-national levels, will be improved if the
country chooses the components that determine their priorities and problems and that are
sensitive to the level of their development, rather than strictly using three components that
HDI consists of at the global level.
Human development indicators will remain open for any further research on
improvement, which certainly depends on availability of data on various dimensions of
human development and poverty.
3. Experiences of B&H – National Human Development Reports
Eight human development reports have been published in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
and Regional Human Development Report made in 2002/2003 was not published. Calculation
of HDI was first officially made in the Report of 2002 by local experts.
Table 4: Overview of Human Development Reports for Bosnia and Herzegovina
Year Subject
Calculation of indicators -level
B&H Entities Regional/
municipal
1998 Human Development Report BiH ... ... ...
2000 Youth ... ... ..
2002 Measuring human development HDI ..
2003 Millennium Development Goals HDI, GDI, GEM, HPI
MRC Indicators HDI, GDI, GEM,HPI ..
2003 Regional Human Development
Report (unpublished) HDI, HPI .. HDI, HPI
2005 Better local governance in B&H HDI, GDI, GEM, HPI HDI, GDI,GEM,HPI ..
2007 Social inclusion in B&H
HDI, GDI, GEM, HPI
Social exclusion
indices (urban / rural)
Laeken indicators
HDI,GDI, GEM, HPI
Social exclusion
indices (urban / rural) ..
2009 Social capital HDI .. ..
Source: The Author, based on B&H’s Human Development Reports
Of course, the calculation of human development indicators crucially depends on the
quality of data that are required for calculation. In the absence of population census (for
nearly two decades), data sources - domestic and international ones - are often
methodologically and quantitatively different. Possibility of obtaining the indicators diverse
by gender, entities, etc., is provided to a large extent by numerous statistical surveys10
. These
9 The Report was created by a group of local experts: Zarko Papic, team leader, and the authors (alphabetical
order): Maida Fetahagic, Boris Hrabac, Fahrudin Memic, Ranka Ninkovic, Adila Pasalic-Kreso, Lejla Somun-
Krupalija and Miodrag Zivanovic. The Report is available on the webpage: www.undp.ba. 10 These are: Living Standard Measurement Survey in B&H, 2001; Survey - Living in B&H – series of panel
surveys in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004; Households Expenditures Survey in 2004 and 2007, Labor Force Survey -
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surveys are the basis for numerous studies and analyses of various aspects of life and work in
B&H.
Results of the regional Human Development Report BiH
Human development index was calculated for the selected regions and municipalities
separately in this Report, on the basis of the data collected from municipalities.11
Summary of
the indicators obtained is presented in the Table 5. and they refer to significant disparity both
between the regions and the municipalities.
Table 5. Ranking the regions according to HDP, GDP/pc and HPI, 2001
Reg
ion
Municipalities HDI HDI
rank
GDP/pc
PPP $
GDP/pc
rank
HPI
%
HPI
rank
1 Sanksi Most, Ključ 0.672 6 1,960 3 23.9 2
2 Bosanski Novi, Prijedor 0.692 5 1,783 5 22.4 3
3 Travnik, Vitez 0.730 1 2,733 2 21.9 4
4 Zenica, Tešanj 0.709 3 1,910 4 19.1 6
5 Široki Brijeg, Ljubuški,
Posušje 0.721 2 2,803 1 28.6 1
6 Trebinje, Gacko 0.697 4 1,667 6 20.2 5
Source: The Author, based on BiH NHDR 2002: Regional Human Development Report
Ranking the regions according to human development is different than ranking
according to the basic indicator of economic development GDP/pc. Region 5 (Siroki Brijeg,
Ljubuski, Posusje) takes the first position according to GDP/pc; it is also the poorest region,
where about 28.6% of the population is poor in terms of human development. This suggests
that high economic growth, measured by GDP/pc, was not accompanied by human
development and the development model in this region is unsustainable.
4. Opportunities and challenges of the use of human development indicators in spatial
planning
Understanding the human development concept and human development indicators in the
context of spatial development and planning leads to possible directions of consideration:
- The first direction refers to theoretical contribution to understanding of spatial aspect
as dimension of human development;
- The second direction refers to the use of human development indicators in preparing
and creating spatial plans;
- The third direction is a special challenge: introducing a new indicator: spatial planning
index.
4.1. Spatial planning in the context of human development
2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, carried out by the Agency for Statistics of B&H, Federal Office of Statistics and
Republika Srpska Institute of Statistics. 11 The areas that determined the following regions were set for the research: Region 1 – Sanski Most and Kljuc
municipalities; Region 2 – Bosanski Novi and Prijedor municipalities; Region 3 – Travnik and Vitez
municipalities; Region 4 – Zenica and Tesanj municipalities; Region 5 – Siroki Brijeg, Posusje and Ljubuski
municipalities; Region 6 – Trebinje and Gacko municipalities.
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Spatial planning is a very complex process; it goes into all aspects of life and work and
requires a multidisciplinary approach, as well as a team developing a spatial plan. Spatial
planning serves for determination of the best ways for the use of economic potentials and
arrangement of functional spatial structures. Spatial plan recognizes and determines the areas
with special potentials or limitations and inequalities in development of areas. Without
specific spatial-economic policy, developmental gap between favorable and unfavorable
settlements will become deeper, which is unfavorable for the overall economic, social and
spatial development.
On the basis of spatial plans, public investments are allocated in certain areas, to
contribute to development or to remove stagnations in development. Spatial plans supported
by economic studies are used as a basis for decisions, made by developmental policy-makers,
on the areas that the country especially needs to support and to certain extent. Therefore,
spatial plan, which includes a strategic economic plan as well, is not only an instrument for
structuring spatial development of certain area, but also an instrument for acquiring the funds
and setting directions for investment flows.
Contemporary approaches to spatial planning suggest that the ultimate objective of
spatial plan is to ―creation of richness in diversity of spatial offer, for a contemporary
individual to realize as many opportunities, i.e. freedoms of choices, as possible‖ (Neidhart,
V. 1997, p 14). Holistic approach to spatial planning is a process of creative intervention in
entirety of the living environment. On the other hand, ―The objective of human development
is to create an enabling environment for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives‖
(Hag, Ul M. 2004, p. 17).
The main orientation of spatial planning and development is to rely on the concept of
human development, which puts people into focus, along with all their capabilities. In this
sense, spatial plan should support the constant process of expansion of the choices and
capabilities for people to achieve certain level of wellbeing.
Space is understood as a dimension of human development – people are a part of the
space and all activities happen in the space: people need all possibilities available, in the
function of development of their capabilities. Space should not be an obstacle to development
of basic dimensions of human development.
Spatial planning in the context of human development is interpreted as a possibility to
approach to the access place where three essential choices are realized: income, education and
health. These are also the fundamental human rights: to work, to education and healthcare.
4.2. Application of human development indicators in preparing and creating spatial
plans
Understanding the relation between spatial planning and human development leads to
the application of human development indicators, as a valuable tool for preparing and creating
spatial plans and spatial development. Presenting the human development indicators on the
maps is a good step towards spatial expression of the data obtained, especially presenting the
data in GIS (Geographic Information System) format. GIS data are very practical because of
the possibility to continuously use and edit the data in the future as well.
Maps with the human development indices marked at the level of municipalities refer
to spatial disparities in development in the country and to one of the fundamental objectives
of spatial development: reducing the disparities and gaps in development of certain areas.
Indicators presented on the maps thus became the fundamental input for the needs of
preparing and creating spatial plans. (see Map 1. and Map 2.)
10
Source: NHDR Bulgaria 2002, p. 27. Source: NHDR Serbia 2008, p.211.
Spatial dimension of human development indicators was especially studied in the
paper ―The Spatial Dimension of Human Development Index in Indonesia―12
. This paper
explained the spatial pattern on HDI achievement at sub-national level in Indonesia, and
estimated the determinants of HDI using spatial econometrics method.
Spatial Development Index
Spatial Development Index - SDI implies basic dimensions of human development
from spatial aspect: access of the place13
where income is earned, place where health care is
provided and the place where education is acquired. Spatial development in the context of
human development can thus be interpreted as accessibility of workplace, education and
healthcare as well, which implies, among others, the traffic and social infrastructure
developed.
The issue of accessibility of workplace, education and health care also implies the
possibility to realize the fundamental human rights: the right to work, to education and health
care.
The issue of the right to work is not explicitly determined by the laws in BiH, but BiH
Constitution foresees that BiH should provide the highest level of internationally recognized
rights and fundamental freedoms. The issue of the right to work is referred to in the Article 1
of the European Social Charter.
The issue of accessibility of workplace depends on a number of factors: functional-
organizational spatial structure, location requirements of economic structure of the area,
spatial capacities of locations, development of infrastructure, etc.
12 Rinaldi, R. and Nurwita,E. (2010): The Spatial Dimension of Human Development Index in Indonesia,
Center for Economics and Development Studies, Department of Economics, Padjadjaran University Jalan
Cimandiri no. 6, Bandung, Indonesia. 13 Place in the context of spatial planning means: location, point.
Map 1. Level of HDI by districts and municipalities
in Bulgaria
Map 2. HDI by districts in Serbia
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In terms of the access to workplace in the context of understanding SDI, it is crucial
for people to have a choice and possibilities to choose a job that is the most adequate to their
qualifications and capabilities. People often choose a less paid job if the work place is nearby
– looking for less expenditures and less time, which have a significant influence on the quality
of life (not only in economic sense). However, if they do not have a choice, they accept a job
at a more distant place, so we cannot talk about human development in this case.
The existing legal regulations in BiH foresee the equality of approach and equal
possibilities when it comes to health care and education as well. The Article 10 of FBiH Law
on Health Care reads that ―Health care is provided to the citizens in accordance with the
principles of universality, continuity, accessibility and totality of the approach to primary, as
well as specialized approach to specialist consultative and hospital health care‖. The Article 4
of the Framework Law on Primary and Secondary Education in BiH reads that ―Every child
has equal right to the approach and equal possibilities to participate in adequate education,
without discrimination on any basis. Equal approach and equal possibilities imply providing
equal conditions and opportunities for everyone, for the beginning and continuation of further
education‖.
Methodology of SDI calculations
Possible steps in SDI calculations with selected variables of spatial dimensions are
presented in the Figure 1.
Selecting the measurement of accessibility
It is clear that accessibility can be expressed and measured in several ways: in physical
units (km or m), time, expenditures caused by movement, type of transport means – public or
private transport, etc. In SDI calculations, accessibility and distance of spatial dimensions,
given the features of spatial plan, are measured in meters (physical distance) and the time
needed to pass certain distance (time distance14
).
General approach to calculation of spatial dimension sub-index and accessibility index
To calculate SDI, as well as other human development indicators, it is necessary to
calculate the index for each dimension. Dimensions are combined into the index on the basis
of the minimum and maximum value determined for a given variable. Features of each
dimension are determined as 0 to 1 values, applying the following formula:
Id = ( Xi – Xmin ) / ( Xmax – Xmin )
where: Id is dimension index
Xi is real value of the variable
Xmin and Xmax are threshold limits set for the variable, with Xmin ≤Xi≤ Xmax
In the process of calculation of sub-index, formula (1) is applied on each variable.
14 Time distance does not involve the way, a transport mean (by foot, bicycle, car or public transport) to arrive to
certain destination.
12
Figure 1. Scheme of the structure of Spatial Development Index (variables, sub-indices and indices)
Human
development
dimensions
Living standard Health Education
Spatial
dimensions Workplace
Place where health care is
provided
Place where education is
acquired
Variables
Distance between the place
of residence and workplace
Distance between the place of
residence and place of primary
and tertiary healthcare
Distance between the place
of residence and place of
primary and secondary
education
Physical
distance
Time
distance
Physical
distance
Time
distance
Physical
distance
Time
distance
Spatial
dimension sub-
index
Distance sub-
index
Time sub-
index
Distance sub-
index
Time sub-
index
Distance
sub-index
Time sub-
index
Accessability
index
Workplace Accessability
Index
Healthcare Accessability
Index
Education Accessability
Index
Spatial Development Index
Setting the minimum and maximum values of variables (goalposts for SDI)
Selection of the minimum and maximum values of the indicator is a result of
experience in preparing and creating spatial plans, as well as the value assumptions for
application of the simulation model of calculation.15
Spatial standards in methodology of creating spatial plans are mostly normative,
referring to the number of employed persons per ha covered by the economic facilities
constructed, number of health workers in relation to the size of population, number of schools
in relation to the size of population, school capacity by the number of students, etc.
Certain standards of urban planning are recommended, which are expressed in
―service radius‖ in health care, social care and education (Tosković, D. 2006, p 187). This
mostly implies the extent to which the population and space are covered by certain services.
For example, the Spatial Plan of The Sarajevo Canton 2003 – 2023, in projections of spatial
development and spatial systems, foresees the following for primary education: ―Network of
elementary schools will equally cover the entire territory of the Canton, in order to meet the
needs of the population and equalize the size of the gravitational area of schools by the
number of inhabitants and territorial coverage.... for the planned number of students,
249,146km2 of useful space should be provided, with the improved standard of 5.5m
2 per a
student…‖ (Spatial Plan of The Sarajevo Canton 2003-2023, p 30).
Some spatial plans include internal simple principles in accessability of certain places.
Such as example, ―Spatial Planning in Denmark‖ reads: „Large office workplace exceeding
15 The planned research at the level of FBiH, i.e. cantons within the Federation, will provide new inputs for
setting the goalposts of spatial variables.
13
1500 m2 of floor space will generally have to be located within 600 meters by foot from the
closest station―16
.
Table 6. Minimum and maximum values for availability variables
N
o.
Spatial dimensions
Physical dimension in
meters
Time dimension in
minutes
min. max. min. max.
1.
Distance between the place of residence and
workplace 100 30,000 5 60
2.
Distance between
the place residence and place of
healthcare
Primary care17
(ambulance, family doctor) 100 10,000 5 30
Tertiary care18
(hospitals, clinical center) 100 60,000 5 120
3.
Distance between
the place of
residence and place
of education
Primary education
(elementary school) 100 10,000 5 30
Secondary education
(secondary school) 100 20,000 5 60
So, neither the spatial standards nor the laws in the fields of health care and education
explicitly determine physical accessibility of basic dimensions of human development.
Therefore, the SDI calculation is also an attempt of standardization of availability of certain
services, to certain extent, in order to improve the people’s living and working conditions.
Steps in SDI calculations
I Calculation of spatial dimension index and sub-index
The following determinants were provided for the calculation:
- In combination of physical dimension and time dimension, physical availability is
more significant;
- In combination of sub-index of primary and sub-index of tertiary health care, primary
health care is more significant;
- In combination of sub-index of primary and sub-index of secondary education,
primary education is more significant.
1. Calculation of Workplace Accessibility Index (Iaw)
Iaw = 2/3 Iwf + 1/3 Iwt (1) where:
sub-index of physical distance from work is Iwf = ( Xiwf – Xminwf) / (Xmaxwf – Xminwf)
Iwf = ( Xiwf – 100) / (30,000– 100)
sub-index of time distance from work is Iwt = ( Xiwt – Xminwt) / (Xmaxwt – Xminwt) Iwf = ( Xiwt – 5) / (60– 5),
and Xirwf is the real physical distance value, Xiwt the real time distance value.
16 Danish Ministry of the Environment (2007): Spatial Planning in Denmark, p.15 17 Primary health care involves: services of family doctor of medicine (hereinafter referred to as: family doctor),
general medical services, school medicine, sanitary-epidemiological protection, dentist care, urgent medical care,
labor medicine, health protection of workers, protection of women and children, diagnostic and pharmaceutical
services. 18 Tertiary health care implies hospital health services that involve a number of measures, activities and
procedures undertaken with the purpose of diagnostic, treatment and medical rehabilitation of patients in
adequate stationary health institutes.
14
2. Calculation of Healthcare Accessibility Index ( Iah)
Iah = 2/3 Iph + 1/3 Ith (2) where: Iph sub-index of primary healthcare
Ith sub-index of tertiary healthcare
2.1 Calculation of Sub-index of Primary Healthcare (Iph)
Iph= 2/3 Iphf + 1/3 Ipht (2.1.) where:
sub-index of physical distance of primary healthcare Iphf Iphf = ( Xphf – Xminphf) / (Xmaxphf – Xminphf)
= (Xphf – 100) / (10,000 – 100)
sub-index of time distance of primary healthcare Ipzt
Ipht = ( Xipht – Xminpht / (Xmaxpht – Xminpht) = (Xipht – 5) / (30 – 5),
and Xiphf is the real physical distance value, Xipht the real time distance value.
2.2. Calculation of Sub-index of Tertiary Healthcare Itz
Ith= 2/3 Ithf + 1/3 Itht (2.2.) where:
sub-index of physical distance of tertiary healthcare Itzf Itzf = ( Xitzf – Xmintzf) / (Xmaxtzf – Xmintzf)
= (Xtzf – 100) / (60,000 – 100)
sub-index of time distance of tertiary healthcare Itzt
Itht = ( Xitht – Xmintht / (Xmaxtht – Xmintht) = (Xitht – 5) / (120 – 5),
and Xithf is the real physical distance value, Xitht the real time distance value.
3. Calculation of Education Accessibility Index Iae
Iae = 2/3 Ipe+ 1/3 Ise (3) where:
Ipe Sub-index of primary education Ise Sub-index of secondary education
3.1 Calculation of Sub-index of Primary Education Ipe
Ipe= 2/3 Ipef + 1/3 Ipet (3.1.) where:
Sub-index of physical distance of primary education Ipef
Ipef = ( Xipef – Xminpef) / (Xmaxpef – Xminpef) = (Xipef – 100) / (10,000 – 100)
Sub-index of time distance of primary education Ipet
Ipet = ( Xipet – Xminpet / (Xmaxpet – Xminpet)
= (Xipet – 5) / (30 – 5), and Xipef is the real physical distance value, Xipet the real time distance value.
3.2. Calculation of Sub-index of Secondary Education (Ise)
Ise= 2/3 Isef + 1/3 Iset (3.2.) where:
15
Sub-index of physical distance of secondary education Isef
Isef = ( Xisef – Xminsef) / (Xmaxsef – Xminsef)
= (Xisef – 100) / (20.000 – 100) Sub-index of time distance of secondary education Iset
Iset = ( Xiset – Xminset / (Xmaxset – Xminset)
= (Xiset – 5) / (60 – 5), a Xisef is the real physical distance value, Xiset the real time distance value.
II Calculation of Spatial Development Index (SDI)
At the end, SDI is a simple arithmetic mean of: Workplace Accessibility Index, Healthcare
Accessibility Index and Education Accessibility Index
SDI =( Iaw + Iah + Iae)/3 (4)
The steps in calculating SDI schematically shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Scheme of the Calculation of Spatial Development Index
SDI values obtained vary from 0 to 1, based on which typology of the area can be determined:
Table 7. Typology of the area according to SDI values
SDI value Typology of the area by spatial development
1 0.000 – 0.199 Highly developed space
2 2.000 – 0.399 Developed space
3 4.000 – 5.999 Moderately developed space
4 6.000 – 7.999 Insufficiently developed space
5 8.000 – 1.000 Space of ultimate underdevelopment
In further work on methodology, empirical study to be performed at the level of
Federation represents a special challenge; SDI will be calculated and typology of the area
16
within the territory observed (cantons within FBiH) will be determined19
. Results will be a
basis for consideration of disparities in development of FBiH and one of determinants for
consideration of conception of the overall and spatial development of FBiH.
Of course, methodology for SDI calculations remains open for all suggestions in terms
of the approach to selection of variables, goalposts of variables, methods of calculation, etc.
Results of the planned study will certainly provide some feedback information towards
direction and improvement of the overall methodology.
Example: simulation of SDI calculation model on the values assumed for five regions
Assume that the distance variable values for 5 regions were obtained as it follows in
Table 8.
Table 8. Hypothetical variables values for SDI calculations
Reg
ion
Distance
between the
place of
residence and
workplace
Distance between the place residence and
place of healthcare
Distance between the place of residence
and place of education
Primary Tertiary Primary Secondary
Xiwf
u m
Xiwt
u min
Xiphf
u m
Xipht
u min
Xithf
u m
Xitht
u min
Xipef
u m
Xipet
u min
Xisef
u m
Xiset
u min
A 5,000 30 900 15 20,000 45 1,000 15 5,000 20
B 6,000 45 2,500 30 10,000 30 1,500 25 800 20
C 1,500 50 1,000 15 30,000 70 5,000 30 9,000 15
D 1,000 10 200 5 10,000 20 800 15 3,000 15
E 29,000 50 8,000 25 10,000 20 7,000 25 12,000 50
Applying the SDI calculation model, the following sub-index and index values were obtained
and presented in the Table 9.
Table 9. Sub-indices and indices values
Region Iaw Iph Ith Iah Ipe Ise Iae SDI
A 0,261 0,187 0,337 0,237 0,194 0,255 0,214 0,237
B 0,374 0,495 0,182 0,391 0,361 0,114 0,279 0,348
C 0,605 0,194 0,521 0,303 0,663 0,359 0,562 0,490
D 0,050 0,007 0,154 0,056 0,180 0,158 0,173 0,093
E 0,917 0,799 0,154 0,584 0,731 0,671 0,711 0,737
Therefore, on the basis of SDI values, the regions can be classified as it presented in Table 10.
Table 10. Typology of the region by SDI values
Region SDI value Typology of the region by spatial development
A 0,237 Developed region
B 0,348 Developed region
C 0,490 Moderately developed region
D 0,093 Highly developed region
E 0,737 Insufficiently developed region
19 FBiH Ministry for education and science has allocated a part of the funds, which is not enough for completion
of the entire project; additional funds are necessary and will be requested from other sources.
17
On the basis of the results obtained, the following can be concluded:
a) Region E is assessed as an insufficiently spatially developed region in the context of
human development. SDI structure of the region E refers to
- undeveloped traffic infrastructure, lack of connection between the work and residence
zones, dysfunctional organizational structure of the residential and business zones, and
alike (high Iaw);
- undeveloped network of primary health care (high Iph);
- very poor network of educational infrastructure – primary and secondary education,
which is not necessary a lack of traffic infrastructure;
- low Ith suggests that this is a region where a clinical or medical center as a hospital is
located, but there is no family doctor or ambulance accessible.
b) Region A and Region B are assessed as spatially developed regions in the context of
human development, however, the difference in Iph (higher in B region) implies that
the network of primary health care is poorer in the region B, meaning that inhabitants
need more time to get to the ambulance or family doctor.
Therefore, the population in these five regions has very different possibilities of the
approach and accessibility to workplace, health care service and education. Population of the
region A has a higher quality of life, since accessibility of the fundamental dimensions of
human development is closer and faster.
These assessments provide clear inputs for spatial plan guidelines and for directing the
future public investments, always with complex and multidisciplinary approach to spatial
planning.
5. Spatial planning in Bosnia and Herzegovina
5.1. EU context of spatial planning and challenges
Spatial planning is not among the original competencies of the EU, but implies the
policies that directly affect spatial development, thus highlighting the importance of the role
of spatial planning, i.e. space in achieving its institutional objectives.
In order to organize cooperation of the European states in the field of spatial and
regional planning, the Council of Europe established the European Conference of Ministers
responsible for Regional Planning – CEMAT, back in 1970.
Documents adopted by the EU are the roof documents and represent a strategic
framework for coordination of policies in other fields, the most important of which are:
- European Regional/ Spatial Planning Charter ('Torremolinos Charter'), 1983.
- European Strategy of Regional/Spatial Planning, 1988.
- European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP): Towards Balanced and
Sustainable Development of the Territory of the European Union, 1999
- The Guiding Principles for Sustainable Spatial Development of European Continent
2000, 2003.
- Territorial Agenda of the European Union, Towards a more competitive and
sustainable Europe of diverse regions,2007
- Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities, 2007.
- Green Paper on Territorial Cohesion: Turning territorial diversity into strength,2008
- Spatial Planning – Key Instruments for Development and Effective Governance with
Special References to Countries in Transition, EC UN for Europe, New York and
Geneva, 2008.
18
European Spatial Planning Observation Network – ESPON was established as well; it
provides the data, knowledge, trends, territorial structures and perspectives that enable
comparing of the regions and cities and understanding of European territorial diversity.20
The
ESPON projects have produced a great number of indicators (core, key and routing
indicators) covering their specific thematic aspect.21
Of course, besides a number of documents related to spatial arrangement and territorial
cohesion, the EU has adopted a number of strategic developmental documents as well, such as
the Lisbon Strategy, which set the objectives for the EU development based on knowledge, or
Europe 2020 – smart, inclusive and sustainable growth.
European Charter on Regional/Spatial Planning defines spatial planning as a
geographic expression of economic, social, cultural and ecological policies in society. At the
same time, this represents a scientific discipline, administrative technique and policy
developed as an interdisciplinary and understandable approach, directed towards equal
regional development and physical organization of space, in accordance with the overall
strategy.
The document ―Key Instruments for Development and Effective Governance with
Special References to Countries in Transition‖ underlines that ―Spatial planning is a key
instrument for establishing long-term, sustainable frameworks for social, territorial and
economic development both within and between countries. Its primary role is to enhance the
integration between sectors such as housing, transport, energy and industry, and to improve
national and local systems of urban and rural development, also taking into account
environmental considerations.‖22
ESDP approaches to spatial development as a whole; sustainable spatial development
involves economic, social and environmental aspects. ―The European Spatial Development
Perspective is based on the EU aim of achieving a balanced and sustainable development, in
particular by strengthening economic and social cohesion8.‖23
(See figure 3) The fundamental
goal is reflected in the triangle of objectives that connect the three objectives of spatial
development: economic and social cohesion; conservation of natural resources and cultural
heritage; and more balanced competitiveness of the European territory.
Figure 3 Triangle of Objectives: a Balanced and Sustainable Spatial Development
20 ESPON has promoted a number of programs and reports, including: ESPON 2013 Program that supports the developmental policy in relation to cohesion policy of the EU, Synthesis Report 2010: New facts on smart,
sustainable and inclusive territories, as well as the first ESPON scientific report: Scientific dialogue on cities,
rural areas and the increasing energy prices. 21
See the details on: http://www.espon.eu/main/Menu_Projects/Menu_ESPON2006Projects/Menu_ScientificBriefingNetworking/indi
cators.html 22 Spatial Planning – Key Instruments for Development and Effective Governance with Special References to
Countries in Transition, EC UN for Europe, New York and Geneva, 2008, p. vii 23 ESDP, 1999 p. 9
Sustainable
Spatial
Development
Society
Environment Economy
Source: ESDP, 1999 p. 10
19
ESDP also sets the following objectives: development of a balanced and polycentric
urban system and a new urban-rural relationship; securing parity of access to infrastructure
and knowledge; and sustainable development, prudent management and protection of nature
and cultural heritage (ESDP 1999, p.10).
Documents adopted later on, for example EU Territorial Agenda, rely on the ESDP
objectives and upgrades them towards: enhancement of polycentric development and
innovations through connecting the cities-regions and cities; new forms of partnership and
territorial management between rural and urban areas; promotion of regional clusters for
innovation competition in Europe; support to enhancement and expansion of trans-European
networks; promotion of trans-European risk management, including the effects of climate
changes, demands of enhancement of ecological structures and cultural resources, as
additional value of development.
The concept of territorial cohesion is an overarching objective of EU territorial
development. Territorial cohesion is generally considered as complementary to the objectives
of economic and social cohesion and aims at promoting a harmonious and homogeneous
development of the entire territory. A wide agreement prevails on the fact that territorial
cohesion is a multi-dimensional concept with at least three main components:
Three main components of territorial cohesion:
• Territorial quality: the quality of the living and working environment; comparable living
standards across territories; similar access to services of general interest and to knowledge;
• Territorial efficiency: resource-efficiency with respect to energy, land and natural resources;
competitiveness of the economic fabric and attractiveness of the local territory; internal and
external accessibility;
• Territorial identity: presence of ―social capital‖; capability of developing shared visions of
the future; local know-how and specificities, productive ―vocations‖ and competitive
advantage of each territory. (Camagni, R, 2005)
Understanding the territorial quality in this way, SDI can also refer to the achieved
quality of territory, i.e. a part of spatial quality – working and living environment, living
standards, access to social infrastructure (health, education, etc.) or what is described as space
capability, or space access capability: to provide all people working and living conditions.
For the countries in transition, objectives of spatial development and planning are
especially highlighted: enhancement of territorial cohesion through the balanced social and
economic development of regions and improvement of competitiveness; development
supported by urban functions and improvement of relations between the city and village;
promotion of higher balance of accessibility; development and access to information and
knowledge; reduction of damages to the environment, etc.
Spatial planning is especially important for the countries in transition, since it can
provide the way of management and management of development, which creates more
stability in the climate for development and investments.
In the time of a number of global changes, unpredictability of the world’s economy, economic
crises in the EU countries, etc., the following key challenges for the EU regions are crucially
important:
- Globalization, which triggers the scientific and technological progress (increasing
knowledge, mobility, competitiveness and innovations);
- Demographic changes, which reflect in transformation of the structure of population,
migration pressures;
- Influences of climate changes, which will burden the economic, social and ecological
systems, while the fight against climate changes is the most important for wellbeing of
the future generations;
20
- Safe, sustainable and competitive energy represents one of the main challenges for
society.
The challenges for the countries in transition especially refer to European integrations
and the reforms of market economy.
Therefore, the issues of globalization, sustainable development, European integrations,
market economy reform and demographic changes leave deep implications on the models of
development in all countries in the EU region, while spatial planning is one of the ways to
address these challenges.
5.2. Challenge or necessity of spatial planning in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina (area of 51,129 km2) is administratively divided into two
entities: Federation of BiH (FBiH), which covers about 51% of the territory, and Republika
Srpska (RS), which covers the surface of about 49% of the territory, and Brcko District (BD).
Federation of BiH consists of ten cantons and the capital city, Sarajevo, is in Sarajevo Canton.
BiH consists of a total of 142 main administrative-territorial units, 79 municipalities of which
are arranged into 10 cantons of the Federation of BiH, 62 municipalities in the territory of
Republika Srpska, and Brcko District of BiH. (See Map 1, Map 2 and Map 3.)
Map 3. Entities of FBiH and RS Map 4. Cantons in FBiH Map 5. Municipalities in FBiH and RS
Source: Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees, 2006: Residential and urban profile of BiH, Image of
destruction, recovery and developmental perspectives, Sarajevo, p. 2, available at: http://www.mhrr.gov.ba/PDF/?id=281
Spatial planning in BiH is in jurisdiction of the entities, cantons and municipalities.
Spatial Plan of Republika Srpska until 2015 was adopted in 2008, while Spatial Plan of
Federation of BiH 2008 – 2028 is in the process of preparation. The most of cantons and
municipalities have adopted their spatial plans.
Spatial plan determines long-term objectives and measures of spatial development, in
accordance with the overall planned economic, social and historical development, includes the
policy of land use and directs the development of functions and activities to the territory of
certain area.
At the level of BiH, the need and necessity of regulation of spatial planning (or spatial
arrangement) is significant at the state level, given at least four points.
The first, spatial plan is a possibility for smart approach to the analysis of development
disparities and to determine adequate policies and measures of the overall development on
this basis, especially using the disaggregated human development indicators. Disparities in the
area of BiH are especially significant, both in terms of demographic, economic and other
characteristics. The Table 11. presents only some of the indications, as an illustration of
disparities between municipalities.
21
Table 11: Extreme development disparities of BiH, according to some indications, 2008
Municipal features The lowest
values
Municipalities with the
lowest values
The highest
values
Municipalities with the
highest values
Area (km2)
(BiH 51.129 km2) ≤10
Novo Sarajevo, Doboj-
jug > 1.000
Konjic,Ravno
Glamoč,Banja Luka
Foča
Population (number)
(BiH 3.840.315) < 1.000
Dobretići, Istočni Drvar
Kupres, Petrovac, Istočni
Mostar
.> 100.000
Tuzla, Zenica, Mostar,
Novi Grad
Banja Luka, Bijeljina
Population Density
(inh/ km2)
(BiH 75,1 inh/ km2)
<5
Ravno, Prozor, Trnovo
Glamoč, Bosansko
Grahovo, Istočni Drvar,
Petrovac
> 1000
Novi Grad. Novo
Sarajevo, Centar
Sarajevo
GDP/pc (USD, 2007)
(BiH 3.965 USD/pc)
30% below average BiH
Bužim, Čelić, Kalesija, Sapna, Teočak, Osmaci
200% above average BiH
Centar Sarajevo, Novo Sarajevo, Novi Grad
Employment rate (%)
(BiH 21,9%)
30% below
average BiH
Ravno, Jezero, Kotor
Varoš, Kupres RS,
Vukosavlje
200% above
average BiH Lukavica, Istočni Drvar
Source: the author’s analysis based on: Edin Sabanovic et al. (2010): Regional Disparity Assessment, UNDP,
Sarajevo, pg. 33; GDP/pc: Federal Institute for Development Programming; Population density: The Author’s
calculation.
Source: Edin Sabanović et al. (2010): Regional Disparity Assessment, UNDP, Sarajevo, p. 10 and p. 24
Development disparities in BiH, between municipalities, regions and cantons and
enormous differences that BiH citizens face in terms of basic living and working conditions
impose one of the fundamental development strategies: reduction of differences in
development between municipalities and cantons, i.e. spatially more equal development of
BiH, with dynamic growth of the overall development of BiH.
The second, this strategic orientation is also in accordance with the fundamental ESDP
objective – achieving the equal and sustainable development through enhancement of
economic and social cohesion (ESDP, 1999).
Map 6. Regional development disparities in BiH Map 7. Geographical municipal pockets of
underdevelopment in BiH
22
The third, let us remind you BiH adopted two important strategic documents in 2010:
Strategy of Development of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Strategy of Social Inclusion.
Holistic approach to development, approach to human development brings up the issue of
observing the spatial dimension of development – through spatial planning. Spatial plan then
becomes an instrument of management and arrangement of unique economic, social and
infrastructural space of BiH.
The fourth, EU requirements towards the countries – candidates refer to the obligation
for the policy and objectives of spatial development, as well as the legislation on spatial
arrangement, to be adjusted to European objectives of spatial development.
In the context of European integrations, spatial planning takes over responsibility to
ensure spatial cohesion, i.e. enough homogenous living conditions in all areas, in which local
communities could have similar possibilities to develop their economic, social and cultural
objectives; as well as responsibility to maintain and develop specific characteristics of the
areas, differences and special features. Spatial planning thus becomes an instrument for
achievement of successful integration into international and interregional trends.
Final considerations and recommendations
Conception of human development, as holistic approach to development, puts people
in the focus of all aspects of developmental processes and becomes a developmental paradigm
of the 21st century.
Multiple uses of human development indicators open the possibilities for their
application in spatial planning and development. Human development indicators have become
a tool for spatial planning and monitoring of developmental processes. The map with human
development index and sub-indices by municipalities or regions within the state thoroughly
refers to development disparities. At the same time, it represents an instrument to set priorities
and direct public investments: provides the answers to which sectors (health, education…)
and where to invest.
Spatial presentation of HDI in relation to the regions in the European Union is an
answer to achieving the objectives of European perspectives of spatial development: social,
economic and territorial cohesion.
Understanding the relation between spatial planning and human development provides
a new theoretical and applicative contribution to both the concept of human development and
spatial development.
Human development is expanded to spatial dimension as well: everything happens in
space, people need physical access of the possibilities, in the function of development of their
capabilities and realization of the fundamental choices. Space should not be an obstacle to
development of the main human development dimensions. Spatial development relies on
conception of human development and supports the constant process of enlarging of the
choices and possibilities for people to achieve certain level of wellbeing.
Spatial development index involves the main human development dimensions from
spatial aspect: accessibility of the place where income is earned, place where health care is
provided and the place where education is acquired. Spatial development in the context of
human development can thus be interpreted as the space capability to provide all people
equal conditions and opportunities of accessibility for work, education and adequate health
care.
On the basis of SDI values for certain areas (municipalities, districts, regions, states),
it is possible to perform typology of the areas in accordance to spatial development in the
context of human development. Spatial Development Index can be applied at the level of
municipalities, cantons or any other territorial, spatial units for preparations of spatial
development plans.
23
Complexity of economic, social and the overall condition in BiH requires the
application of the concept of human development, in a much stronger and more consistent
way than so far, as well as the application of human development indicators in analyses of the
socio-economic situation.
Taking into account the concept of human development, as approach to development
that has marked the 21st century and extraordinary possibilities of human development
indicators, the following recommendations can be applied to BiH circumstances:
BiH needs to have the necessary statistical basis and monitoring of all human
development indicators, which can be achieve through introduction of special studies,
taking into account the special experiences in organization and results of statistic
surveys in BiH. It is especially important to monitor the indicators in accordance with
the HDI, IHDI, GII and MPI structure, as well as to continuously follow new findings
in contemporary methodology and human development indicators. In BiH conditions,
this once again refers to the need for census of population, significant expansion of
monitoring of the indicators that are specific for human development, as well as
unified expression of all indicators at the level of municipalities, cantons, entities,
District and the state. Such database is a basis for monitoring the MDG, which is
crucially important for global consideration of realization of MDG.
The institutions of government should establish a department for human development,
which would represent an institutional connection between the state and regional
human development bureaus in The South East Europe; it would also analyze and
monitor human development and human development indicators at the state level and
send signals to the existing and long-term developmental policy on this basis. The
department would analyze the causal relations between the policies, programs and
their influences on the level of human wellbeing and it would thus provide assistance
in informing, setting the objectives and priorities and optimum allocation of the funds.
Given the wide possibility of use and disaggregation of human development
indicators, this department would also monitor the relations between the entities,
cantons, as well as development gaps, gender aspects, national aspects, specific issues
related to rural development, etc.
In order to promote, inform and educate the people on the notion and concept of
human development and human development indicators, university curricula should
include human development as a special curriculum subject.
Besides the need to adjust the statistical studies to international methodologies and
standards, it is also necessary to adjust and perform them at all levels, from
municipalities, cantons and entities, to the state level.
It is necessary to introduce spatial planning at the state level in BiH, due to great
development disparities in municipalities, the lack of unique economic, social and
infrastructural space. Complexity of the socio-economic and political situation in BiH,
as well as the process of preparations for accession to the EU, imposes the necessity
and need for:
- establishment of an institution at the state level, in charge of spatial planning and
arrangement,
- new territorial and regional arrangement of the state,
- introduction of special studies for the needs of spatial planning,
- adjustment of indicators and performing statistical studies at all levels, from
municipalities, cantons and entities, to the state level,
- adjustment of statistical studies to international methodologies and standards, as well
as the introduction of international spatial data (for example ESPON indicators),
24
- harmonization of legal regulations in the field of spatial planning, in accordance with
the EU roof documents on spatial and regional development.
Spatial planning thus becomes an instrument for arrangement of unique space of the
state of BiH and, at the same time, a step towards successful integration in the EU.
Necessity of spatial planning in the process of European integrations also imposes the
need to suggest the UNDP in BiH to create a human development report in BiH
dedicated to spatial planning and development, where the space of BiH is seen as
unique territory. This would initiate a practical, public, political and expert debate on
the function of spatial planning at the state level, which is one of the objectives of
national human development reports.
Appendix
Table 13. The Position of Bosnia and Herzegovina in SEE and in the world according to HDI, 2010.
rank H
DI
Countries grouping,
country HDI
value
Life
expectan
cy at
birth
Mean
years of
schooling
Expected
years of
schooling
GNI/pc
(PPP 2008
$)
No income
HDI value
28 Czech Repubilc 0,841 76,9 12,3 15,2 22.678 0,886
29 Slovenia 0,828 78,8 9,0 16,7 25.857 0,853
31 Slovakia 0,818 75,1 11,6 14,9 21.658 0,854
36 Hungary 0,805 73,9 11,7 15,3 17.472 0,851
41 Poland 0,795 76,0 10,0 15,2 17.803 0,834
49 Montenegro 0,769 74,6 10,6 14,4 12.491 0,825
50 Romania 0,767 73,2 10,6 14,8 12.844 0,820
51 Croatia 0,767 76,7 9,0 13,8 16.389 0,798
58 Bulgaria 0,743 73,7 9,9 13,7 11.139 0,795
60 Serbia 0,735 74,4 9,5 13,5 10.449 0,788
64 Albania 0,719 76,9 10,4 11,3 7.976 0,787
68 Bosna and Herzegovina 0,710 75,5 8,7 13,0 8.222 0,771
71 Macedonia, TFYR 0,701 74,5 8,2 12,3 9.487 0,742
Very high human development 0,878 80,3 11,3 15,9 37.225 0,902
High human development 0,717 72,6 8,3 13,8 12.286 0,749
Medium human development 0,592 69,3 6,3 11,0 5.134 0,634
Low human development 0,393 56,0 4,1 8,2 1.490 0,445
1 Norway 0,938 81,0 12,6 17,3 58.810 0,954
169 Zimbabwe 0,140 47,0 7,2 9,2 176 0,472
World - average 0,624 69,3 7,4 12,3 10.631 0,663
Source: HDR 2010
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