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9Prenatal Development And
Birth
Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle
Childhood
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
• Growth and Motor Development Between 6 and 12• Grow 2 – 3 inches and add 6 pounds a year
• Increased large-muscle coordination
• Better hand-eye coordination
• Significant gains in fine motor control
• Girls – 94% of adult height attained
• Boys –84% of adult height attained
• More muscle mass in boys
• More body fat in girls
Physical Changes
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• Two major growth spurts
– From 6 to 8 years • Increases in the sensory and motor cortex• Linked to improvements in hand-eye coordination
– From 10 to 12 years• Frontal lobes and cerebral cortex add synapses• Associated with gains in logic and planning
The Brain and Nervous System
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• Myelinization continues
– Frontal lobes and reticular formation links improve.• 12 year olds develop selective attention.
– Associational area neurons• Sensory, motor, and intellectual functions are linked.
• Contributes to increases in information-processing speed
The Brain and Nervous System
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• Spatial perception lateralization – Helps with skills such as map reading
– Improves learning math concepts and problem-solving
• Spatial cognition– Ability to infer rules from and make predictions about
the movements of objects in space
The Brain and Nervous System
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• Head Injuries– Motor vehicles and bicycles
– Majority of children recover fully
• Asthma– Most frequent cause of school absence
Health and Wellness
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• Obesity – Between 11% and 25% of children are obese.
• Body weight that is 20% or more above the normal weight
• Associated with adult obesity
• Require special diets for children to lose weight
• Fear of developing unattractive body becomes a problem
Health and Wellness
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• Language
– Become skilled at managing the finer points of grammar
– Increase in vocabulary, especially derived words
Cognitive Changes
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• Can solve conservation tasks easily
• Construction of schemes that enable children to think logically– Decentration
– Reversibility
• Inductive logic– Moving from personal experience to a general principle
• Good at manipulating things that can be seen and touched
Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
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• Horizontal Decalage
– Applying new thinking to all kinds of problems
– Age 7 – 8 • Children understand class inclusion – the
understanding that subordinate classes are included in larger, superordinate classes.
Direct Tests of Piaget’s View
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• Concrete Operations as Rules for Problem Solving
– Siegler• Cognitive development consists of acquiring a set
of basic rules that are then applied to broader ranges of problems.
• Moving from one rule to the next requires experience.
Direct Tests of Piaget’s View
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• Processing efficiency– The ability to make efficient use of short-term
memory capacity
• Major component of cognitive growth
• Increases the speed of cognitive processing
• Cross-cultural research validates change
Advances in Information Processing Skills
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• Automaticity
– The ability to recall information from long term memory without using short term memory capacity
– Frees up short-term memory space for more complex processing
Advances in Information Processing Skills
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• Executive and Strategic Processes– Information processing skills that allow a
person to devise and carry out alternative strategies for remembering and solving a problem
• Metacognition
• Memory strategies
Advances in Information Processing Skills
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• Expertise
– The amount of information possessed improves information processing
– Michelene Chi – expert chess players
Advances in Information Processing Skills
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• Literacy– The ability to read and write
• Phonological awareness increases
• Readers benefit from specific instruction
• Automaticity of identifying sound–symbol combinations helps
• Poor readers• Have problems with sound-letter combinations
• Benefit from highly specific phonics approaches
• May need multiple teaching approaches to help catch up
Schooling
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• Standardized tests– Achievement tests
• Designed to assess specific information learned in school
• Critics suggest portfolios of children’s school work is a better indicator of actual school learning.
– Intelligence tests• Required by most U.S. school districts
• Often result in misclassification of minority students
• Strongly correlated with achievement test scores
Achievement and Intelligence Tests
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• Multiple Intelligences – Howard Gardner– Little empirical support
• Triarchic Theory – Robert Sternberg– Contextual intelligence– Experiential intelligence– Componential intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence – Daniel Goleman– Children’s control over emotions in early childhood is
strongly related to academic achievement.
Achievement and Intelligence Tests
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• Which theory describes intelligence better – multiple intelligences or the triarchic theory? Why?
• Obesity is becoming a major problem in the U.S. What can a parent do to help an obese child or to help a child avoid becoming obese?
Questions to Ponder
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• Similar to Authoritative parenting styles– Clear goals and rules– Good control– Good communication– High nurturance– Authoritative teachers who have high expectations
• Overall climate or ethos of success– Clear and strong leadership from principal– Positive parental involvement
Effective Schools
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• Second-Language Learners– Limited English Proficient (LEP)
• Non-English-speaking children
• Participate in bilingual education – Instruction given in two languages
• English-as-a-second-language programs (ESL)– Children spend part of the day in classes to learn English.
– No particular program works best• Using a home-component helps
– Helps to support children’s home language and culture
• Providing a transition to English-only classrooms helps LEP students.
Group Differences in Achievement
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• No consistent differences between boys and girls on total scores– Girls do slightly better on verbal tasks.
– Boys do slightly better on numerical reasoning.
• Differences shaped by environmental factors– Parent and teacher assumptions about skills
– Children internalize beliefs of others.
– By high school, differences in standardized math tests are apparent.
Sex Differences in Achievement
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• Problems associated with economic status; access to prenatal care; family stability
• Style differences– Analytic style
• Define learning goals and follow orderly steps to reach them
– Relational style• Focus attention on the “big picture” instead of individual bits of information
– Higher percentage of Asian American and European American children are analytic
– African American, Hispanic, and Native American are relational
• Lack of a good cultural fit may cause school problems.
• Feelings of hopelessness lead to school failure.
Racial Influences on Achievement
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• U.S. children significantly behind their peers in industrialized nations in math and science.
– Underlying cognitive processes are similar.
• North American parents emphasize innate ability; Asians emphasize hard work.
• Teaching methods vary.
– Asians emphasize “master lessons” around a single theme.
– Asians spend more time in direct instruction.
– Asians emphasize computational fluency.
– Americans may undermine intrinsic motivation by overusing reward systems.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Achievement
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• Learning Disabilities– Dyslexia
• Usually specific to reading
– LD children rarely show brain damage
– May have trouble understanding the sound and structure of language
– May have a genetic basis
– Assigned to special classes• Reciprocal teaching – working in pairs or groups
– Improving motivation is essential
Children with Special Needs
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• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder– More physically active and less attentive leading to
academic and behavioral problems
• Causes– Neurological differences
– Cultural factors
– Complex interaction between temperament, parenting style, peer relations and school
Children with Special Needs
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• Treatments– Parents lose confidence in their abilities
• Become permissive or overly threatening– May be helped by parental training programs.
» Helps regain a sense of control» Reinforce specific rules
– Stimulant medications• Ritalin• Use may have a self-fulfilling prophesy effect• May not improve grades
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
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9Prenatal Development And
BirthEnd Show
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:• any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;• preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images;• any rental, lease, or lending of the program.