HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

&

ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

BY

P.RAMA RAO

Professor and Head (Retired)

Department of Psychology

University of Madras

Chennai- 600005

Prof. P.Rama Rao, PhD, 48/4, Surya Apartments, Welcome Colony, Anna Nagar Western Extension, Chennai, 600101, Telephone: 9841759390, E-mail: palamandrr@yahoo.com

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Dedicated to my wifeJayalakshmi Palamanda who

Has been my companionFor over five decade

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Preface

There is a deepening and pronounced interest in human development process. Lifespan

psychologists have particularly followed the process of development tracing and

elaborating several stages and have described how each stage merges with the next stage

as a natural process...

Each stage of development makes new demands. Successful adjustment to these demands

is a healthy sign. These adjustments come naturally and people by and large experience

no difficulty in the process. Flexibility and adaptability are the hall marks of normal

development. This makes transition from one stage to another smooth and effective.

Psychologists have long recognized individual differences and affirm uniqueness and at

the same time accept common base line among individuals in behaviour.

If this is the general pattern in large social settings certain narrower social settings call

for special attention specific to the situation not necessarily linked to stages of human

development, namely childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

Academic achievement, achievement in social life, and achievement in occupational life

are examples. This book concerns itself in the development of persons in their

occupational life.

The term “human resource” is used in a broad sense, and sometimes in a restricted sense

when it is referred to a given behaviour setting

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Business enterprise or any other organization uses the term human resource in a narrow

sense similar to any material resource. The development of human resource makes

human behaviour effective related to the behaviour setting. Therefore there seems to be a

link between organization and the development of human resource. The development of

human resource enhances the effectiveness of the organization. We are landing on a

sticky situation. We are finding ways and means of enhancing the level of human

resource and thereby enhance the effectiveness of the organization. The aim is that both

the individual and the organization should become effective and thereby derive benefit.

This would result in the economic growth of the society.

I would raise the issue whether we are getting close to mechanistic view of the human

element, which could be developed and used. To move away from such a possible

criticism we have to consider that human resource development is for the benefit of both

the employees and the organization.

Accepting the fact that human resource development program is a reality I wish to make

a point that such a program cannot exist in isolation or to the exclusion of the

organization. The two are inseparable. The employee and the organization are willing

partners in the program.

The book is divided into 15 chapters. I have made each chapter short enough for

readability by eschewing narrative style. If we scan the decades of second half of 19th

century we notice attitudinal changes among experts. Earlier experts were of the view

that financial incentives coupled with changes in work methods were all that was needed

for enhancement of performance level. Then the awareness of recognition of social

factors, and a host of motivational theories for enhancement of level of performance was

realised Today we are seriously considering human resource development.

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The 15 chapters reflect this orientation. Then there is the emphasis on research and

development in this all-important area. I have added a separate chapter on research needs

in human resource development. I recommend the establishment of a separate R&D

department in every organization on a permanent basis. This department should have

efficiency experts and psychologists who continually update knowledge in this vital area.

In Chapter XIV Exercises for illustration are included with permission from Dr. Mrs.

Parvathi, Head, Department of Psychology, and University of Madras.

The completion of my endeavour in writing this book leaves me in a deep debt of

gratitude. My wife Jayalakshmi Palamanda rendered me enormous support. My grand

daughter, Vidya Palamanda helped me by typing the manuscript neatly. She is well

versed in the use of the computer. Hope this book will be useful to many beginning

students in this special area and to large numbers of students pursuing higher studies and

research scholars. My gratitude to all experts in the field whose contributions I have

cited.

Place: Chennai P.Rama Rao

Date:

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CONTENTS

Fore Word.

Preface

Chapter I Introduction

Human Resource

Historical perspectives

Human resource as an asset

An Overview

Training programmes.

Training needs.

Chapter II the Organization –Representative Views

The Classical Theory

The Work Group

Group Dynamics

More on Creativity

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Risk-Taking Behaviour

Passage of time and temporal perspectives

Chapter III Personality components in Human Behaviour

Job Requirements, personnel specifications.

Personality

Coefficient of Stability

Coefficient of validity

Specifications based on Judgment.

Introduction to use of personality tests

Test Validation

The Trait Approach

The Psycho Analytic Approach

Social-Learning Theory of Personality

Humanistic Approach to Personality

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Chapter IV Abilities as Human Resources

Introduction

Test Construction

Basic human abilities

Chapter V Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

Introduction

How do we Structure Attitude Change Message

Job Satisfaction

Behaviour Related to Job Satisfaction

Measurement of Job Satisfaction

Chapter VI Motivation

Brief Historical Note

Motivation and Specialty Areas

Specific Terms and Assumptions

Relation of Emotion to Motivation

Success, Failure, Causal Believes and Need For Achievement

Achievement Motivation

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Motivation and Environment Chapters

Chapter VII Organizational Psychology: Motivation and Behaviour

Cognition

Conation

Affection

Fear of failure

Fear of success

Rational: Economic Man

Goal – Activity

Environmental Factors

Theory X and Theory Y

Motivation: Hygiene Theory

Chapter VIII Performance Appraisal

Personality Traits and Job Performance

Methods of Performance Appraisal

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Chapter IX Leadership Behaviour

Introduction

Position

The Person

The Process

Behaviour Dimension of Leadership Effectiveness: The Effective Leader

Personality Traits

Motivational Traits

Leadership Effectiveness- An Assessment – Three-dimensional Model – Organization

Effectiveness

Chapter X Personality

Introduction

Personnel Selection

Personnel Specification

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Chapter XI Psychology Tests and Their Use

Introduction

Research into intelligence

Abilities

Creativity

The Creativity Process

Chapter XII Employee Selection – Induction

Introduction

Psychological Tests

Ethical Issues in Personnel Selection

Chapter XIII Human Resource Development

Introduction

Motivation

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Chapter XIV Research Needs in Human Resource Development

Introduction

Reliability

Validity

Variables, Definitions

Exercises

Ethics and Responsibilities of Psychologists

Chapter XV Synthesis and Summary

APPENDICES

List of References

Suggested Reading

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LIST OF TABLES

Cattel’s 16 Personality Factors

Abhidamma Mental Factors

Herzberg’s Two Factors

Variables

Leader Qualities

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Giselle’s Management Success Factors

LIST OF FIGURES

Management process

Behavioural goal directed – five steps

Moderate probability of success and high motivation strength

3 – D managerial style

Types of reinforcements

Endowment – environment relationship in development

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CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

Physiological discoveries provided the important breakthroughs for development of

psychology. Experimental psychology can be considered as the product of union of

philosophy and physiology. Physiology brought the physiological data and more

importantly scientific method to psychology. Scientists from other disciplines have made

important contributions to the development of psychology. The physicist Fechner who

was also a medical doctor and a philosopher spent a lot of his time investigating the

relationship between the objective physical world and the subjective personal world.

Several others may be mentioned as significant contributors to psychology in its early

formative period.

In 1879 formal academic psychology came into being. Wilhelm Wundt trained in

medicine, physiology, and philosophy initiated the first formal psychology laboratory in

Leipzig, Germany. Unity in psychology as a unitary science during early periods got

decomposed into several distinct schools of psychology, each with stubborn and staunch

leader.

Francis Galton initiated mental testing and works in this area continued and expanded

with the works of Binet, Spearman, and a number several scholars in this significant area.

Mental testing at that time and immediately thereafter had a long list of areas such as

intelligence, aptitudes, creativity, and other cognitive aspects of human behaviour.

Subsequently non- cognitive areas such as personality, motivation and allied areas

stepped in asking for psychologist’s attention. Efforts were afoot for understanding the

dynamics of all these.

The list of psychological functions under measured categories is very long and

diversified.

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Psychology developed deep roots in fundamental research and theory building

endeavours. Main objective was to understand human behaviour in various behaviour

settings. Convergence of objective and subjective attributes in relation to human

behaviour came to be accepted as a reality.

However, psychology without losing grounds in fundamental research diversified into

application interests in several areas of human behaviour and behaviour settings.

Professional psychologists in applied and fundamental areas of interest developed

interactional relationships providing a rewarding progress in both streams. The mutuality

and reciprocity are evident in the form attainments in both areas.

HUMAN RESOURCES

It is difficult to define "Human Resource." A resource is an asset that is available for use

when needed. Material resources can be easily identified in terms of quantity and quality.

Human resource is distinct from other forms of resources because it is behaviourally a

variable factor. Resources like equipment or other material are behaviourally constant

and could be manipulated according to the needs of the user without invoking

unpredictable or invisible reactions from them. But human resource is very distinct from

the material resources. It is too complex a resource to be adequately defined and

manipulated at will. At best we can say that it is a set of interrelated assets, ready for use,

and has a potential for training and development.

As already mentioned human resource is a complex set of interrelated assets possessed by

an individual at a given point in time. We have to identify every one of them in a closed

system of assets or skills the totality of which can be brought under the rubric of human

resources.

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Psychologists have long recognized the reality of individual differences in behaviour.

And it cannot be different in the context of human resources. The fact of individual

differences in skills already present and nature of reactions when subjected to training or

utilization confronts us as a formidable problem. Emphasis on individual differences in

every aspect of human behaviour has to be given its place.

Individual oriented industrial psychology with emphasis on economic benefit of human

endeavour gave the impression that a diligent management can by proper work methods

and proper arrangement of work related environment could enable workers to minimize

work effort and maximize work output. This did not survive long. Principles of scientific

management of F.W. Taylor and time and motion studies of Gilbreth had their relevance

at that point in time. But progress made in psychological research and theory enabled us

to move forward. Next we moved on to human relations concept in work environment

with the advent of Hawthorne studies of Elton Mayo and his collaborators. Later

motivational theories came to dominate the scene. By then we had come a long way. We

will revert back to these developments in later sections.

A closer and a deeper look at the past events that are consigned to history will enable us

to look forward to the future. A well thought out present makes past meaningful and the

future purposeful.

The meaning of work as a form of human activity is changing very rapidly. The work

behaviour in an organizational set-up remains the most critical dimension of human

behaviour. Therefore it is crucial to study “work” that takes place in organizations

systematically based on psychological methodology. We have to have new perspectives

of work and work place in the modern cyber age. Global communication today facilitated

by electronic transmission which connects individuals regardless of geographical location

almost instantaneously.

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The meaning of work as a form of human behaviour is changing yet for another reason as

well. The changes in economic policies the entire world over to free market and globalise

economy has its impact on human work related behaviour. The impact is not only

economic aspirations but also very much the experiential aspect of work and work

ambience. Therefore work needs to be conceived and defined differently than hitherto

done. A new look is warranted. Work by itself has objective connotations but

experiential aspect of work is subjective. Work setting refers to physical and social

situations. Experiential aspect of work situation is the result of interaction between work

settings and the individual. The very evolution of work from simple to complex form

both in quality and quantity presents many ramifications to both work and the persons at

work.

Human resource development (HRD) programmes are not new really. Only that we have

to reformulate the same to suit the new context of modern socio-economic ambience of

the electronic age.

The computer, the 20th century marvel has its impact on work with all its physical

aspects and on the individual with all his subjective experiences. The interaction between

the two renders HRD programmes very complex. Handled diligently HRD programmes

can provide marvels for all concerned.

Historical Perspective

It was recognized long ago that people vary in general intelligence and special abilities. It

was even suggested that attempts should be made to discover each individual’s special

bent in order to give him suitable training. Industrial psychology could not make a

beginning until psychology could assert itself as an experimental science with a

methodology of its own and attained a scientific status. This happened in the second half

of 19th century.

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A prominent personality who could be considered as one of the first in the field is

F.W.Taylor. His colleagues called him ‘Speedy Taylor.’ He made attempts to get an

entry of experimental psychology to problems of industry. He was not a psychologist. He

carefully planned and executed a study of how to get the maximum from a worker with

minimum energy input. This opened an avenue for enhancing efficiency of the worker by

scientifically arranging the work and organizing its execution. He proposed three basic

principles which came to be known as principles of scientific management they .are:

To select the best men for the job

To induct him in the most efficient methods

To give incentives in the form of higher wages to the best workers

The second of the three principles is a rudiment of training programme that can result in

worker development.

The outcome of this laborious work in testing the above three principles raised a few

question. They are:

What is the nature of man as an individual, and what if any, are his basic needs?

What is the nature of man as a social animal, and how does he relate himself to society?

What is the nature of industry, and how far does it fit in with what we know of man as a

human being both socially and individually?

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Another landmark of importance is Time and Motion Studies (Gilbreth & Gilbreth,

1911). This was a significant contribution from the point of view of economy of energy

input in executing a work. This was also as in the case Taylor proved to be more of work

output rather than worker as a key element. This refers to job design for efficient work.

Emphasis was the job.

Both approaches give the impression that man is like any other machine to be

manipulated for higher production. This is in spite of their apparent recognition of what

was then called human nature. But any discerning critic could see the mechanistic

concept of work and worker combination.

Hawthorne studies heralded a very much different perspective of man and work. The

19th and early 20th century approach to men at work was essentially directed towards

amount of production. The principles of management of Taylor and time and motion

studies of Gilbreth do create such an impression. The second decade of 20th century saw

a new realization that non-material factors operate which motivate the workers in good

measure. But wage rise and other forms of material incentives were given high

prominence in both Taylor’s and Gilbreth’s formulations.

Hawthorne studies heralded a new thinking where worker gets his due place in the

totality of work. Financial gains are both for the organization and the worker. In this

triangle worker stands out prominently. Thus the 20th century gave birth to new

thinking.

Hawthorne studies, which started in 1927 under the leadership of Elton Mayo of Harward

University, were a full-fledged field experimental study. There are five studies one

leading to the other. They are:

Experiments on illumination

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Relay assembly test room experiment:

Second relay assembly test room

Mica splitting test room

Mass interviewing programme

Bank wiring observation room

Personnel counselling

Blum and Naylor (1968) state that Hawthorne Studies are significant because they

represent an honest effort to understand employees instead of approaching the problem

from purely management point of view. The studies have brought out social aspect in

work setting.

Training the Worker

In the past training confined to teaching the worker the mechanism of operating a

machine. Industries themselves were mostly man-machine combination. In modern days

training implies much more than mechanical skills related to a job. It is not shop floor

worker alone subjected to training programmes but also those in higher hierarchical

positions. Training for development and not merely for performing a task became the

motto of organizations. Several methods were evolved making use of rapid strides made

by psychologists both in fundamental research and applied research. In the present

context of HRD area applied research relates men and work. The training programs are

specially geared to human resource development.

Human Resource as Asset

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As already mentioned human resource is a distinct form of resource compared to material

resources. The asset character of human resource is highly complex. It involves

subjective experiences and individual differences in skills and abilities besides,

personality, temper, temperament, and many other personal qualities

If we consider human resources as assets we should be able to devise methods to quantify

and measure the same. However human asset value does not yield a value of standard

return as material resources do. It may be possible to use the concept of performance

effectiveness for those employees whose work cannot be measured directly. It is possible

in such cases performance effectiveness index can be devised using psychometric

methodology.

Organizational performance effectiveness evaluation should be based both on

productivity and various intervening variables. More will come about this later. If the

importance of intervening variables is accepted then we can assume that developing

human resources becomes a possibility. Qualities like leadership, motivation,

communication, and problem solving skills to mention a few become part of human

resource development programme.

The organization’s aim is enhancement of performance effectiveness both quantitatively

and qualitatively with emphasis on personal (the job) satisfaction

Expectation Intervening variables Performance level

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The intervening variables play a very important role in performance level overriding

expectations made by the management. These intervening variables have two locations.

They operate in the management who make expectations and also in the personnel who

are to respond to these expectations. In that sense it is complex process. The expectation

may have a spiralling effect. The spiralling effect may be negative or positive. Therefore

it is advantageous to make an assessment of both these factors. Because enhancing

positive aspects in both sources of intervening variables will definitely be rewarding.

An Overview

Work behaviours are affected both by organizational factors and worker factors. There

are factors, which can enhance work ego. There are methods for enhancing work

performance and at the same time generate positive experiential aspects of work on

workers.

All these are multidimensional issues and psychology is a dominant dimension.

Sociological, anthropological, and economic dimensions have their role to play in this

regard.

Interest in work behaviour is not new. But a systematic appreciation, and evaluation for

work effectiveness is recent. Work effectiveness should be understood both from the

point of view of high-level performance and worker psychological satisfaction.

Human resource development programme is to be directed toward both these aspects.

This is so because development is a dynamic process and not just a matter of growth, the

latter is a mechanical process. If the aim is the latter the outcome is destined to be

consumed to archives as happened to principles of management of Taylor and time and

motion studies of Gilbreth. Success is at best short lived.

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Scientific study of human behaviour in the work setting has its origin in industrial

psychology. All the work of Taylor, Gilbreth, Munsterberg, McKean Cattel, and others

did illuminate but the euphoria was short lived. The influence of the World War I had its

impact on later development in the field.

But one crucial field- experimental study of Mayo and his collaborators did pave the way

for future development of industrial psychology. This work began in the mid 1920s and

ended six years later due to economic depression all the world over. But fortunately by

that time the impact of these studies showed the path for further development of study of

human behaviour in work setting.

The 1930s produced some significant development as a consequence of labour

movement. Management-labour conflicts created a need for studying job satisfaction. A

trend of utilization of services of psychologists in industries was witnessed.

World War II had its share of influence on further growth of science and psychology was

one of them. Psychology came to the foreground in this important area of human

behaviour. Psychological tests sprang up. Training methods came to be systemized. We

also saw a dominant theoretical interest in American psychology in 1940s. Social and

motivational aspects in job performance came to be incorporated into leadership training

as a result of Hawthorne studies. Lewin’s action research and theory of group dynamics

almost swept the floor. There occurred a growth in psychological literature in the form of

books and scientific journals. The number of companies using psychological tests

increased from 14% in 1939 to 75% in 1952(Barite, 1960). Thousands of special courses

and services were offered on the nature and meaning of leadership.

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The decade between 1955 and 1965 was a period of severe test for psychology. Industrial

psychology was attacked by a variety of sources. One such source was psychologists

themselves. These psychologists who were not committed to management point of view

in looking at organizations and their functioning expressed their opinion that

psychologists were becoming technical assistants to personnel management.

Yet another criticism was that the tools developed by psychologists did not meet the

claim of practical usefulness.

The thinking that job satisfaction enhances production effectiveness was also disputed

and even found not fully true. The correlation could not be established. Finally it was felt

that perspectives of industrial psychology were not adequate.

The need for incorporating changes in organizations was mainly fitting men to jobs. This

was not practicable because workers are governed by social, sociological, social

psychological and anthropological factors. These are to be reckoned with and

incorporated into psychological perspectives. Study of human behaviour itself is inter -

disciplinary and in the context work setting it cannot be different.

The focus in this book is human resource development. This can be realized only when

we understand human behaviour in organizations. This later mentioned goes by the name

Organizational effectiveness (OE). Therefore we can say human resource development in

an organization is by the organization for the organization through its employees.

Basic Issues in Training

Within a certain limited constraints imposed by heredity, by and large behaviour is

acquired or learned.

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Individuals, when they join an organization as employees, bring with them their own

repertoire of behaviours including physical skills, temper, temperament, character,

interests attitudes, habits, idiosyncrasies, and a variety other behaviour dispositions.

Now that they have joined an organization as employees they will have to acquire some

knowledge and additional skills to fit into the needs of the job that they have to perform.

This acquisition of new learning happens in two ways. They are day-to-day work

experience and advantages of systematic training.

Day-to-day work experience is a non-stop continuous process. This is one of the most

effective ways of developing expertise in some jobs. But many jobs require systematic

and well-planned training programmes for mastery in addition to day-to-day work

experience. Systematic training programmes provide for expertise and has a definite

advantage over the day-today work experience based learning. The latter has some

inherent weaknesses. This is because it is time consuming and may not afford the best

foolproof opportunity. The jobs themselves may be poorly planned.

Therefore, emphasis is on a systematic training program not as a replacement of day-

today- work experience, but as a strong supplement and a complement.

The content of the training programme depends upon the need and purpose. However we

may broadly state them as:

The development of actual job knowledge and skills

The transmission of information or orientation training

The modification of attitudes or attitude changes towards work or the job on hand and

work environment – both physical and social in terms of sensitivity and psychosocial

skills are the need.

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The training programme irrespective of its purposes should establish on sound principles

and practices conducive to learning process. These principles, which are basically

psychological, should take into account sociological and cultural anthropological

background of not only the individuals under a training program, but it should also take

into account the geographical location of the organization.

Training is a process; it is an activity of the organization, which puts its employees on

high level of skills and performance effectiveness. Therefore any management, which

carries out a training program, expects behaviour change related to job in question. These

change if any can only be inferred by noting the difference between before exposure to

training and after. The success of training depends upon training plan and execution,

motivation and abilities of the trainees

The Training Program

Employee induction: It is typically an orientation program. The entrant learns about the

organization and people in it.

On-the-job training: This is used in helping the on the job employee to learn the job

organized in a systematic manner or on a catch-catch- can basis.

. Off- the job training: this covers a wide range of training activities, namely, vestibule

training for specific jobs, and supervisory and management training,

Out–side training: Training arranged with outside experts from universities, and other

professional organizations have to arrange.

Training Needs

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Prior to starting a training program a given organization should identify its training

needs. The organization is committing its resources in terms of time and money. This

requires a proper direction.

Any organization expects change in their employees as a result of exposure to training

program. The training program should support the organizational goals. These goals

briefly stated are: greater efficiency in work, reduction of operational costs, improved

quality in goods and services, and effective and affable interpersonal relations within the

organization. Modification of employee behaviour through training program should be

beneficial to the employees and the organization. This should also make it possible for

better performance of those who are deficient in their work. In the totality of the training

program the all-important aspect of personal development of the employees should have

a recognizable priority. This besides all other benefits so far presented gives the

organization an imperceptible but an important advantage of being noticed by all others

outside it.

Personnel development training program will be useful to workers and to the

organization both in short term and long term goals. In the fast changing socio-economic

scenario a demand for extending such a program is visible. The extending of training

programs to less efficient workers serves its own purpose serving both the organization

and the employees do not face a lay-off situation.

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CHAPTER – II

THE ORGANIZATIONS- A FEW REPRESENTATIVE VIEWS

Industrial organizations have a long past. Several writers have contributed to

organizational theories, both classical and traditional There are differences among them,

but in one sense they had a common factor that is, all of them were on a similar ground

These can be stated as assumptions of human nature. They all had similar views on

human nature, and the nature of work details. They had similar views on quality of work

environment. They all knew that an organization operates within such a framework.

Every organization strives to make itself an effective organization.

The Classical Theory

Etzioni (1964) made a significant contribution in the form of administrative theory with

division of labour as its main thesis. The assumption is that any job can be broken down

into simple components. Workers could specialize in these components and each

individual worker can carry out his part of the job efficiently. This is division of labour

and is supposed to enhance efficiency as the worker can specialize and master his part of

the job. The worker could attain a good amount of skill in his part of the job. Therefore

we can safely assume that organizational effectiveness will be high.

29

But the authority to effect this division of labour should be the central authority

following a central plan of action. Then there should be a plan to supervise each work

unit, which may consist of 5-6 workers. Each such unit needs a supervisor. These are

called first line supervisors each with a manageable span of control. These supervisors

need to be supervised by second line supervisors each with a manageable number of

supervisors. Thus a pyramid is developed with the ultimate authority at the helm of the

pyramid. This is the pyramid of control leading to the top executive. This results in one

central authority controlling the whole organization.

Can this classical administrative theory make for an effective organization? It can be seen

from this theory that practical problems do arise. Division of labour as envisaged in the

classical administrative theory makes room for simple repetitive tasks for the workers to

carry out and that too under close supervision.

Max Weber developed a theory based on his view of human behaviour. Weber was a

sociologist He was also of the opinion that all tasks should be broken down to smallest

possible units. Division of labour should be carried and experts should be responsible for

this. There should be a consistent system of abstract rules that could ensure uniformity.

Accountability rests with the superior officer. Employment in the bureaucratic

organization should be based on qualifications (Weber, 1947).

Classical theories as brought out above can defy human logic and essentially oppose

psychological aspects.

Practical application of division of labour and fragmentation of tasks into mini tasks can

lead to repetitive, monotonous simple tasks which do not agree with practicality. The

avowed purpose of specialization of classical theory is disputable and better methods can

lead to more meaningful specialization of a complex and absorbing nature. Specialization

should lead to efficient economic activity.

30

Traditional theories argue that efficiency is increased if personnel are in a strict

hierarchical order. Whether this hierarchical argument satisfies the criterion of

specialization as specialization cannot fit into organizational hierarchical system, as

specialists are in their own place in the total organizational structure.

The traditional organizational model leads to in-group and out-group feelings. Workers

tend to identify themselves with matters relating to their own sub groups which can breed

inter–sub–group tensions. Therefore we can surmise that such orientations towards parts

lead to negative outcome and particularly lower creativity and heighten inter group

conflict.

Dependence on the superior at every step, i.e., the approval of superiors in the

organization could curb motivation and creativity. Hierarchical organization has high

potency for curbing creativity. Creativity, by its very definition is the development of

new, socially useful ideas that are not likely to occur where approval of superiors is

needed at every step the workers have to take.

What then would be the liabilities of hierarchical structure of organizations? There can

be a long list of negative impact on creativity. In order to make the issue clear Argyris

(1964) suggested behavioural implications which may be summarized as below

The traditional theory lays emphasis on rules, hierarchical authority and external control,

i.e., external workers in the form of superiors.

The workers will eschew risk taking and experimenting. They tend to play safe.

Avoid new inputs.

Avoid trusting others.

Avoid owning responsibility in future and try to find scapegoats.

31

In an ever-growing society creativity has the prime place. Traditional theory hardly

encourages it. In addition it encourages passivity, dependency, and low level self-

perceived competence.

An organization is not many interrelated subsystems, but it is only a human social

system. There cannot be a rigorous administrative mechanism of hierarchical order where

every one has a superior and is dependent on him. .

We have seen in Chapter I, Introduction, the sequence of historical events, which led us

to make organization as a serious topic of study. We have also seen how a study of

organization and human behaviour of work is interdisciplinary. Study of organizations is

a combination of psychology, management, sociology, anthropology, mathematics and

economics.

An organization has the following characteristics:

The pyramidal shape increases interpersonal competitiveness.

The hierarchical distribution of authority encourages dependency.

Any big task can be broken down to simpler components.

Large sized organizations have difficulty in communications.

All these as shown earlier in this chapter curb individual autonomy and create

submissiveness.

32

Error: Reference source not found Figure 1: Management

Process

The Work Group

Every worker works within the framework of an organization, but he spends some part of

his working time in a work group. There are certain important characteristics in a work

group that does influence the workers. Hawthorne studies amply brought this out. There

are certain unique aspects, for example size of the group.

33

Porter and Lawler (1965) have shown that group size tends to be negatively related to

performance. But decreasing the size of a work group is not that easy. Any given work

group should have enough abilities and resources demanded by the job. We have to strike

at an optimum number of persons needed to accomplish a task. Increasing the number to

more than the optimum leads to greater emotionality and aggression, this is so because

presence of too many people in the group leads to a sense of insecurity and increases fear

of negative evaluation. But then large groups have become a reality and we have to learn

to live with them and make them better. We should have some mechanism to convert the

negative impact of largeness of a group to positive impact.

Then we are confronted with problems and variation within a group large or small. There

is the homogeneity aspect of a group. In creative work heterogeneity is better than

homogeneity as a group character and is more desirable.

Then there is the issue of how members communicate among themselves and the

different communication structures.

Group communication structure has been a topic of interest for psychologists. The

practical side of this interest is how it influences work performance.

Communication can be centralized or decentralized. It could be open democratic style of

communication or centralized one-way communication where the leader is the dominant

figure.

Psychologists are especially interested in the individual’s participation in organizational

social systems which we call groups.

34

The term group has a rather specific definition in social psychology. It refers not only to

a plurality of number of individuals, but specifically to a number of individuals as

participants in organized systems. Groups have been identified in six ways (Shah, 1976).

They are:

In terms of perceptions – members make an impression on others.

In terms of motivation (Is the group membership rewarding?),

In terms of goals (Working together with a purpose),

In terms of organisation (Each person has some organized role to play).

In terms of independence (Each person is some what dependent on others).

In terms of interaction (small group allow face to face communication).

Lewin (1948) emphasizes that the essence of a group is the interdependence and all other

issues are secondary to it. French (1944), states that in addition to interdependence

membership in a group presupposes identification with the group.

Group Cohesiveness

One of the key concepts in-group dynamics is group cohesiveness. Cohesiveness refers to

the forces that bind the parts together which resist disruptive forces. Festinger, Schahter,

and Back (1950), Cartwright and Zander, (1960) have defined cohesiveness in terms of

group members as the total field of forces acting on individual members vary from

individual to individual (Festinger, 1960).

35

36

Group Dynamics

An efficiently functioning work group appears to be a simple social form to the

onlookers. But this simple exterior of an efficiently functioning group is an extremely

complex phenomenon. When analysed we can discern specific elements and general over

all functioning of the group at work.

Group dynamics is used to refer to the elements that influence the functioning of the

group. Anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, and those in the field of industrial

relations are all concerned with the nature of groups and group functioning process. In

the recent years this has caught the attention and imagination of organizational

effectiveness specialists.

As recently as a few years ago there was relatively little interest in the work groups as

entities to be taken note of, be it social organization or factory. Management viewed and

perhaps still does so, more in terms of financial decisions, planning in production, work

methods, wage payment plans and concentrated primarily on the individual than the

nature of work group and social relation in the plant. But now, there is a great deal of

interest in things like leader and leadership in work group, the effect of group

participation in the decision making process, and the motives and attitudes of members

that compose the group. Within a span of 6 – 7 decades there has been tremendous

growth in the interest in problems connected work group and their importance .A useful

development.

The current interest now expressed in employee attitudes identifies several influences

on these attitudes: They are:

Size of the group

Cohesiveness

37

Homogeneity

Flexibility

Permeability, (refers to restrictions of membership in the group)

Polarization, (the degree of orientation toward clear and defined goals)

Stability

Intimacy

Autonomy

Control

Position in the group

Potency of each member

Hedonic tone, (pleasure of being a member of the group)

Participation, (the amount of involvement)

Interdependence is degree of dependence on the group.

It will be of interest to note that when a person becomes a member of a group, his

impulses, feelings, and behaviour are modified in various ways to various degrees

depending on the nature of the group.

In small groups a number of variables are related to work group and job satisfaction, and

job involvement. They are:

38

Size of the work group

Homogeneity /heterogeneity of work group membership

Influence, including participation in group activities

Organizational climate and physical environment

Employee control over the pacing of work

Feedback on job performance

Status of goal interdependence and the extent to which attainment of individual goals

determine the cohesiveness of the group.

Individuals of organizations are a major resource. Their attitudes towards various aspects

of their work- life play a very important role in moulding their behaviour. Individuals in

interact with their jobs, with other people, and with the organization where they work. As

a major resource individuals are the most important and at the same time most complex

resource for an organization. Employee attitude constitutes a major component of the

human resource.

Human resource factor in an organization is not confined to workers at the lower levels.

Qualitative aspects of personnel at all level have to be viewed as precious resource.

Creativity for example, is not the monopoly of any particular worker. For purposes of

illustration we may look at the middle level management personnel.

39

In an organization institutional leadership is a function of the manager at any level

management cadre. The manager has the advantage offered by the top management. He

has the opportunity for application of the art and science of managerial functions. He

has the opportunity for self- expression, one of the factors primarily responsible for the

growth and development of our dynamic economy, especially in the present context of

liberalized, consumer oriented global economy. New standards of development and

utilization of human resource is not too much to ask. They should be in place. The role of

the professional manager with flair for innovation is the need. Human resource

development program itself calls for innovation. Social scientists should address this

issue in collaboration with management scientists/experts.

The manager, therefore entrusted with administering the firm, its mission, its destiny, has

to utilize all resources available to him, prominent of them being human resource. This is

the main managerial function.

Considering managers as human resource we can raise a query as to why some managers

succeed remarkably while others with similar qualifications do not succeed or to put

differently, are not effective. The word succeed should be interpreted as effective. This is

a crucial issue that needs to be addressed. We may hazard to answer this query by taking

recourse to personality and attribute this to the fact that success is not merely a matter

of ability alone and that there is something more to it. These issues and many others will

be examined in later sections. Some people crumble at the very thought facing difficult

problems, some attend to such probable situations in a relaxed manner. .

More on Creativity

40

Interest in the concept of creativity has been there down the ages. A scientific approach

to understand this all-important cognitive process is recent. There are several definitions

of creativity. The sum of these points out that creativity involves developing something

unique. Productive thinking was thought to be enough to explain all cognitive behaviour.

But later a new thinking dawned. Thinking is of two types. One of them is convergent

productive thinking; the other is divergent productive thinking. It is the latter that relates

to creativity. In fact it is the same thing as creative thinking. This view received complete

clarification with the advent of Guilford’s Structure of Intellect Model (Guilford, 1956,

1967). Human abilities could be classified into three categories

Operation, the content, and the Product

Operation: This involves psychological processes such as cognition, memory, convergent

thinking, divergent thinking, and evaluation.

The Content: This refers to the kind of material employed, for example, figural,

symbolic, and behavioural.

The Product: This refers to the fundamental kinds of products that may ensue as a result

of combinations of operation and content. These are classes, units, relations, systems, and

information

Guilford recognizes five kinds of operations, four kinds of contents, and six kinds of

products. (5x4x6=120). Each of these 120 can be described in terms of operation,

content, and product. This in essence is a tri-dimensional theory of intellect as Guilford

conceived. All these abilities are distinctly unique abilities. The Structure of Intellect

Model delineates the whole range of human abilities including creativity.

41

We are particularly interested in the context of this book on organizational effectiveness

and human resource development two modes of intellectual operations; namely,

convergent thinking and divergent thinking are under consideration. Convergent

thinking refers to traditional type of intelligence, whereas divergent thinking involves

production of as many answers as possible as different from convergent thinking process

where only one solution is possible for a problem. Divergent thinking moves into

different directions, sometimes searching, sometimes seeking variety. It emphasizes

several logical possibilities .In convergent thinking possibilities centre on limited logical

necessity. Divergent thinking stands apart from conventional concept of intelligence.

.

Creative thinking according to Guilford bears a special character of flexibility and

fluency.

Creativity as an asset in terms of human resource cannot be over emphasized.

42

Siva Prasad Reddy (1987) made a systematic study of personality and creativity

correlates of job success among middle level executives in Indian industries. After

informed consent these 137 subjects were administered Cattel’s 16 Personality Factor

Questioner and Creativity Test (Paramesh, 1972) an adopted version of Wallach and

Kogan Tests of Creativity. Both verbal and non-verbal forms were employed. These

subjects were classified into top, middle, and low-level success groups based on ratings

of their superiors. The major finding on creativity was that a rather surprisingly a very

small contribution of creativity to job success of these middle level managers. The 16

personality factor questionnaire and two creativity factors together accounted for 38% of

the variance of managerial job success. Taken separately creativity factor, namely,

ideational productivity, accounted for a mere 5% of the variance of job success of these

personnel. This could be the managerial population from which the sample was drawn

did not face a demand for this resource. Further studies are needed to make definitive

inferences.

Further we may argue that job success in the middle level management may not demand

creative functions. It may also be that the middle managers chosen for the study did not

have a need for creative effort. If the top management desires to have creative people in

middle level management job structure has to be modified giving them more room for

creative effort and choose those with proven record of being creative. Creativity is too

important a human resource to be ignored.

43

Risk Taking Behaviour

Capacity to take calculated risk is a cultivated personality trait. The activities of any

organization are dynamic because of its setting in an environment which is ever

changing. As time moves on its constituent members whose aspirations, expectations and

achievements take new dimensions. An organization is a system of structured

interpersonal relations differentiated in terms authority, status, and role they play or

expected to play. When organizations evolved through division of labor, division based

on specialization of tasks that provide for identity of those who perform these tasks.

Manager is supposed to be a change agent whose job is to influence the behavior of his

subordinates in specified direction. The primary task of the middle managers consists of

carrying out the policies of the top management and maintaining a well coordinated and

efficient organization of work (Niles, 1949).

Middle level management sharpens and implements the broad plan of their superiors

(Piffner and Sherwood, 1960). General conception of these middle level managers is that

they should minimize the losses and stay with static risk. The static risk relates only to

potential losses. Top management is more often seen as dealing with dynamic risk

through maximizing opportunities (Byrd, 1974).

Individual differences are a fact in risk taking behaviour. Risk taking propensity is

hypothesized as an important determinant in problem solving (Bruner, et al 1956).

Atkinson (1959) on motivational determinants of risk taking behaviour explains that the

strength of motivation to perform some act is assumed to be the multiplicative function

of the strength of the motive and the expectancy (subjective probability) that the act will

have as a consequence, the attainment of an incentive and the value of the incentive.

44

Risk taking is necessary to realize one’s potential. For those who are for self- realization

the risk may seem small, while the fearful and faithless see these same risks chasms to be

leaped.

Risk taking is an important variable in functions of personnel in an organization. It can

even be considered an asset to be nurtured in human resource development programs.

Vijayalaksmi (1982) studied the relation between “Risk taking behaviour, Future Time

Perspective, and Job Performance of Managerial Personnel.” She reported that

performance and physical risk taking, and social risk taking were positively and

significantly related to performance of management personnel in the age group 35-

45years. However job performance and ethical risk taking were negatively and

significantly related to performance of managerial personnel in the age group 40-45

years. They were not prepared to take ethical risks. All correlations did not reach

significant levels.

Risk taking at low, moderate, and high levels reveals another picture. Low risk takers and

high risk takers were low achievers (Vijalakshmi, 1982). Moderate risk takers are those

who take calculated risk in physical, social, and monetary areas were high achievers.

Ethical risk taking is not conducive to organizational health. Therefore it is eschewed.

Vijayalakshmi’s study confirms this in the sense ethical risk taking was not related to

younger age groups and negatively and significantly related in older age groups. .

45

Passage of Time and Temporal Perspectives in HRD

To be conscious is to be aware of the three temporal categories – the past, the present,

and the future. The degree of awareness of these temporal dimensions and the ability to

manipulate their potential determine the capacity of the individual to plan proper

temporal regulation of his activities. These are a measure of the individual’s capacity to

utilize the past experience in the present and anticipate future needs (Rama Rao, 1978).

Time consciousness is a basic factor in human culture (Braudon, S.G.F., 1970). Modern

civilization is a product of time consciousness. ”Time, with all its celerity, moves slowly

on to him whose whole employment is to watch its flight.” (Johnson). The past and

future aspects as related to the present are not equally dominant in all individuals. There

are those who live predominantly in the past, and there are those who live in the present,

and those who live in the future in constant hope.

Bakan (1955) in a study of the effect of set and work speed on estimation of elapsed time

reported a significant negative correlation between time estimation and speed of work.

We may infer that when speed of work is high it result in under estimation of elapsed

time. Rama Rao and Sai Prasad (1973) reported a significant negative correlation

between amount of work done and estimation of elapsed time. The inference is that

persons whose out put of work is high experience time as moving fast and for those who

linger on in their work tend to experience as time moving slowly. They tend to

overestimate elapsed time

Factors like interest vs. boredom, filled vs. unfilled, repetitiveness of activity, and

activity vs. passivity have their impact on experiential time. These influence subjective

passage of time as slow or rapid (Loehlin, 1959).

Rama Rao (1978) considers subjective time could be brought under the rubric of

personality dynamics. This facilitates intervention in aspects mentioned by Lohlin.

46

Man is an information processing system and time is an experiential dimension of

information. It could be considered equivalent to other non- temporal aspects of

information such as intensity, etc. (Michon, 1972).

Time perspectives may be defined as an individual’s cognitions concerning the content,

placement, and unfolding of events in the past, present or future (Lehman, et al, 1974).

Temporal perspectives develop gradually along with activities and it has proved to be one

of the most seminal concepts in this relatively new area of psychological research .Time

perspectives involve total personality, memory of past events, and hopes and aspirations

of future success. Past, present, and future are interrelated where past is memory, future

is anticipation, present as we experience is a small bit of duration between past and future

(Fraise, 1963).

Vijayalaksmi (1982) has highlighted temporal perspectives, an intriguing area of

psychological research in the field of organizational effectiveness. We can draw on this

to relate to human resource development. Our personal experience seems always located

in time. Awareness and conceptions of time are products of human mind. However time

itself seems to posses an existence apart from its passage, impersonal and inexorable.

Time is experienced as a continuous succession of events. It is also at the same time

experience as not all of it is successive to one another, because some events are

experienced simultaneously. Time is not a straight line nor is it a curved line. It is a

stream in which events stand in transverse as well as longitudinal directions.

Temporal experience can be viewed as an emergent set of cognitive constructive systems

based on personal experiences and identity, influenced by socio-cultural aspects. Time, as

we experience is personal and social. Time is significant in our lives. We must grasp it

and shape it in order to be successful in our lives.

47

Time perspectives of an individual have different dimensions. They are his past

experiences, present happenings. We live in the present, i.e., here and now situation. The

present has several dimensions:

The present things past

The present things present

The present things future (St Augustine’s Confessions)

The present is only a part of the continuum whose stretch includes past and future. Time

perspective is a function of a psychological structure mediating between the here and

now situation and the total probability of self-past and future (Kastenbaum, 1964).

The construct of time perspective developed by Frank (1939) and Lewin (1952) is of

great importance in the study of human motivation. Lewin defined time perspective as

the totality of the individual’s views of his psychological future and psychological past

existing in the present. This he called contemporaneity.

Western industrial societies view time as linear and see achievement as occurring in time

(McClelland, 1961). Today economically developing countries following new economic

policies have to view time as linear and realize that achievement is distinctly related to

time experience. Idle time is a waste and time spent in meaningful activities results in

achievement and time passes rapidly and seems short. Recall the study of Rama Rao &

Sai Prasad (1973) where they reported that amount of work done was negatively

correlated with estimation of elapsed time.

48

Time sense is culture specific. Mead (1968) found a significant relation between

motivation and future time perspective. Meade’s study clearly indicates that minimal

future time perspective among Indians reports that this not a general trend among

Indians. Meade’s study further indicates that achievement motivation and future time

perspective are correlated. But learning experiences are important in this aspect. It can

therefore be conjectured that time perspectives have a lot of meaning for self-

actualisation. Such persons have learned to evaluate the present more positively in

relation to past and future.

Vijayalakshmi (1982) considered four variables of time experience variable. They are:

Factor I: Immediate Time Pressure Factor

Relaxed mastery and adaptive flexibility in time vs. Harassed and lack of control in time

Factor II: Long Term Personal Direction Factor

Continuity and steady purpose for time vs. Discontinuity and lack direction in time

Factor III: Time Utilization Factor

Efficient utilisation of time VS Preoccupation and inefficient utilization of time

Factor IV Personal Inconsistency Factor

Inconsistency and changeability in time vs. Consistency and dependability in time

The main findings are:

49

Job performance and long term personal direction factor are positively and significantly

correlated (r= .35, p<. 05) in the age group 30-34 years. Other time factors did not yield

significant correlations with any age group. The 30-34 year age group managers showed

a strong sense of continuity, direction, and purpose to individual’s life, with of long term

goals and confidence in their attainment.

This study should enable HRD professionals to sit up and consider of including time

experience as an item in the development-training program. I would suggest more and

more research be conducted in this vital of human experience. It has the potential for

ramified revelations.

Further findings of Vijayalakshmi’s work (1982) may be summarized as below:

Factor I: Immediate Time Pressure Factor:

Subjects in the age group 40-44 had a mean score significantly lower than 25-29, and 30-

34 year age groups. The younger age groups have shown calmness and confidence within

the allotted time to finish their tasks than the subjects in the 40-44 year group.

50

Factor II: Long term personal Directional Factor:

Subjects in the age group 35-39 years had a longer time personal direction than those 25-

29 year age group. Similarly those in 40 - 44 year age group scored higher than those in

20-29 age groups. The 40-44 year age group scored higher than those in 30-34 years age

group in this factor. The study further revealed that in 35-39 year and 40-49 year age

group had continuity and steady purpose for time and has strong motivation and positive

anticipation of full structured future than 25-29 and 30-34 year age groups

Factor III: Time Utilization Factor

The four age groups did not differ significantly in Time Utilization factor Scores have

been consistently high in all the age groups.

Factor IV: Personal Consistency and Dependability Factor

The findings in this factor indicate that 20-24 year and 30-34 year age groups were more

consistent and dependable than the age groups, namely, 35-39 and 40-49 year age groups

indicating consistency with steadiness, adherence to routine and a preference for the

familiar. All the four age groups have shown a personal consistency and constancy

through time.

Human relations professionals need to have very sound information in the area of

temporal experiences. This area is also known as experiential time. There is no need to

overemphasize this dimension of human behaviour and particularly in organizational

effectiveness and human resource.

51

It is extremely rare that human beings live exclusively in the present for any length of

time. Events of the past and probable events of the future intrude into the present time

and the result is an integrated action. The individual develops a sense of continuity by of

such integration. Cottle (1976) defined time perspectives as temporal horizon, the time

zones called past, present, and future.

Working time for any individual occupies a major part of the day. We all spend larger of

the part of the day in work situation than otherwise. But temporal perspectives engulfing

the entire life span up to the time of counting involve certain dimensions. Prospecting

future through expectation or planning and fantasizing direct pre knowledge and

prediction is a part of life. Perception of duration of elapsed time (past) and anticipation

of future event are very much involved in all our activities. The link between past and

future through the present is done through integration of these zones.

Studies related to job satisfaction and temporal perspectives are scare. The studies of

Goodman (1967) and Hass (1969) are a few among them. Many more are needed.

Growth in the study of organizational effectiveness is prompted by a realization that the

individual possesses the capacity to change his work situation to suit his own ability and

goals and in turn be flexible enough to mould himself according to the situation in which

he is working. The interactional aspect of person X environment is the obvious factor for

the growth of interest in organizational effectiveness. Keith Davis (1977) described

organizational effectiveness “as a study concerned with understanding and describing

human behaviour in a work situation. As an academic discipline it sheds light on the

causes and effects on human behaviour.’

The purpose of the study of organizational effectiveness is to understand, predict, and

control the behaviour of people in organizations. Three approaches are .indicated to the

study of organizational effectiveness. These are classified as:

52

Systems Approach

Traditional Approach

Contingency approach (Scott, 1981).

Systems approach emphasizes the interrelatedness of parts of an organization, part

interpreted in the context of the whole. The traditional approach is based on principles

that are applicable to all organizations. The contingency approach is based on diagnosis

of each situation and deal with it in an appropriate manner.

The field of organizational effectiveness is dynamic and constantly changing requiring

continuous research to update all issues connected with organizations. Human resource

development program requires constant repair to suit ever growing and changing

organizations and that such changes taking place at a rapid pace owing to in good

measure to swift changes in socio-economic scenario.

Management is the basic resource of any organization. Even in most automated industry

human factor cannot be taken for granted. The resourcefulness to manage an automated

industry cannot be underestimated. It may that new resourcefulness has to be developed

and stabilized as long as it works. And when new demands spring up the organizations

should gear up to new demands. Managers have to be capable of meeting such demands.

There are different levels of management and each level has distinct demands to meet.

They too require changing their style to keep the organization in good shape and health.

53

Rangnekar noted that this area of human behaviour is a state of confusion because of lack

of empirical studies. However a few studies that are done have shown the importance of

studies in this area. A few notable studies are: Singh (1967), Unni (1976) Subha (1979).

But none of has reached the level of developing theoretical models of managerial

motivation and to establish their influence on managerial behaviour.

But then we have come a long way particularly in organizational effectiveness and

human resource development.

Another Indian study using temporal perspectives can be cited as one of the variables.

Parvathi (1985) draws conclusions based on her studies that managers fall into certain

specific categories. They are: Order and group achievement, Personal enhancement,

Support and interaction, Security and maintenance, Dynamism and achievement

orientation.

This classification is based on Wofford’s Managerial scale (1970).

Further Managerial styles are briefly described here under:

Order and group achievement style: This style relates to care, thoroughness, neatness,

and high intentions of achieving goals with group support

Personal enhancement style: This style is concerned with authority and control. They

always pressurize subordinates for compliance

Support and group achievement style: This style relates to care, thoroughness, neatness,

and high intentions of achieving goals with group support

Security and maintenance style: This style is concerned with authority and control. They

always pressurize subordinates for compliance

54

Dynamism and achievement style: The managers with concerns for dynamism and

achievement are dynamic and self-assured. They have of confidence. They are action

oriented.

In her study Parvathi had 31 subjects in the 1st group, 19 subjects in 2nd group, 16 in the

3rd group, and 19 in the 4th group. These four groups evolved after sophisticated

multivariate analyses from the data gathered by using Wofford Scale. These four groups

were independent of each other statistically. These groups did not differ among

themselves on need variables. The study did not attempt to compare the relative

performance effectiveness, as it was not the part of the investigator’s study.

The four groups identified by Parvathi in the study cited above are named as here under:

Group A: Personal order and group achievement

Group B: Support and interaction oriented

Group C: Personal enhancement, security, maintenance oriented.

Group D: Personal dynamism, Personal achievement, Personal enhancement oriented.

These groups did not differ among them selves on need variables. The study did not

attempt the relative performance effectiveness, as it was not part of the author’s work.

55

CHAPTER – III

PERSONALITY COMPONENTS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Personnel selection is at the core of human resource development as much as it is in

organizational effectiveness. This is a critical function of the management of selecting

individuals for specific functions or positions. The process is matching person to jobs.

Equally important function of the management is training the selected personnel for

enhancing performance effectiveness, job satisfaction, and ad commitment. The persons

selected may be on the one hand having previous experience or may be raw hands. Both

groups should have the benefit of a well-planned training program.

Personnel selection is basic to human resource development. It is the primary

responsibility of the management to train and develop the resources they have acquired

on a planned and scientific basis.

Personnel selection stands on the philosophy that those selected have the best chance to

do well and contribute to job success and organizational effectiveness. Well-directed

selection is the gateway to success but that is not success itself. The selected and placed

employees have to be fine tuned for their jobs and to whatever other opportunities that

may arise for them.

We have to consider two significant aspects of the whole procedure: they are selection

and training. Training has dual purpose, namely, to fit selected person to the job and fit

him to the totality of social and psychological ambience. In brief it can be said training is

holistic not just fitting the man to the job. This would otherwise be a mere mechanical

process.

We may now turn our attention to the first basic issue that is training to fit the person to

the job.

56

Job Requirements Personnel Specifications

There are personnel specifications that are intrinsic to the job and required for

performance effectiveness. There are other specifications related to labour market that is

available with suitable persons. The intrinsic requirements vary from job to job. Some

jobs have well defined personnel specifications and some jobs have some degree of

vagueness in this aspect.

How are personnel specifications established? This is a significant question. Personnel

specifications may be considered predictor variables that they are independent variables

of a criterion the management has in mind.

Examples of Personnel Specifications

Work experience

Education

Training

Demographic information

Health information

Who is the management seeking? Are they trained or experienced people or raw

untrained persons? This issue is significant because a trained person gets into the job

straightaway, but may be less amenable for moulding in accordance with the

organizational needs. The untrained may take some time to adjust after joining the

organization; the management may have to wait for such recruits to become performance

effective. This involves initial loss. But it has the advantage of moulding them in terms

of the philosophy and ideology of the organization.

57

The individual in the organization, his behaviour is all very complexes, influenced by

many forces both within the organization, the individual himself, and the society at large.

There is another facet to this dimension that is group dynamics and its effect on the

individual.

Personality and cognitive structures of the individual have profound influence on the

behaviour of the individual. These constitute a complexity of interacting factors. For the

sake of convenience of exposition we take them separately though this would be

unrealistic in human nature.

Personality

The word personality is used in different ways. The most popular of these fall under two

main categories. This equates personality to social skills. An individual’s personality is

assessed by the effectiveness with which an individual elicits positive responses from a

variety of persons under a variety of situations. This view encourages the most talked

about “personality training.” The other use of the term personality considers the

outstanding impression an individual is able to make on others. One may be an

aggressive personality; the other may be submissive and so on. Thee descriptions refer to

the most visible trait of a person and does not claim as a full description of a person. .In

any case both these are evaluative in nature.

Personality is thus considered as having social stimulus value. The way others react

towards a person is indicative of his personality.

58

There is also an omnibus definition for personality. This definition embraces personality

by enumeration. Personality includes everything about the individual that a theorist may

list out. Different theorists have lists of varying length. Some theorists speak of

integrative function of personality. It is an organization, an integrated whole of several

characteristics. There are theorists who speak of consistency of behaviour and others

describe personality in terms of adjustment of the individual. Others describe personality

in terms of uniqueness. Some others consider personality as the essence of human

nature...

When we consider the above views of the theorists we get the impression that personality

refers to that aspect of the individual that is most representative of the individual.

There could be an argument against multiplicity of theories of personality and we could

raise a question whether we could have a single viewpoint that could incorporate all that

is implied in each one of these theories. But it can also be argued that any theory that can

well stand the test of empirical support would be good enough. But, whether such a

choice is possible is the question. Synthesis of theories can at best be a dream. I would

accept the multiplicity of theories of a complex attribute like personality as more

desirable than a single and simple unitary theory. Irrespective of multiplicity of theories

organizations are utilizing personality and interest factors of individuals as having

profound influence on their job performance.

It is common to describe human personality in terms of qualities or traits, like

extraversion-introversion, sociability, dominance and host of others. Organizations do

not seem to go by theories of personality but use a few terminologies that by their

thinking are adequate for their purpose.

59

Guion (1965) stated that the dimensions of personality and interests are vaguely defined.

Although it is probable, it is not possible to declare that there actually are certain general

syndromes that can be used to characterize the outward behaviour of persons. Herman’s

(1975) construct of 28 “temperament” factors seems to be longest as on date. A few of

these are dependability, alertness, stability, gregariousness, self-confidence, etc. We may

not altogether be on the wrong side if we describe that traits such as these can be

measured is not a figment of imagination of the concerned test developers.

Personality inventories are paper and pencil tests or questionnaires with either

dichotomous or multiple choice response format. Eysecnk’s and Cattel’s questionnaires

are very popularly used in research and in practical applications. There various other

psychological tests and inventories in use. There are number standardized tests of ability

tests covering areas such as intelligence, aptitude and special interests. There are tests

developed and standardized in countries other than India and in the recent years tests

made by Indian experts are also available. I would make bold to offer a suggestion that

every organization in need of psychological tests develop their own tests by using the

services of qualified psychologists. A well-developed and standardized test on rigorous

psychometric methodology would be most desirable.

After carefully establishing job requirements tests that are simple, which are made

scientifically satisfying all psychometric criteria would answer the need.

While personnel specification is being established checks must be made for reliability

and validity of these specifications. Several statistical procedures have to be employed.

Correlation analyses have to be made to establish stability and internal consistency.

Coefficient of Stability

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A measuring instrument is applied to the same group of persons twice with an interval of

two or three weeks between the first and second administration. The results of these two

measures are subjected to correlation analyses (Product Moment Method). If the

correlation coefficient is significant we can accept the stability of the instrument. This is

one of the important criteria of reliability of the instrument. The other forms reliability is

based on internal consistency concept. Split half correlation method, Chronbach’s alpha

method, and K.R.20 formula methods are generally employed.

Reliability measures cannot be absolutely accurate in measurement of psychological

attributes. It is sufficient if the correlation coefficient, in this context coefficient of

reliability is statistically significant. Respectable reliability lends credibility and

confidence in the use of these measures.

Coefficient of Validity

Guion (1974) refers to validity as a concern of how relevant test scores are to something

else. This something else can be the criterion of the attribute or any other established as

reliable and valid. Here also statistical processing is done by the use of correlation

analyses. Correlation coefficient in this context is known as validity coefficient. As in the

case of reliability there cannot be an absolute validity coefficient. A value that satisfies

statistical significance is all that is needed for acceptability.

There are three types of validity of tests. They are:

Criterion related validity

Construct validity and

Content validity

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In the previous paragraph mention is made of criterion related validity without

mentioning it by name.

The construct validity is concerned with the extent to which the test measures the

construct it is intended to measure. A construct may be identified by factor analyses or

by conceptualisation by reviewing relevant literature on the subject. In other words it is

an assessment whether a measure in question is a measure of the attribute under

consideration.

Content validity refers to the extent to which the measure (instrument) reasonably

provides for measurement of a representative sample of the domain of the attribute under

investigation. In other words the contents of the test are representative of the attribute

the test is supposed to measure.

In the area of personnel specifications job component validity is the major issue. This is

beside the three validity procedures already mentioned. It is also known as synthetic

validity. The procedure to establish synthetic validity consists the following:

Quantification of the various elements with due weight age; establish or determine

experimental sample of human attributes required successful performance of the job, and

some method of combining the estimates of human attribute requirements for an entire

job.

Among all these three types of validation procedures criterion related validity,

(particularly predictive validity) is most favoured.

How do we establish Personnel Specifications?

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As we scan through application forms we should be able to separate those who are

experienced and those who are inexperienced for the job for which they are applicants.

Personnel specifications differ between them.

Experienced applicants: Personnel specifications should be used on sound job analyses

describing each of the job activities. Then evaluate the candidate in terms of adequacy of

their experience in different job activities.

The inexperienced applicants: The procedure for these candidates is a little more

complex. In these cases attempt to predict suitability of the candidates is what is

warranted. This has to be done by determining the basic abilities, such as aptitudes,

personality, interests, and other attributes presumed to be required for learning the job in

question and adopting the same. Reliability and validity stated earlier hold good here.

Specifications based on Judgment

Judgments of personnel specifications should be based on sound knowledge and

understanding of the job activities. This method has the weakness of being subjective,

and at the same time there are chances of missing a few elements or components of the

job which may be crucial to the job performance. Psychologists do not generally favour

this method. But in the hands of professionals who are familiar with the concerned job

this method can safely and confidently used.

Structured Job Analyses Method

This is a more analytical method. This allows analyses of a job into units or components.

The personnel requirements can be based on statistical procedures. The analyses should

be the basis to constructing the total requirement by consolidating all the specifications.

Introduction to the use of Personnel Tests

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Psychological tests can serve as an integral part of an organization’s personnel

management and human resource development. These tests should be where there are

reasons to believe that they could deliver. . Many psychologists have argued for reliable

and valid measures to be used. They should be culture-fair and not discriminative.

It should be accepted that psychological tests are not infallible. Fake good is more

common than fake bad. It is possible that a person who does well on a reliable and valid

psychological test may not do well in actual work situation. Simulated situation cannot

totally represent the real.

Tests are classified into individual tests and group tests; performance tests and paper and

pencil tests. The content of the psychological tests are of three types:

Basic human abilities, such as mental abilities and psychomotor skills

The job specific tests, such are typical skills and knowledge of the job in question.

Tests that measure personality, interests, and attitudes

The merits and weaknesses of psychological tests will be taken up later.

Test Validation

Apart from the content and construct validity, which are descriptive criterion, related

validity measure is the most relevant to personnel selection. We may differentiate

between concurrent and predictive types of validity and see their utility in personnel

selection.

Concurrent validity

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This type of validity of a test for particular jobs is also referred to as present-employee

method of validation. It is based on the use of a sample of incumbents who at the time in

question are on the job.

Steps

Select a battery of tests to be tried. Assumption is that they are considered to measure

attributes judged as important for job success. This is based on job analyses

Select a group of employees on a voluntary basis with an assurance that their standing on

the tests will not have a bearing on their position in the organization. Administer the

tests.

Select appropriate criteria which in the opinion of the experts would assure good job

performance

Obtain criterion information of the selected sample of subjects and divide into high and

low performance groups.

Apply suitable statistical method to find out whether the groups differ and if so the

direction of difference and its significance.

If the difference is significant in favour of high performance group the natural inference

will be that the measures are valid.

Predictive validity

Predictive validity is determined by follow-up method of test validation. The procedure

is to administer the tests to the candidates at the time of recruitment. Test results are filed

and not used for selection of these candidates. They are selected on the basis of other

criteria generally followed.

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Steps

Select a battery of tests.

Administer these tests job applicants.

Select an appropriate criterion for success on the job.

Obtain criterion information on the new employees after they have demonstrated their

abilities to do the job that is after training.

Analyse the results comparing initial test scores and criterion performance data furnished

by their superiors. Apply suitable statistical processes and arrive at decision regarding

test validity

.Predictive method is the more preferred of the two. Both the concurrent and predictive

test validation has advantages and disadvantages. Employing concurrent validity has a

possibility of test scores achieved can be a reflection of combination of whatever level

was already there and the level achieved subsequently. This possibility is true in the case

of aptitude tests. But statistical processing is sophisticated enough to separate what was

already there and what is now acquired. This is done by using partial correlations and

eliminates the possible error of contamination of the second testing by the potential

already present at the initial resting. But this is a bit more circuitous than the predictive

validation method that is more direct.

Concurrent validity may involve Hawthorne effect that is the subjects develop a mental

feeling of being specially chosen. This may affect the outcome of the second testing.

Content Validity

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Content validity has many shortcomings and is controversial. We believe that it should

be viewed as an attribute of the test itself. This raises questions. Item selection for the test

is a hazardous procedure. The items may not fully represent the job requirements.

Domain sampling is not an easy procedure and it is doubtful the chosen sample of the

domain represents the domain.

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Construct Validity

The extent to which a test represents a construct leads to several questions. Selection of a

construct is another issue. To match the test contents with a construct provides for

inaccuracy.

Job Status Method of Test Validation

This is a variation of concurrent method of validation. In the concurrent method a single

job is considered and performance effectiveness in that job. But in the job status method

of validation if we consider a job family instead of a single job .we will be on safer

grounds. An individual may be working in different departments and is likely to have

migrated into a type of work here he can do better to survive. Now the test scores of each

of these of employees on each of two or several jobs are compared to ascertain whether

there are significant differences in test scores among jobs performed. A multiple

comparison using t tests would tell us the position. In addition we can compare the test

scores with job performance in each of these of jobs that can help us in taking

administrative actions such as promotions or transfers.

Job Component Method

There are situations where the validation procedures are not feasible. We may have to

satisfy ourselves and bypass the conventional methods in ascertaining which tests to use

for employee selection for a given job.

Several jobs may have similar if not identical components; therefore a test could be valid

for all jobs where similarities exist. This sounds hypothetical but seems feasible.

The management should be able to use a generalized basis for job component validity by

identifying common denominators. A test battery like GATB may answer this question.

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69

Personality and Interest Tests

Among human resources ability factors appear more predominant. It is a fact of history

of psychology that abilities came first under quantitative measurement and scales were

developed. Starting with Binet, Spearman, Turnstone, we find a galaxy of psychologists

devoting time and energy in conceptualising and developing instruments to measure the

ability attributes. Ebbinghaus is pioneer in the area of memorizing and its measurement

by his ingenious methods

It was later in history of psychology that non-cognitive and affective areas came under

quantitative research and developing measuring instruments. Personality and motivation

saw a bloom and developed into a very promising area of empirical area of empirical

study moving away from speculative and descriptive methods.

Historically empirical and quantitative studies of non-cognitive attributes came later than

ability testing. However after they got to start we noticed a rapid expansion of research in

the non cognitive area. This came to be looked upon as a vital area for empirical study

and application. Personality and interests give qualitative dimension to human behavior

and presently personality occupies the centre stage and has very deserving position in

theory and practice. It is known now that performance effectiveness is not solely

determined by ability but personality makes it possible or otherwise for ability to express

itself. Work efficiency is carried through the route of motivation and interest. Hence

there is a strong case for strengthening and utilizing this aspect of human resource. We

can expect that individuals with certain interests and personality patterns are likely to

look for certain types of jobs in preference to other jobs. Their job adjustments and

satisfaction could very be determined by these factors rather than by efficiency factor

alone. There are jobs which have direct bearing on the adequacy with which people can

fulfil the functions more satisfactorily. .

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But in spite of these the fact remains that these measures are being used but not to an

appreciable extent. It cannot be questioned as to why such a meaningful factor has not

been put to use in organizations either in personnel selections or human resource

development program.

Different experts define personality differently. Psychologists are concerned with

individual differences that are the characteristics that distinguish one individual from

another. Psychologists do not agree on an exact definition of personality. But for

purposes of simplicity we can define personality as the characteristic pattern of behaviour

and modes of thinking that determine a person’s adjustment to the environment.

There are several approaches to the understanding of personality. Most personality

theories can be brought under one or the other of four classes. They are: Trait approach,

Social learning, Psychoanalytic and Humanistic.

These theoretical approaches differ among themselves in the basic constructs used by

them and also the way they assess or measure personality. Personality cannot be studied

scientifically and satisfactorily unless there are satisfactory ways of measuring

personality variables. In fact the theoretical conception of personality determines the

methods to measure personality.

The Trait Approach

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C.J. Jung, one of Freud’s earlier students, classified people into two major types, namely,

Introverts and Extraverts. According to him introverts are of withdrawing type where as

extraverts are outgoing type. But extreme introverts or extreme extraverts are far fewer

than those occupying a midway position somewhere in the bipolar continuum of

introversion –extraversion. These are designated ambiverts. This makes the Type Theory

involve in a continuum between extremes and individuals occupying a position between

two extremes, thus rendering type theory untenable because we do not find typical types

among people.

Instead of trying to sort out people into types it was postulated that persons could be

described by their position on a number of continuous dimensions, each dimension called

a trait. This approach requires postulating innumerable traits or dimensions with

appropriate calibration of each dimension.

These large number of traits represented by word pairs characteristic of polar opposites

such as, calm-anxious, serious minded- light heartedness, etc. and ask a group of people

to rate themselves on each of these bipolar adjectives or rate others in order to quantify

how much of the trait on which rated is present in the concerned person or persons (self

or others rated).

Cattel’s 16 PF test (1973) is a typical example of this approach both in terms theory and

personality assessment. Eysenck & Eysenck (1963) described personality using only two

basic dimensions, namely, introversion-extraversion dimension and stability dimension.

Table 1

Cattel’s 16 Personality Factors

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LOW SCORE DESCRIPTION HIGH SCORE DESCRIPTION

Reserved, detached, critical, cool,

schizothymia

Less intelligent, concrete thinking,

lower scholastic mental capacity.

Affected by feelings, emotionally

less stable, easily upset, lower ego

– strength

Humble, mild, accommodating,

conforming, submissiveness

Sober, prudent, serious, taciturn,

Desurgency

Expedient, evades rules, feels, few

obligations, weaker super – ego

strength.

Shy, Restrained Diffident, Timid,

Threctia

Tough minded, self – reliant,

realistic, no – nonsense.

Trusting adaptable, free of

Out – going, warm hearted, easy

going, participating, and

cyclothymia.

(Affectothymia)

More intelligent, abstract thinking,

bright, higher scholastic mental

capacity

Emotionally, stable, faces reality,

calm, mature, higher ego strength.

Happy go – lucky, impulsively

lively, gay, enthusiastic, surgency.

Conscientious, persevering, staid,

rule bound, stronger super – ego,

strength.

Venture some, socially bold,

unlimited, spontaneous, premsia.

Tender – minded, dependent, over –

protected, sensitive, premsia.

Suspicious, self – opionated, hard to

fool, pretension

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jealousy, easy to get on with,

Ataxia

Practical, careful, conventional,

regulated, by external realities,

proper, praxemia

Fortnight, natural, artless,

sentimental artlessness

Placid, self – assured, confident,

serene, untroubled adequacy,

assurance

Conservative, respecting,

established ideas, tolerant, of

traditional difficulties,

conservative.

Group dependent, A “joiner” and

sound follower, group adherence

Undisciplined self – conflict,

follows own urges, careless of

protocol, low integration.

Relaxed, tranquil, torpid,

unfrustrated, low ergic tension...

Imaginative, wrapped up in inner

deficiencies, careless of practical

matters, bohemian Autia.

Shrewd, calculating, worldly,

penetrating, Shrewdness.

Apprehensive, worrying, depressive,

trouble Guilt proneness

Experimenting, critical, liberal,

analytical, free thinking, radicalism

Self – sufficient, prefers own

decisions, resourceful, self –

sufficiency.

Controlled, socially precise,

following self – image high self –

concept control.

Tense, frustrated, driven,

overwrought, high ergic tension

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Note:

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TABLE 2

Abhidamma mental factors

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HEALTHY FACTORS UNHEALTHY FACTORS

I PERCEPTUAL: COGNITVE

Insight

Mindfulness

Modesty

Discretion

Confidence

Delusion

False view

Shameless

Recklessness

Egoism

II AFFECTIVE

Composure

Nonattachment

Non – aversion

Impartiality

Buoyancy

Fancy

Adaptability

Agitation

Greed

Aversion

Envy

Avarice

Worry

Contraction

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Proficiency

Rectitude

Torpor

Perplexity

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Note: Source: Theories of personality, Calvin S. Hall, Gardner Lindzey, Wiley Eastern

limited, 1978.

This can be empirically tried to know whether these traits can discriminate between

success and unsuccessful management personnel. Factor Analytical approach may be

useful to regroup the traits.

The usual statistical procedure was factor analyses by both authors cited above (Cattel

and Eyesenk). And many others have used factor analyses in test construction. A survey

of literature in the area reveals lack of agreement on the basic traits but in some instances

an overlap could be found.

Minnesota Multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) is based on an empirical

construction rather than factor analyses. There is an assumption of specific personality

traits. Many items related to these dimensions were given well-defined groups of

individuals who were known to differ on some external criterion or form or norms. Only

those questions that differentiated the groups significantly were retained to form the

inventory. The final version inventory has 550 items (Hathaway and Monachesi, 1953).

Initially, the MMPI was developed for use by clinicians in psychiatric diagnosis of

abnormal personal type.

Decades of work devoted to construction and refinement of tests designed to measure

traits do not show a high degree of predictive power. Correlation coefficient of these tests

and other measures of behaviour are not high enough such tests can at best be useful in

gross screening, but cannot be counted to predict behaviour in a given individual case.

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Low predictive ability of these tests may be due to several reasons. Traits may not reflect

fundamental attributes of a person and may be dependent on the situation... The

correlation between trait and actual behaviour may be influenced by factors other than

the factor in question. Variables such as sex, age, intelligence etc, may have their

influence on the actual behaviour by way of either reducing or exaggerating the

correlation coefficient.

The Psychoanalytical Approach

According to Sigmund Freud the personality is composed of three major systems: The id,

the ego, and the superego. Each of these systems has its own functions and the three

interact to govern behaviour.

The id is the original source of personality, present in the new born; the ego and the

superego develop later. The id consists of everything that is inherited including the

instincts, sex, and aggression. It is closely related to biological processes and provides the

energy source (LIBIDO) for the operation of all three systems. The id follows pleasure

principle.

The ego has its own role. This is to consider the reality aspect and follows the reality

principle. Ego operates by secondary process thinking. Ego takes reality world into

consideration.

The superego is the internalised representation of values and morals of society acquired

during developmental stages from infancy onwards. They seek pleasure, the ego tests the

reality aspect, and the superego strives for perfection. The main functions of the superego

are:

Inhibit the impulses that society prohibits,

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Persuade the ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones, to strive for perfection.

This places the impulses of the id under restrictions and place on them by ego and super

ego which cause anxiety and the individual strives to reduce anxiety by a trend called

defence mechanisms.

Psychoanalytic theory had a powerful influence and all acknowledged this. But this

theory is unacceptable, because the constructions appear ambitions and even fictitious. It

has been severely criticized and questioned as a scientific theory and this view on

psychological development is not substantiated in scientific theory and scientific thought.

Social learning theory of personality

Some behaviour patterns are learned through direct experience and some by observation

of actions of others and consequents thereof. Thus social learning theorists do not insist

on reinforcement, but they do accept reinforcement as facilitation. Much human

behaviour is learning by direct experience or by observation, i.e., vicarious learning.

Reinforcement may be direct tangible rewards, like

Social approval or disapproval

Vicarious, i.e. Observing of some one else receiving rewards or punishment for such

behaviour.

Self-administered – a way of evaluation of one’s own performance with self –praise or

reproach. Self –administered reinforcement plays a very important role in social learning

theory of personality. It is necessary therefore, to discover the conditions that facilitate

regulation of be behaviour through self-reward and self-punishment.

Consistency of personality is one of the assumptions of social learning theory.

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Situation is an important determinant of behaviour. Specific characteristics of the

situation, the person’s appraisal of the situation and the part of reinforcement for

behaviour in similar situations are important determinants of behaviour.

Most social behaviour is most unfortunately reinforced across different situations.

Generalization takes place, when similar acting in similar situations are similarly

rewarded or otherwise reinforced. But when situations vary same behaviours are

differently reinforced.

But we have seen that basic personality and motives, endure, although overt responses

may vary. Social learning theory in contrast, assures that diverse behaviours do not

necessarily reflect variations on the same underlying motive. They often are discrete

responses to different social situations.

Social learning theory has for its focus not on the underlying motives, but on behaviour

patterns and cognitive activities in relation to the conditions, they may, maintain, or

modify them. The emphasis is on not what the individuals are like but on that on what

they do and the relationship to the conditions in which they do it. This does not however

preclude personal characteristics altogether. Some of the person variables are:

Competence: social skills, and other abilities.

Cognitive strategies: habited ways of selectivity in attending to information and

organizing it into meaningful units

Outcome expecting: about consequences of different Behaviour, the meaning of certain

stimuli indicating intentions motivating the behaviour of others.

Subjective value of the outcome even if the individuals have similar expectations, they

may still choose based on subjective value at that time.

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There are individual differences in self-imposed goals and rules governing behaviour,

self–imposed rewards for success and self- imposed punishment for failure and ability to

plan ahead that decide the behaviour.

It can also be noted that we are all not passive reactors to situational conditions. We

weigh and assess the situational conditions. Thus we selectively attend to what is

happening. We can prevent some conditions imposing upon on us to what we should do

or not do. We can also impose ourselves on the conditions thus, we notice reciprocal

relations between social situation and ourselves.

Social learning theory has for its main objective behaviour change. Relating the situation

that prompted a behavior and all that goes with it does this. If behaviour has to change

social situation must change and a measure of self –reinforcement of the individual will

also be a useful data for finding possibilities for modifying behaviour.

Behaviour can be observed directly in naturalistic situations. The strength of approach or

avoidance behaviour can be assessed. If these are not possible self- reports can be used.

Social learning theory emphasizes precision in the determination of environmental

variables and its approach can be of immense use for clinical psychology and personality.

Social learning theorists are criticized for over- emphasizing situational variables to the

neglect of individual variables that account for individual differences. The latter concept

is very important, as it does not portray individuals as passive reactors to environmental

stimulation. But they meet this criticism saying that variables have been ignored.

Behaviour of individuals has been measured across different settings and suggests

differences and this is the same thing as accepting individual differences.

Humanistic Approach to Personality

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The humanistic approach to the study of personality includes a number of theories that

have common emphasis in man’s potential for self-direction and freedom of choice.

Individual subjective experiences are the real ones. This theory does not accept

psychoanalytic theory and the behaviours to modes of human nature as being too rigid

and mechanistic.

Humanistic theories stress positive nature of man to push forwards self-actualisation.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are two of the main persons in this regard.

Roger’s theory emerged from a clinical set-up, as was Freud’s. He developed

nondirective or directive therapy that was a distinct departure from friend’s clinical

methods. He assures that each person has the motivation and ability to change. The

patient’s role in therapy is central and the therapist is only a facilitator. In fact in Freud’s

theory the reckoning was that the therapist was a dominant figure.

Self-concept is central to Roger’s theory of personality, hence came to be called self-

theory of personality.

Self consist of all the ideas, and values that characterize the “I”, “Me”, “Mine”, this

includes all attribute of I, Me, Mine etc. It is the perceived self that gives direction to

one’s behaviour. The perceived self (self-concept) influences the person’s perception of

the world and his behaviour. An individual evaluates every experience of his in relation

to his self-concepts.

Many others constantly evaluate by parents and Child’s behaviour, some positively, some

negatively he soon learns to discriminate acting and thoughts as worthy and not worthy.

The unworthy actions and thought get excluded from the self-concept.

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Self-actualisation is regarded as a basic force motivating the human being is a tendency

towards fulfilment, towards actualisation, towards maintains and enhancement. As the

individual grows he tends to fulfil his potential, within the limits of heredity. He need for

self-actualisation directs the individual to seek or to avoid activities depending upon

whether the experience is seen as one that will enhance the person. The need for regent

directs behaviour according to whether the resulting experience will elicit favourable

reactions from others, i.e. significant others. These two needs may conflict at times.

Maslow

Abraham Maslow is the one who focused on studying the characteristics of mature,

competent, and self-fulfilled individuals. Maslow’s need hierarchy theory of progressing

from same biological needs through psychological needs culminating in self-actualisation

has been the development of full individuality with all parts of personality in harmony.

His approach has been on the positive side of human nature self-concept is amenable to

measurement by the use of psychological inventories.

Upshot

A study and understanding personality in the understanding of the human behaviour has

two significant directions:

Understanding human behaviour for its own take

Application of such knowledge for behaviour change for development

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Human resource development program has as much to do with personality, interests,

attitudes and abilities much as intelligence, and aptitudes. Men may fit their jobs by

virtue of their abilities, but the personality, temper, and temperament may unfit them for

those jobs. Selection of employees as human resource for an organization and developing

for greater effectiveness and job satisfaction places a demand for human resource

development that is a holistic approach.

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CHAPTER – IV

ABILITIES AS HUMAN RESOURCE

There are individual differences in intelligence, knowledge, and general and specific

skills. In order to know whether a person has necessary skills to do a particular job, or

profit by education, or training in special skills. We need to know the individual personal

status in this aspect and whether he can profit by training and or experience and whether

there is need for appropriate measuring devices in this regard. In a technologically

developed society or a developing society such as ours, matching of persons to tasks has

very special advantages for the society and the individual. It is imperative that we do

develop these persons for further perfection and performance effectiveness.

Performance effectiveness has two connotations, one for the management in terms of

profit and two for the individual for satisfaction of doing a job well.

What a person can do now and what he can do later after experience or training or both

can differ and in fact it ought. There is a distinction between capacity to learn and an

accomplished skill is that capacity is the potential and accomplishment is the obvious

performance level.

The question now before us is whether we can predict accomplishment level prior to

exposure to training of an individual. This question is argued by having recourse to the

well known attribute “aptitude”. Psychologists over the years have developed aptitude

tests. These tests are broadly classified as intelligence tests and special skills tests.

Aptitude tests that predict performance is not yet a reality, these refer to what a person

can attain given the opportunities such as experience and training.

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A particular attribute has several components. Each of these units is generated on the

basis of task needs. Psychological tests designed to predict performance over a broad

range or abilities are called intelligence tests. Other ability tests measure some special or

specific abilities. For example mechanical aptitude tests measure eye-hand coordination,

clerical aptitude tests measure efficiency in number checking, and other related functions.

Aptitude is measured by a combination of tests. This is because every job function does

not depend upon a unitary ability, but a number of abilities and skills. A combination of

tests is called a battery of tests, these tests are administered and interpreted against what

is expected and predict the future possibility of a prospective employee.

In Chapter-VI, we discussed about personality factors as related to job performance. It is

now the turn of abilities in relation to job performance both in terms of effectiveness and

satisfaction. This chapter deals with abilities in human work.

The gamut of human abilities as already noted fall into general classes: the first of these

refers to the basic abilities; the second group refers to job-specific abilities, those

possessed by individuals who have learned to perform particular functions. The former,

the general abilities are shared by all in varying degrees. The first is the general basic

ability is available for performance of many activities and the second; job specific skills

can be built on the basic general abilities. We can not therefore identify which is more

important than the other. The two complement and supplement each other.

An assessment of many abilities has been a major occupation of psychologists.

Historically assessment of abilities has preceded personality and other non-ability factors.

The assessment has been possible through well-constructed and standardized

psychological tests. We will have a general introduction to this aspect of test

construction.

Test Construction

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The first step in test construction is to identify the construct we want to measure. Then

select items that relate to the construct to be measured. Develop these items and

incorporate them into experimental forms. This requires professional competence. The

experimental form of the test is subjected to professional review. After this review and

consequent modification the experimental test is administered to a group of subjects of a

population to which it is intended.

In the next step we have to carry out two aspects of item analyses. Both these are directed

towards selecting those items for the final form that would be most useful for our

purpose. Internal consistency of the test has to be high. The indication is that every item

of the final test is a measure of the final test. The other requirement is that the test as a

whole shows relationship with an independent criterion that is considered to reflect the

construct under measurement. The former reflects reliability the latter reflects validity.

We may call them internal criterion (reliability) and external criterion (validity). When

thee criteria are satisfied the test is ready for use. But continuous refinement of the test is

a necessity as nothing can be taken as infallible. Issues related to reliability and validity

has been discussed in a later chapter.

Basic Human Abilities

We have noted earlier that human beings differ among themselves to acquire skills

specifically needed for different jobs; such capacity to acquire specific skills is

considered as aptitudes. These aptitudes, in reality are basic abilities with marked

individual differences in each such ability. Measurement of these human abilities is

frequently used in predicting jobs performance and related criteria. Tests of such abilities

both aptitude and intelligence tests are numerous and readers may refer to book on

individual psychology for further information.

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CHAPTER-V

ATITUDES AND JOB SATISFACTION

Attitude is a conscious state. It represents to a certain degree of how it affects the

individual. In social psychological literature attitude holds a very prominent place.

Attitudes are feelings an individual has towards an object, person, place, or various

social, personal, religious, political and other significant issues. They manifest

themselves in the form of judgment and action towards these issues.

Attitude can be defined as the affective orientation towards a particular attitude object.

Attitude does not exist in a vacuum. There should be an attitude object. This object may

be very specific or may be very general, for example, attitude towards a specific type of

work or work in general there is an effective tone. The attitude object may be specific or

general. In the example used “towards a specific type of work” is a specific, “work in

general” is or a general type of work.

Allport (1935) defined attitude as a “mental and neural state of readiness, organized

through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s

response to all objects and situations with which it is related.” Literature on attitudes is

very vast.

Attitude is a perceptual orientation and response readiness in relation to a particular

object or a class of objects.

Attitudes are reasonably enduring. In this they differ from expectations that are

temporary skills of readiness. We find they are reasonably enduring but it does not

preclude changes. Attitude formation, its resistance to alteration and change is an

important area of study in social psychology. We designate this area as attitude formation

and change.

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Individual differences and uncharted variations in attitudes are well known. They relate

to issues upon which people disagree. Attitudes are distinguished from various other

concepts much as instincts, habits.

Attitudes are evaluative and affective. Beliefs may be constituents of attitudes and may

function in relation to attitudes. This is a very important distinguishing feature of

attitudes.

Attitude is recognized as a 0hypothetical variable or hypothetical construct as it can not

be directly observed. Attitude can only be inferred from observable behavior such as,

statement of opinion, or psychological changes and overt acts in relation to attitude

objects.

Questionnaire responses and self-reports are the main methods of measuring attitudes.

We use scales which present directional statements of opinion to which the subject

responds with some amount of response agreement or disagreement. Examples of such

scales are dogmatism scale, social attitude inventory, etc. Scale items usually employed

are Thurston or Guttmann scales. With the advent of the computer application factor

analysis has become very common. There are multidirectional attitude scales today.

There is a wide area of agreement among researchers that attitudes are multidirectional,

or that no attribute is uni-component, all attributes are multi-component. Factor analysis

brings out principal components of every psychological attribute and attitude is no

exception to this.

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Attitude formation and change is a very important characteristic of attitudes. McGuire

(1969) notes that in early part of 20th century attitude was central to social

psychology .There upon the development and adoption of group dynamics of 1950s over

shadowed this emphasis of attitude being equated with social psychology. But

subsequently attitude concept regained its importance within social psychology with

Festinger’s (cognitive dissonance), Sheriff and others who did work in the area of group

behaviour. All of which involved attitude change. This brought back the pre-eminence

of the concept. Literature in this area is extensive.

Attitude change is predicated on a number of factors: They are

The perceived quality of the change agent

Certain personality characteristics such as low self-esteem and general passivity renders

the individual to high degree of persuasibility

Attitudes which are close to those already held by the person are likely to be assimilated,

and those which are far removed are likely to result in a reaction away from the change

agent. This is contrast effect.

Communications which present both sides of an argument favouring one are more

effective than one the ended communication.

Presentation and dismissal of an opposite argument results in greater resistance against

latter communication.

Establishing conditions favourable to cooperation towards common goals is an effective

means of reducing inter group hostility i.e. common enemy approach.

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Further we may try to get hold of factors that affect change in real life attitudes. Real life

situation is different from laboratory or simulated situation where attitude is simpler, but

in teal life situation it is much more complex. In this context we may caution ourselves

and set not so high a level of aspiration in effecting attitude change in real life situation

such as business organizations or a general congregation of people. But, there is need

for attitude change for effecting behaviour change. In business organizations this helps in

increasing profit, for the good of the people as desired by social welfare organizations.

The need for attitude change for social good and general good of the people is accepted.

Therefore attitude formation and change is to be taken as an integral part of social

process.

The audience in real life situation is free to make their own decisions. They may accept

change to their attitudes or they may ignore attempts at attitude change-by-change agents.

The significance of the attitudes held is well appreciated as a factor that can influence

attempts at attitude change. We should also recognize that significance of change to the

recipient can influence the attempts to bring about a change. These factors are formidable

as they are highly subjective and the change agent cannot assess the level of the

significance of these factors.

We have to recognize that the change agent is not the only influence on the recipient. The

recipients have other significant persons related to him in different ways and to different

degrees. These significant others may be parents, spouses, siblings, friends, etc.

The prestige and credibility of the change agent can influence the acceptance or

otherwise thus facilitating or causing hindrance to attitude change.

The methodology and detailed program of attitude change have their contribution to

attitude change.

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How to structure attitude change messages - Strategies

These depend upon

The quality of the audience

The strength of prevailing attitude

The message delivery style

Communication structure

Social and communication skills of the change agent

Unfavourable attitudes about work and management can have diverse consequences.

These may be

Strikes and grievances

Increase in sickness and absenteeism

High labour turn over

Increase in accident rates and

Reduction in production levels

Therefore the necessity to study and find out the determinants of healthy attitudes on

both sides is felt. The aim is to prevent depletion of human resource in an organization

and increase in job satisfaction and involvement on the part of the employees. The end

product of attitude formation and change should be mutually beneficial.

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Gilmer (1971) reported where workers had positive attitudes had higher production rates

than those who had negative attitudes towards their jobs. This was not true with all the

groups. Some cases positive attitudes showed lower production rates. In some cases

attitudes and production were not related. We find here a rather an inconsistent trend.

Herzberg et al (1957) reported lower turnover and less absenteeism in 21 out of 24

studies. Mohanty (1980) did not find any significant relationship between attitudes of the

workers towards work, supervisor, management and production levels.

Although some of the research reports present a conflicting picture the need to know the

determinants of attitudes cannot be ignored. More work is needed to get a clearer picture.

Study of attitudes may be made by different methods: by impression and casual

observation, directive and non-directive interview, or use of questionnaires.

Planning and implementation of change in the work environment and qualitative changes

in work the work performance methods require attitude changes. This is enabling

workers to adapt.

In a dynamic society changes are the order and therefore a question arises as to how all

concerned from managers to workers cope with these changes. Change in the mode of

work to suit the changing environment has to be accepted as a reality and methods of

coping have to be evolved. In this aspect attitude change is primary and fundamental and

other aspects like such as adopting new methods of work will come by.

Managers need to change their management style to plan and implement change. This

requires primarily attitude change.

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In the process the management should observe the situation by way of empathy how an

outside expert would observe the situation, and how all others in the organization are

observing the changing environment. The frame of reference must be clear to the

management.

Efforts to bring to about bring a change to suit the changing circumstances requires

clarification of what is happening now and what should in the changing circumstances.

The discrepancy between what is happening and what should be happening can bring a

tremendous conflict among individuals in the plant.

If the problem resolution requires that management style should change it should be

done.

Changes in knowledge are easy to make but attitude change is different. Attitudes take an

affective tone as well, emotionally charged and therefore not easily amenable to change.

Knowledge (K) Attitude (A) and Practice (P) KAP, remains more a slogan than a

program. Knowledge is easily obtained or given attitude may or may not change. Even if

it does there is no guarantee that behaviour changes. These three levels related to changes

can be brought about either by participative or coercive methods. The former denotes a

positive approach.

Participative change cycle is implemented when new knowledge is made available to

individuals or the group. The group discusses and develops a positive attitude and

commitment in the direction of desired change.

The next step is to implement this into action that is more difficult. It is therefore

suggested to identify the formal and informal leaders of a group and get their behavioural

support and through them obtain the desired change in all the concerned employees.

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The second strategy is by coercion or by directive style. This can be effective if the group

members are low in ambition and even dependent. If the management is of the opinion

that this is true of the group directive style may be adopted. But participative change is

more enduring than the directive style of changing attitudes and behaviour.

Lewin (1947) identified three-phase change process. They are Unfreezing, Changing, and

Refreezing.

Unfreezing: In this phase the management motivates and makes the individual or the

group ready for change. This is a process of breaking down mores, customs and

traditions of individuals to throw away the old ways of doing things so that they are

ready to accept new alternatives. When the individuals are motivated to change they are

ready to change.

Changing: In this phase the workers acquire new methods of work behaviour in place of

their earlier methods. The transition is made.

Refreezing: In this phase the newly acquired attitude and behaviour get integrated into

the individual’s personality and ongoing significant emotional relationships. New

behaviour patterns get internalised and become a part of the individual’s personality.

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Summary

The attitude of employees is an important component of human resource. It is important

both for the employee and the management. Attitudes have important functions. They

provide information about employee’s reaction to other individuals, events, or objects.

Attitudes guide behaviour.

JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction is a topical issue and is of great interest to workers, management, and

psychologists. Job satisfaction is a complex problem; a subjective experience of

personnel and as such a simple and a straightforward solution is impossibility. It has

attitudinal response in good measure. Several motivational and attitudinal components of

job satisfaction have been explored in the recent decades. The issue is of importance to

management process in organizations for maintaining human resource to be at its best. A

well-developed human resource can fit into the job in question with a sense of fulfilment

and satisfaction. In this sense this concept has relevance for human resource

development.

Serious studies on job satisfaction are recent phenomenon. Up to the point where Elton

Mayo initiated a study in the Hawthorne Electric Company managements were interested

in examining and improving physical conditions and equipment design to enhance

productivity of the workers. Later part of Elton Mayo’s work revealed that factors of

social nature were affecting satisfaction with the job and also productivity. Human

relations came to be recognized as important in work environment. It even took the shape

of a movement and a step forward. Management seeking to make it possible for the

worker to be happy and satisfied made its appearance. .

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By the year 1969 job satisfaction studies exceeded four thousand (Locke, 1969) by now

there might have been many more. In spite of such enormity of research out put the very

nature of job satisfaction is not fully understood. As a subjective experience coupled with

individual differences as a base and objective and social factors contributing their share

job satisfaction eludes a rigorous definition.

Traditionally it is thought that a total of personal and subjective factors affect job

satisfaction more than sum total of job factors them. Therefore it can easily be said that

job by itself either satisfy or dissatisfy but on the expectation that individuals have of

what the job should provide. This is expectancy theory. This points to what the

individual expects that determine job dissatisfaction. There are individual differences in

this regard. . This is what makes it difficult to make any plausible explanation. However

what an individual expects of his job is only a part of the story because how far his

expectations are fulfilled is what matters.

There are other theories that state what constitutes job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. .

Herzberg’s theory is a point here. This will be elaborated later. There is a view that job

enrichment can contribute an important element causing job satisfaction.

All these studies have shown the way forward in terms of job change, economic

importance, productivity, absenteeism, and labour turn over. In fact all these have been

highlighted as job satisfaction indexes. Studies grew in number and newer and newer

theories of job satisfaction made their presence.

Job satisfaction can be considered a specific subset of attitudes held by organization

members. It can be said in simple terms that it is the attitude of the worker towards his

job and various aspects of the job. This is the experiential aspect of the job or it is one’s

affective response to the job.

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Workers compare among themselves. Equity theory states that if the worker gets more

than his due will experience less satisfaction. The evidence seems to indicate that equity

norms operate and that over payment may result in inequity. But this occurs very

infrequently and does not merit consideration.

Vroom (1964), has extensive study of work and motivation.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory states that job satisfaction stems from an entirely

different set of causes than dissatisfaction. He classified satisfiers as recognition,

autonomy, responsibility and wok itself Dissatisfies are pay, working conditions, and

behavior of superiors which are not felt when available in good measure. But lack of

these or in their absence in good measure can cause dissatisfaction. This position

generated considerable research during the 1960’s, but as of now there are no supporters

to this view. Both dimensions can cause satisfaction or dissatisfaction. As such this

theory has no takers today.

TABLE 3

Herzberg’s Two Factors.

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DISSATISFIERS:

HYGIENE FACTORS.

SATISFIERS:

MOTIVATIONS.

Policies and administration

Supervision

Working conditions

Interpersonal relations

Money

Status

Security

Achievement (possibility)

Recognition for

accomplishment

Challenging work

Increased responsibility

Growth and development

Note: individual organizations should work out empirically their own data and apply.

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Behavior Related to Job Satisfaction

Porter and Steers (1973) reported a negative significant correlation between job

satisfaction and labour turn over. Absenteeism also had a significant negative correlation

with job satisfaction.

Data do not support that job satisfaction promotes higher production. But the two may be

related only under certain conditions. If the job itself is the cause for satisfaction work

out put and job satisfaction show positive correlation.

Measurement of Job Satisfaction

Innumerable studies have been carried out in this vital area of job satisfaction in the last

five or six decades. Interestingly there have been many scales developed to measure job

satisfaction. These scales fall into two general categories. They are:

Taylor- made scales: Devised for specific purpose or setting or a project.

The standardized scales: Devised before their use and group norms established.

Although theoretically standardized scales are superior as measuring instruments, tailor-

made scales are more frequently used.

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CHAPTER VI

MOTIVATION

It is commonly known that all creatures, animal and human are motivated in all that they

do. Psychological literature abounds in introducing terms like learning, reinforcement,

stimulus response that are likely to reduce the importance of motivation in behaviour.

The construct motivation is however fascinating both to the layman and social scientist.

Its value is upheld by systematic empirical studies for psychologists. If we operationally

define motivation the layman’s assumptions about the concept disappears. We have to

have a strictly scientific definition and a scientific empirical approach to this construct.

Psychologists provide the procedures and methodology for studying motivation.

Motivation is a concept familiar to us from personal experience; poets, philosophers,

psychiatrists, biologists and psychologists have written it about. This forms an exciting

area of inquiry for many disciplines.

Motivation like many other concepts in psychology is not readily delimited. Motivation

is an invisible variable, it is only inferred. This inference is made by our observation of

external behaviour of persons.

In our endeavour to understand human behaviour, we have to take note of observed

behaviour and inferred variables or events. Psychologists for many years have

distinguished between observed events and inferred events. Stimulus and response events

are observed events or observable events.

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Stimulus events are environmental inputs and response events and response events as

overt behavioural outputs of the organism. In the earlier days psychologists described

behaviour as S-O-R (Stimulus – Organism – Response) bonds (Woodworth &

Schlosberg, 1954). This appears to be more appropriate, because this stimulus to

response is only through the mediation within the organism i.e., the processes going on in

the organism (O) which are inferred. These inferred variables are called intervening

variables. These variables intervene between stimulus and response.

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TABLE 4

Variables

Explanatory Variables Intervening Dependent

Leadership

Decision making:

Organizational Philosophy

Technology

Motivation Morale

Communication, conflict

resolution

Problem solving

Skills of leadership

Production out – put

Costs, Earnings Turn

over.

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Note: Explanatory = causal validity.

Dependent = output variables.

Intervening = mediating variables.

The intervening variables are not observable but can be made observable by

appropriately transforming them by measuring instruments. In the absence of instruments

to measure physiological changes in the organism as measures of inferred events, we can

still measure them by measuring stimulus variables and response variables and relate

them in terms of intensity of each of them for example a low intensity stimulus resulting

in a high intensity response leads to infer that there must be a high intensity inferred

events.

A Brief Historical Note

Man has used many concepts to explain human behaviour as means of better

understanding of himself and his fellow men. Charles Darwin influenced scientific

thought and almost revolutionized all scientific thinking. His influence was felt in such a

way that psychology changed its course of thinking of the nature of man and his

behaviour. Instincts that were thought to be in the realm of animals below humans came

to be accepted to explain human behaviour. McDougall described instincts as dynamos of

behaviour and said that this concept is applicable to man as much as to lower forms of

living beings. The root of such thinking is the 19th century biology of Charles Darwin

and his famous work on biological evolution. Instinct appeared a promising concept as

means of accounting for a wide variety of human and animal behaviour. But sooner the

concept of instinct as applied to humans came to be abandoned. Around the same time

the concept of drive replaced instinct. This concept was referred to us, a mechanical

system and also as a biological system.

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Freud and others used drive as a biological concept rather than as a mechanical concept,

even this did not find much acceptance. Psychologists insisted that humans are more than

machines and lower animals. Therefore in course of time drive concept disappeared and a

more generic term motivation came to be favoured. Today we use the term motivation to

explain human behaviour.

Change of terminology from instincts to drive and then on to motivation is not just a

mechanical or a cosmetic process. There is much more to it. Terms in science reflect a

consensual process than a fancy of only one. Science is essentially a public process,

involving sharing of knowledge at various levels. Science represents accumulated

empirical facts and shared ideas. Ideas are tested and accepted and not blindly accepted.

Time and geographical limitations do not apply to scientific knowledge. The change in

terminology stated above reflects a basic change in conceptualisation or the problem to

which these terms are applied.

Why do we use the construct motivation? What advantage do we derive from this term in

scientific work? Layman uses the term motivation in a loose sense but in science the

same term is used in strict scientific sense with a definite meaning. Therefore we need to

define motivation or any other term drawn from common usage to scientific usage in a

strict and restricted sense. The idea is that all scientists get the same meaning of such

terms. In psychology there are many terms borrowed from common parlance and defined

in strict terms for purposes of scientific rigor. Adequate scientific supports to these terms

are needed and scientific work renders it. In the study of human behavior motivation

psychologists seek to provide an empirically sound and precise basis for using

motivational explanations.

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Human behaviour exhibits a high degree of both variability and stability. Then what are

the attributes of variability and stability? The most obvious fact both for layman and

psychologist is that behaviour varies from time to time in any given individual. This is

intra subject variability i.e. within subject variability. Behaviour varies among

individuals. The behaviour varies among individuals. This is called inter subject

variability. The variations referred here is under the condition of no change in the

stimulus variable. This means that we encounter behaviour variability even in the

absence of any difference in the stimulus variable. The stimulus variable may be internal

or external.

The word stimulus is used broadly in modern psychology to include any specific

environmental effect or any antecedent behaviour or consequence of behaviour. The

stimulus can be internal or external. Psychologists seek law and effect relationships

between antecedent events and consequent events (responses).

Next we may look at the concept of stability of behaviour. Behaviour displays a

remarkable consistency. Here there is an apparent contradiction to the concept of

variability we just now discussed. Here also we notice within (intra individual) and

among individuals (inter individual) similarity and stability. If all individuals show a

common pattern of behaviour over a period of time we call it between subject

consistencies. If a given individual displays consistency or stability of behaviour over a

period of time we call it within subject stability.

But the scientist has to handle the dilemma of variability and stability both being a reality

in human behaviour.

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Figure 2: behaviour – goal directedness Five Steps.

Behaviour is goal directed. The terms like purpose, intension, and goals are in common

usage. These terms are found in major parts of literature on motivation. When we employ

the construct motivation we are automatically considering purpose, goals and intensions

of behaviour. It is an accepted view in psychology that behaviour is goal directed. Goal

directedness of behaviour displays energy as well. Motivation refers to both goal

directedness as well as energy to reach the goal. The latter is known from the extent of

effort put in by the individual.

Motivation and Specialty Areas

Motivation is a major construct in a number of specialties within psychology. We can list

a few of them here. Industrial psychology makes references to such topics as morale,

incentive, payment, motivation to work, etc. Psychologists in the area of consumer

research consider topics like consumer satisfaction preference for certain brands among

products, consumer willingness to buy at high prices, etc Psychology of advertising deals

with motivation.

In sociological literature topics such as attitude change, cognitive dissonance, and such

others appear frequently. For clinical psychologists motivation in problems of treatment

adherence is a serious issue. Wherever psychologists deal with human beings in real life

situations motivation assumes major importance.

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Psychologists have been attempting to establish conceptual and empirical relationships

between motivation and activity. It was earlier hypothesized that in concurrence with the

term drive postulated is an energy source to ‘drive’ an organism to activity. McDougall

called instincts as the dynamos of action or activity. There must be some steering effect

behind the actual activity. Many theories of motivation emphasize motivation as an

energizer. The concept of energy is considered pivotal in theories of motivation.

Energizing function makes motivation different from other intervening variables such as

learning, expectancy, beliefs, and attitudes. Accordingly it is said by some that

energizing aspect of motivation is emphasized at the expense of other variables.

Motivation in this sense is viewed as a generalized state of tension that increases all

responses. This means that when an individual is in a highly motivated state is more

active and does things with greater force than he would otherwise do. Such a condition of

generalized tension has been given different names by different theorists.

It is this energizing process that makes for the formidable character of the concept of

motivation. We can now examine empirical evidence for this for this kind of

conceptualisation of motivation as an energizing process.

It is commonly observed that when an organism is deprived of something or some

important life sustaining substance process of motivation is raised.

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Basic terms and Assumptions

Deprivation rouses motivation to fight out deprivation. Deprivation therefore can be an

antecedent condition. We can now examine other antecedent conditions that motivate the

organism which are produced by a variety of stimuli. In some instances these stimuli can

get pooled in some way so that the total motivation of the organism is heightened. That

is, a group of stimuli as sources of motivation if simultaneously present motivation is

heightened. This is additive characteristic of drives, meaning that drives summate, that

the energizing functions of the diverse motivating conditions raise the total effective

drive state of the organism. Stimulus specificity is not critical with so many sources of

motivation adding up to a non-specific pool of energy. In the same way response

specificity is not directly tied to motivation. The organism makes all categories of

response moves not selective ones, only. This assumption states that underlying the

concept of motivation as energy or arousal is that generalized response output is

heightened.

Amplitude, effort, and vigour aspects of responses are raised with increased energy

mobilization. The prediction is made that more responses occur but not necessarily more

correct or accurate ones. Generalized drive is said to raise response strength. The concept

of response strength is not new in psychology and has to find a place in motivation in the

face of generalized drive condition.

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The terms tension and energy imply physical and biological processes, but for

psychologists the energizing aspect of motivation refers primarily to a behavioural

process. Doing something to the organism or stimulating the organism in some way can

behaviourally induce tension, energy, and arousal. We use biologically oriented terms

whether spelled out or not they are considered relatively unimportant within a

behavioural theory. Most psychologists are concerned with prediction of behaviour, with

how increased motivation will be manifested in an individual’s behaviour. Some

psychologists have attempted to make an explicit formulation concerning physiological

events involved in energy utilization or energy mobilization (Duffy, 1951). Despite

diversity in theorizing energizing function of motivation there are some common basic

assumptions. These are:

That the effect of motivation on behaviour is primarily energizing

That regardless of qualitative differences various sources of mobilization add to a total

increase in the energizing process that motivation increases response in a general rather

than a selective way.

Relation of Emotion to Motivation

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In the historical developmental sense of psychology emotion was clearly distinguishable

from motivation (Boring, 1950). Emotion was identified in terms of feelings and

sensations and in terms of verbal awareness of these. Once behaviourism developed as a

major system of psychology researchers were mainly concerned with overt behaviour and

not inner feelings or inner happenings. Pribram (1967) wants to retain a distinction

between emotion and motivation. He says that emotion focuses on a synthesis of

sensations or intake of information from the environment and thus it is passive rather

than active. Motivation is active in that it involves a preparation for action. There are

others who refute this contention (Flinn, 1967) and say that emotion is not passive or

geared primarily to affective process, but instead lead to action. There could be diverse

views.

The layperson tends to distinguish between emotion and motivation and does so by

tradition and in non-technical language.

If psychologists distinguish between emotion and motivation they do so in terms time

sequence. The initial internal response to environmental events is said to be emotion

which is followed by motivation and to action. There is general agreement that emotion

precedes motivation. It does no harm in taking them as not distinguishable at the present

state of knowledge.

Incentive motivation is different from deprivation motivation. Under incentive

motivation the more the individual attains a satisfier or a reward the more he wants it. It

is the same thing as saying incentive goads on. In contrast deprivation induced

motivation involves a reduction of drive when an individual attains a satisfier or reward

so that the more an individual attains a satisfier or reward the less he wants it. Reward-

motivation relationship is complex. Reward value itself can be heightened by heightened

drive.

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Secondary motivation is used to describe learned motivation in contrast to primary

motivation. The former is not biologically determined.

Rewards can be related to goals in a number of ways. In much of the literature dealing

with animals, rewards and goals are interchangeably used. In humans the goal typically

refers to an anticipated or sought- outcome rather than an actual out-come. In the case of

human behavior the construct of goal implies cognitive processes that involve decision-

making, choices, planning, and expectations.

Measures of goals for which people strive or they wish to obtain have been developed.

Level of aspiration measures what a person wishes to obtain as a positive outcome. Level

of expectation measures what a person anticipates to obtain. What we would like to

obtain is not always what we expect to obtain The level of aspiration and the level of

expectation usually differ in that level of aspiration may be higher than level of

expectation and that probability of attainment is lower for level of aspiration than level of

expectation.

Goals vary according to a person’s performance level. In turn goals alter person’s

performance level. The standards set for us or that we set for ourselves can alter our

performance significantly. When we do well we tend to raise our goals and we do not

well we tend to lower our goal.

Success, Failure, causal Beliefs, and Need for Achievement

A motivated individual is not a passive creature to be motivationally aroused by

manipulating immediate antecedents or consequences. In recent years psychological

literature has contained increased emphasis on control of behaviour and thus emanated

the thought that motivated organism is a passive creature. .Studies in behaviours

modification has contributed to this kind of thinking.

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Therefore, it is pertinent to raise a question as to how passive or active individuals are.

This revolves around the issue of self-determination. If we accept passivity theory we

have to deny self-determination. The emphasis here is on human behaviour. Does the

human being have control over his behaviour and over the consequences of his

behaviour, or his behaviour in the normal course of events strictly determined by causes

beyond his control? All behaviour is influenced by a number of factors and to that extent

behaviour is predetermined. The major factors are:

Innate characteristics

Learning as a result of past experience at that point in time, and

The immediate environment where behaviour occurs

From these it can be surmised that taking a narrow and restricted path of thinking we

may have to admit predetermination of human behaviour.

Yet there is another aspect to be considered which can bring forth support for self-

determination point of view. Individual behaviour cannot be completely predicted by

knowing all the past experiences and immediate circumstances of the individual. Instead

consider the individual as a creative person who constantly makes assessment and

appraisals of events, appraises goals for future actions and behaves in accordance with

these self-determining tendencies.

The two positions are in opposition to each other. But can we bridge them and find a

common ground? The best possible course is to do some logical thinking as empirical

attempts are yet to come. Ultimately as of now motivation is the answer.

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A brief mention may be made of social learning theory (SLT). Locus of control is the

central theme of this theory. A related topic as attribution theory approach to motivation

has demonstrated that people in general have their beliefs about the extent to which they

personally control their own actions as well as environmental events. Such a belief

relates significantly to the way a person behaves in different situations.

It is not empirically known whether a person’s belief and the extent to which he can

control his own actions and environmental events correlate or whether they cause his

behavior to occur in certain ways.

The human adult unmistakably selects some information from the environment to the

exclusion of others and this elf-selection appears to have long-range effects on his

behaviour. Houston and Mednick (1963) demonstrated that highly creative individuals

select novel stimuli from the environment significantly more than do individuals who are

not creative. A test of creativity was to differentiate creative and non-creative

individuals. Self- selection of stimulus input can serve to modify the way the

environment affects a person’s behaviour. Expectancies, hypotheses about the

environment, and a need for novelty are cognitive processes by which individuals in

terms of their own bias or disposition select aspects of the environment to which they

respond.

In line with this argument we may consider cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) which

emphasizes the effects of beliefs on behaviour. Cognitive dissonance is about belief

discrepancy as a source of motivation that dynamogenic effect playa an important role in

determining behaviour.

Achievement Motivation

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A learned disposition to achieve called achievement motive (Atkinson, 1964), provides a

tendency for the individual to seek success in achievement situations. Atkinson

distinguishes between motive and motivation. The personality disposition is called a

motive. In the case of achievement it refers to a capacity for taking pride in

accomplishment when successful performance is achieved. Taking satisfaction in

accomplishments, seeking and enjoying success are basic aspects of achievement motive.

This disposition becomes manifest as motivation, as an active effortful process.

Motivation is an activation of a disposition in a given situation can thus be thought as an

action tendency.

Motivation thus affects an individual’s preference to perform one or another act. If two

alternative tendencies exist the individual selects the stronger tendency. The implication

is achievement motive expresses itself.

Those with high achievement motive have different expectations than those who have

low achievement motive. The latter have high degree of anxiety.

There is evidence to show that need for achievement (n Ach) is a fairly stable disposition

which becomes evident as the child grows older.

The high n Ach individuals do not attach importance to external rewards like money

incentives, whereas low n Ach individuals work harder for higher money incentives.

Relationships between motive and incentive are an important aspect in the context of

discussion of relationship between deprivation and reward such as praise that can be

considered as ego-enhancing. For many individuals it is valued differently from material

rewards and people work hard to get both money and praise. Between the two there is

another source that prompts the workers to put in the best of their efforts that is the job

itself. The job is rewarding as experienced by the individual and it is a subjective

experience.

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A clear distinction is made between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Researchers have

focused their attention on how internal and external rewards are different in motivating

the individual. The extrinsic rewards may diminish intrinsic motivation and the value of

extrinsic motivation may diminish when it is withdrawn.

Motivation is a complex construct in psychology. Understanding human behaviour

cannot be complete without understanding motivation. The necessity of understanding

and have a fair amount of grip over motivation is a necessity to understand human

behaviour in organizations or any other behaviour settings... The aim is to understand

the past behaviour and present behaviour and attempt prediction of what future behaviour

would be like. This is of significance to theory building as much as it is of practical

utility.

Behaviour as already noted is goal directed. It means that behaviour is motivated to attain

some goal. The basic unit of behaviour is an activity. The complex behaviours are a

series of interrelated activities. Motives direct the individual towards some goals that are

expected to satisfy these motives.

Motives are in the individual and goals are outside. These goals are something for

attainment to satisfy motives.

Behaviour intensity depends on strength of the motive and attractiveness of the goal. If

either of them is weak behaviour toward the goal is either weak or absent

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The individual has several motives. Some of them act together additively. Some compete

among themselves, some in an antagonistic way to each other. This is just one aspect of

complexity of the construct motivation. Motivational behaviour in addition is dependent

upon the strength of the underlying motive or motives. Motive strength is not a constant

or of a static character. Motive strength may vary within them... The latter refers to

enhancing or diminishing character of strength of the motives based on contingencies.

Satisfied motive loses some of its strength for the time.

According to Maslow (1954) a satisfied need is no longer a motivator. In such a situation

a competing motive gets stronger than the one satisfied. An unsatisfied motive continues

to strive for satisfaction until it is impossible to obtain satisfaction. Any blocking of

satisfaction of a need leads to frustration. This is an intra individual condition, a

subjective condition.

High strength needs show two kinds of activity. They are:

Goal directed activity and goal activity.

Goal directed activity is a motivated behaviour directed at reaching a goal. The

individual in reaching the goal may pursue many avenues. Goal directed activity could

diminish as it progresses towards satiation of the need and at this point another need

pushes itself forward. All the needs make their presence periodically none of them

satiated once and for all.

The situation or the environment has a dominant role to play in motivation. Motives,

goals, and activity are all interrelated.

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A motivating situation is one in which motives are directed towards goal attainment. The

strongest motive produces behaviour that is either goal directed or goal activity. All goals

are not attainable and individuals do not always reach goal activity regardless of strength

of the motive. Goals may be tangible or not tangible.

Atkinson (1958) has demonstrated that the degree of motivation and effort rise until the

probability of success is .50 and then begins to fall even though the probability of success

increases. This follows the inverted U. The low probability does not motivate and equally

a very high probability of success also does not produce high activity. When probability

is low there will be weak activity and when it is very high also there will be weak

activity. The optimum is .50 for a strong activity. (Fig 3) Activity peaks when probability

of success is in the middle range. Analogically very low anxiety leads to complacence

very high anxiety debilitates. Moderate anxiety promotes well adjusted behaviour. The

principle of inverted U holds well in this context also.

In the same way expectancy and availability of goal affects need strength. Expectancy

affects motives availability affects goal perception. Both are interrelated and are capable

of affecting goal-seeking behaviour.

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Availability is not entirely and always an external condition. This may be a vicarious

inference. It may be a perceived limitation. Availability is an environmental variable but

it is the perception or interpretation of reality that affects actual behaviour. This is

subjective reality.

Figure 3: moderate probability of success and strength of motivation

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Motivation and Environmental Factors

Efficiency experts at the Hawthorne Electric Company studied effects of environmental

conditions to find some means of reducing existing tensions and raising production

levels. The findings were inconclusive. In 1924 the company invited and enlisted the

services of National Academy of Sciences. The attempt towards the goal of reducing

tensions and raising production once again started from the same premises that the

efficiency experts did. The scientists landed in the place where the company had landed.

They then went ahead with other avenues to find solutions.

The work done by F.W.Taylor and Gilbreth were at the back of this attempt of Hawthorn

studies. The worker was considered an isolated machine and could be manipulated for

efficiency. This definitely proved wrong. The hypotheses were that the physical

environmental factors affected efficiency. The main factors influencing efficiency were

thought to be:

wasteful and ineffective movements in doing the job, fatigue, and defects of physical

environment such as poor lighting, uncomfortable room temperature , excessive humidity

and so on.

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Elton Mayo, professor of industrial research at the Harward Graduate School of Business

undertook the responsibility for Hawthorne Studies. Just prior to Mayo’s work at

Hawthorne Electric Company he carried out an investigation into the causes of labour

turn over among male spinners in a textile mill. This was in 1923. His views changed in

orientation following his Hawthorne Studies the facts of labour turn over in most

departments in the textile mills was 5-6percent per annum, but the turn over in spinning

department it was 250 percent. These workers received a bonus each month if their

production exceeded 75 percent and if it exceeded 80 percent every worker received 5% t

bonus on his monthly wage. This remained in theory because production never exceeded

70% of the quota. There were some special conditions of the job that influenced the

attitude of the workers. These were:

The workers had low estimate of the status of the job

The job was monotonous

The work was essentially solitary.

In a sense Hawthorn Studies were an eye opener for him .The prevailing view earlier was

mechanistic view. His early results were puzzling. His non-directive interviewing of the

workers brought forth various revelations as his earlier direct interview of the workers

created more problems than solved.

A research report from the Survey Research Centre of the University of Michigan

entitled “Productivity, Supervision, and Employee Morale” says that supervisors of high

production groups were those who:

Were under less supervision from their supervisors

Placed less direct emphasis upon production as a goal

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Were more employee oriented

Spent more of their time in supervision and less in straight production work

Encouraged employee participation in making decisions

Had a greater confidence in their supervisory roles

Felt that they knew where they stood in relation to the company.

These findings are supportive of Mayo’s findings of social aspect in work environment

and importance of the worker as a human being and not a machine.

Similarly Miller and Form in their Industrial Sociology consider the main implications of

Mayo’s work to be that the problem of absenteeism, turn over, low morale, and poor

efficiency reduces to the problem of how groups may be solidified and collaboration

increased in large as well as small work plants. The problem as the sociologist C.H.

Cooley would say is how to build primary group life.

Miller and Form summarized Mayo’s work briefly as follow:

1. Work is a group activity

2 the social world of the adult is primarily patterned about work activity

3 the need for recognition, security, and sense of belongingness is more important in

determining the workers’ morale and productivity than physical conditions under which

they work.

4 a complaint is not necessarily an objective recital of facts, it is a symptom

manifesting disturbance an individual’s status position

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5 the worker is a person whose attitudes and effectiveness are conditioned by social

demands from both inside and out side the work plant

6 informal groups within the work plant exercise strong social controls over work

habits and attitudes of individual worker

7 the change from an established to an adaptive society that is from older type of

community life to the atomistic society tends to continually to disrupt the social

organization of a work plant and industry generally.

8. - group collaboration does not occur by accident. It must be planned and

developed. If group collaboration is achieved the work relations within work plant may

reach a cohesion which resists the disrupting effects of adaptive society.

All the painstaking work of Elton Mayo is not free from criticism from different quarters.

The industrialists are likely to believe that Mayo’s conclusions are true, but irrelevant.

For the social psychologists they are true, but obvious; for the sociologists they are true

but do not go far enough.

Of all these objections sociologist’s criticism is more serious. They do not disagree with

his findings but have criticisms to make. They are:

1 that he has investigated the factory to the almost exclusion of its social background

2 that he shows bias in favour of management

3 that, in the field of scientific methods, he ignored the importance of theory and

adopts an attitude which exalts empiricism, observation, and fact finding

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It is difficult to disagree with the above criticisms of the sociologist. It is not only Mayo

but his predecessors Taylor and Gilbreth also worked more for the management than for

the workers. It is true that Mayo’s was one step ahead of the others in the field. He

brought into focus the importance of social factors. Higher production did not benefit the

management alone but also the workers and the society at large. It can also be said that

his work cannot generalize across factories. His work may not reflect a general trend; we

may now turn our attention to work and its nature.

In the modern context as it was in ancient times work is an essential part of man’s life. It

is work that links him to society, gives him a status. Ordinarily every body likes to work

and work is a social activity. The morale of the worker is more a social phenomenon than

having a direct link with work. People work for incentives, money plays a role but not as

important as getting employment. Unemployment is feared because it cuts us away from

society.

Work by itself is an incentive. Many individuals who have plenty of money also work. If

we consider unemployment and understand it we can then realize what work means to a

person. Status is a form of incentive. It provides recognition, an identity.

Physical environmental conditions refer to physical comfort for the individual at work.

There are other factors that provide job satisfaction. An unimaginative management may

take pride in providing high financial incentives and provide comfortable working

conditions. But social and psychological factors are the ultimate deciders of how happy

and satisfied a worker is. Quality of life is not the same as standard of life. Quality of life

self-perceived efficiency and conducive social environment promotes job satisfaction.

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CHAPTER – VII

ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY–MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOUR

In order to understand organizational psychology we have to get to know two important

aspects. They are:

Human behaviour,

Organizational settings...

Human behaviour is explained in terms of three pillars of psychology- cognition

affection and connation.

Cognition:

Cognition is a term used for every process by which a living creature obtains knowledge

of some object, or becomes aware of its environment cognitive processes are perception,

discovery, and recognition, imagining, judging, memorizing, leaning, thinking and

communicating. Some psychologists draw a distinction between volitional and emotional

process. It is also used as organizing knowledge acquired...

Cognition refers to a human activity that is intellectual and communicable. All these can

be summarized to the representation or grasping in conceptual terms of a concrete or

abstract object by perception, imagination and conceptualisation

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Understanding or explanation: The understanding of an object as specifies because it fits

into a system of relationships that justifies it by its very nature. In both these meanings,

the cognitive action determines the object as such, and difficulties between these which is

known and the person who has cognisance of it.

Cognition, therefore contrasts with the pure subjectivity of the steps of consciousness,

feeling and belief, because it merely aims at revealing the truth. Problem in regard to

cognition concerns its origin such as reason, experience, and etc nature, such as intuitive,

discursive, and such other phenomena.

Cognitive theory

This can also be called theory of knowledge. This seeks to explain the nature,

mechanisms and value of cognition by studying the gained relationship between subject

and object, thought and the external world historically it can be traced to the views on

cognition as:

Here is an object outside thought that is conceived by thought process as realism,

idealism, rationalism.

There is no object outside thought- phenomenally.

Even when an object is present it cannot be known, i.e., scepticism. But we are

concerned with the cognising and the knowing object rather than with these philosophical

enquiries. The cognising and knowing subject is the individual himself. Finally the

dialectical explanation developed in is not the type of elements that determines the

relationship between cognition and object. On the contrary subject and object develop a

unity in which elements act reciprocally.

Cognitive Orientation Theory

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According to this theory, cognitive processes, such as recognition, combination and

elaboration of meaning are necessary connections for elicitation of orienting reflexes and

it’s acquiring of conditioned reflexes and determines the course of human molar

behavior. This theory suggests that cognitive process can be intervening between

stimulation and behaviours. The interaction between stimulation and cognitive

orientation components precedes goal directed behaviour. The cognitive orientation

components can be beliefs about goals, norms, self, etc, sometimes conflicts occur in

goal directed behavior if cognitive components clash among themselves.

Thus we can see its importance of cognition and cognitive processes contributing to goal

directed behaviour.

Conation

Conation is described as a purposive mental drive or striving towards action. This can be

blind impulse or as purposeful efforts and voluntary activity. Conation is mediated

between cognition and action.

Affection

Affection is a general term for emotion or feeling. It is a general term for tenderness of

love. It is a term denoting influence or alteration of psychic state or constitution by the

environment, i.e., the stage of being affected by something external.

Cognition, conation, and affection can summarize the activity of the individual. It is

difficult to say which precedes which. They are interactive and related. So we can say an

individual’s behaviour is governed by these three processes. We should also note that

these processes are complex processes.

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We now come to human behaviour at work. An adult is a dynamic changing individual

with different needs and demands at different periods in time; therefore he will have

different experiences in different situations. Research in psychology of motivation has

demonstrated that human adult life is emerging with great rapidity to suit the changes in

the environment. The relevant phenomena of organizations like motivation, leadership

assume great importance. This is from the management point of view. However its can

only be a part of the story of management point of view. Because the organization has for

its goal another significant component i.e., enhancement of human potential and

satisfaction which can be attained by passive or active learning by the individual on the

job and more importantly a well planned and executed employee development program

which is more aptly and adequately called human resource development.

We are interested in behaviour at work both from the point of view of efficiency and

employee satisfaction. We should recognize here that the human being is a dynamic

person, always aiming at growth and developments.

We now examine whether behaviour or work behaviour from the management point of

view the following stand out prominently in this regard:

Organizational and personal factors that influence different types of work behaviour.

Factors that enhance work ego. What makes work debilitating, what makes it satisfying?

Techniques and methods that are available to increase work performance and how sound

are they? Can we improve them?

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To find answers to these questions we have to have a close look of research in the

behaviour sciences such as political science, anthropology, sociology in addition to

studying psychological research primarily. The contribution of psychological research

needs a closer and intense look, as it is more extensive. It has made a very significant

contribution. However study of work behaviour remained interdisciplinary. Kurt Lewin

said that there is nothing as practical as a good theory. In the study of human behavior

theory has a great place. Researches in this field have evinced great interest in theoretical

formulations of human behaviours. Theory can be a starting point and can also an end

product and in turn be a starting point. This is a circular relationship in theory.

Theoretical investigations highlight the significant factors that influence attitudes and

interests of the workers, enable systematic investigation, and provide guidelines of

administrative decision-making.

They also contribute to growth of our conceptual understanding or work behavior and to

develop more effective practice in both human resource development and management.

Motivational theories and intellectual cognitive – processing abilities have come under

human resource research which has produced newer development in organizational

functioning related human resource development and its utilization by way of appropriate

management.

We can start with motivation and work behaviour. Most executives and business

managers want to find out how they can increase work motivation to higher levels. If the

methods they are using do not work they look for new methods. Very often they feel that

psychology is merely theoretical statements with nothing practical to offer. In this they

do not seem to know that here is nothing as practical as good theory as told by Kurt

Levin. Any theory in science is based on empirical facts gathered systematically. If

empiricism is the hallmark of science then scientific formulations are based on empirical

data and at the same time construct and concept oriented. More on this in the Chapter

XIV dealing with Research needs in Human Behaviour.

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By way of research we come to know what influences human behavior. How complex is

behavior and how complex is the motivational influence? These are some questions

scientist raises. In fact work behaviour is complex and motivational factors are complex.

Systematic scientific research can answer the question.

Traditional approaches to motivating work behaviour are simplistic. These are rightly or

wrongly based on the management’s assumptions namely anxiety and rational economic

model of man

The irrationality of these as motivators can be seen at a close look to know how these

came to be useful. In the psychological laboratory, under simulated conditions the

psychologists found:

1 Anxiety facilitates performance of unsuitable tasks.

2 Anxiety debilitates performance on hard tasks.

For any given task increasing anxiety promotes performance up to a point, and debilities

when further increased. The inverted U. Too little anxiety leads to compliance and too

much anxiety debilitates. The mean position of the inverted U is the best level of

intensity in motivating work behaviour.

But when we look at these three formulations we can easily discern what might apply to

certain specific situation and cannot be generalized. This is a restrictive utility value of

anxiety as a motivator, i.e. generalisability is lacking. Another restriction is that

laboratory finding does not find a place in real life. We may satisfy experimental realism

a well planned and executed experiment, but we cannot by satisfy the mundane realism,

i.e., .of external validity of laboratory findings. The laboratory situation is very different

from real life situation.

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Anxiety itself is of different kinds. Specific anxiety variables are fear of failure and

fear of success. These two are very pertinent to work motivation. In this aspect and to

this extent we may accept findings of experimental laboratories and examine how these

could be translated into real life situation.

Fear of failure

Atkinson (1958), Atkinson and Feather (1966) identified this concept of fear of failure

that describes the anxiety that is felt about the failure for the objective failure itself.

There are individual differences in these aspects, in the sense some have more and others

less of this kind of anxiety Atkinson proposes individual differences in combination of

nature of task situation that influences achievement oriented behavior.

This may be generalized as follow:

Individuals who are high in fear of failure want to avoid achievement-demanding

situation in general.

If they are forced to stay in such situation by some motivational force such as the desire

to go along with group interested in achievement, “fear of failure” people will work best

in situations where they are very likely to fail or very likely to succeed, as opposed to

situations of medium risk for success, because, if they work at very difficult task, no

body will blame them for failing, and if they work at a very easy task they will not be

likely to fail.

There is a paradox here. Atkinson predicts that a person with fear of failure is more

likely to choose a situation in which he has medium probability of success given only

two choices. Atkinson assumes that it is the desire to avoid the fear of failure rather than

objective failure, and the fact that person is less likely to be blamed if the task very hard

rather than the task is of medium difficulty. This argument is rather circuitous.

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However Atkinson’s view has high potential for research.

Binny, Burdick, and Teevan (1969) summarize what a person with fear of failure is

likely to avoid the situations where he will be evaluated precisely, prefer comparing

himself against groups greatly deficient from himself, prefer privacy, prefer vague and

imprecise means of performance, reject responsibility, blame others when he fails to

meet performance standards.

These and Atkinson’s finding afford a useful ground. To accept that fear of failure is

both actually and potentially a very useful way of viewing motivational process of some

people. If used judiciously as a motivational process it works. In a quasi- experimental

design we can measure fear of failure and correlate it with achievement motivation. The

facts applicable to real life situation could come to light rather than the experimental

method and try to apply the results to real life situation.

Fear of failure can cause self defeating choices in relation to difficulty level of tasks and

there by miss the opportunity to achieve success in difficult tasks which the person may

be able to do. Is here a lesson for human resource development here? I think yes.

Fear of success

This anxiety variable also presents a paradoxical form of human behaviour. A new

concept emerged to explain achievement behaviour or the lack of it when women

liberation got on to its highs. McClelland’s need for achievement and Atkinson’s fear of

failure did not make it easy to preach achievement behaviour in women. There are high

achievers among women and low achievers among men, but can McClelland theory or

Atkinson’s theory account for this?

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Horner (1968) made it clear that intelligent in our society have been socializing along

mutually contradictory dimensions. On the one land they have been tumult to value

achievement, on the other they are taught to fear success because the society is non

feminine. They learned success is for men; home and family are for women. This is in a

nutshell socialization process that made women and men view achievement differently.

Fear of success was built in to a woman’s life.

Since her formulation as stated above has been revised there are two directions in which

her hypothesis has been viewed, one, these has been compatible with her hypothesis, two,

fear of success is not true or all women.

If men are disinterested in achievement it be should be fear of failure and not fear of

success.

All this will lead to a need to reduce types of anxiety in work setting, particularly those

which generates negative feeling towards success. Much of the anxiety in work situation

is in the form of overemphasis on success. People have to be moderately pushed towards

success and remember the inverted U.

Fear-of-failure anxiety needs to be moderated conversely and not completely

denominated. Excessive push towards with achievement and fear–of–failure in high

doses will be detrimental to achievement. . Managers need to take note of this.

The Rational – economic man

What does a worker get out of him work? Traditional view is that “the more he performs

the more he gets. This is a simple statement. This would mean:

A person thinks that some kind of out come is desirable.

A person will get the out come by performing at a given level; and

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The person will be motivated to perform at a given level.

The two approaches, namely, anxiety and rational – economic man model are with us for

a very long time and thus provide a theoretical basis on which most organizations stand.

The belief is that there are certain gratifications that are in the grasp of the management

to control and thus influence performance. These are when carefully stated boil down to

salary, promotion, and security and good working conditions. But then these have

favourable effects in performance only when the workers think that they are linked to

their performance and if they believe that many rewards are not contingent upon

performance, they will not react to incentives.

Lawler and Porter (1967) used the hypothesis that the amount effort a person expends in

this job as judged by his superiors or peers, is related to which he perceives that he could

achieve desired outcomes by engaging in such effort. They also predicted that such

things as ability and the accuracy of role perceptions would also affect his over all

performance, where as effort would not. The sample of their study was 154 managers in

five organizations. Their study supported their hypotheses.

In all the research work subsequent to Porter and Lawler (1968), the idea is not

behaviour is a function of the value one expects to obtain from a set of behaviours but

one’s rational expectancy of being able to engage in the behaviours required to obtain

them. Here value is a function of the reward to be obtained and one likes for the reward.

Later researches have not found much support to these theories.

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These theories use the term value. This term is very complex psychologically. The

economic man theory is rather a narrow view of man. The expectancy value and

instrumentality theory represents money, advancement, old age benefits, security, etc.

This view is a narrow view of values. People are interested in the opportunity for

achievement, interest in the job, challenging or socially acceptable work. The

behavioural effects of trying to achieve this value are need for achievement (n Ach) of

McClelland. The older theories ignored the most significant motivational incentives

rather than the one mentioned earlier, such as, money, advancement, etc.

The assumption that money is a motivator cannot hold. More is better, that is it assures

greater incentive is not true. Later researches like that of Deci (1972) who found that

when one tries to combine traditional incentives and those considered modern, such as

challenging work, in influencing work motivation the economic model of man would not

predict. He found that already performing a task for one incentive seems to lessen the

effect of any other incentive. Glickeman et al (1974) found that adding incentives to

naval enlistment did not lead to greater likely hood of choosing the tough career.

Perceived utility of pay incentive Barrett (1971) was found to indicate that increasing

incentive by either adding to the value of one incentive or by combing different

incentives do not have automatic cumulative effects on behaviour. Management cannot

apply the expectancy –value approach though on the face value it is reasonable.

Therefore the traditional theories lack application possibility. We can cite some more

evidences in this direction.

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Expectancy-value theories may lose their usefulness because they are future oriented

theories and people have to live in the present primarily and with future secondarily. Past

is here “now” future is here “now” and this appeals philosophically. But the modern man

does not have the patience to wait for long for an incentive to occur. The economic man

theory has some value in predicting work behaviour, but it is not the theory and there is

much that it cannot account for.

The traditional theories outlined above stress extrinsic incentives... These serve a limited

purpose. Most people in addition to seeing these extrinsic incentives look for satisfaction

of their needs characterized by their idiosyncrasies. Some may value extrinsic incentives

as more important than the intrinsic desire for achievement. How could both extrinsic

and intrinsic incentives be made available are differentially valued by different

individuals? We can not throw a blanket policy for all.

Mc CLelland’s achievement motivation appears to be capable of getting most people to

do their best. The need for achievement (n Ach) is defined as the “desire to exceed some

standard of behaviour,” originated in psychological laboratories but later expanded into

the study of various types of organizational and other kinds of achievement behaviour.

There is now a fair amount of grasp as to how this need arises, how individual

differences in this characteristic can be measured and what such differences mean in

terms of performance.

McClelland (1961) after extensive study of need for achievement made some useful and

meaningful formulations. They are:

Individuals differ in the degree to which they find achievement a satisfying experience.

Individuals with high n Ach tend to prefer the following situations and will work harder

than individuals with low n Ach:

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Situations of moderate risk – feelings of achievement will be minimal in cases of little

risk and achievement will probably not occur in cases of great risk.

Situations where knowledge of results is provided – a person with his achievement

motive will want to know whether he has achieved or not

Situations where individual responsibility is provided – a person oriented towards

achievement will want to make sure that he and not somebody gets the credit for it.

Since these three types of situations are found to in the business entrepreneurial role,

individuals with high n Ach will be attracted to the entrepreneurial role as a lifetime

occupation. Successful entrepreneurial role assures economic growth. Therefore it

follows that a large number of people should be attracted to the entrepreneurial function.

According McClelland this level of function is for all concerned as a step in the right

direction. Now it is clear that if achievement motivation is enhanced then the increase in

the economic function of a society becomes a reality.

We may take his formulation as a hypothesis. We may question as to how economic

performance of a society is taken care of when achieving man has his own complexity of

behaviour. We may ask what the components are of the attribute called achievement

motive. No attribute can be a single component attribute much less need for achievement.

Also that each person his n Ach towards his own goals and we encounter individual

differences here.

For example, A may direct it towards literary achievement, B towards money, C towards

power and so on.

McClelland has not said the final word on work performance by his achievement

motivation theory. There are many unanswered questions in this regard.

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The question is whether there is general performance efficiency or is this specific to

situations or does is it a multidimensional attribute. If these questions are answered we

can hazard to develop a yardstick, for measuring need for achievement for different

requirements. Needs to achieve which may not have creativity component in repetitive

jobs. General administrative management success may not be released to n Ache.

Parameters differ. General management situations may be a routine in such a way there is

no risk-taking or having or heaving feed back and individual responsibility.

All these do not mean n Ach research has not been of any use. It only means that it has

specific human activities with in its audit. We may now consider a few other

motivational models.

Expectancy – value theory of motivation is not adequate because this reduces the

complexity of the individual to a very simple explanatory principle. The human

motivation is not as simple as that. It is a lightly complex and dynamic process and man

is not an automaton either in the economic sense. Human experience (both objective and

subjective) is highly varied and complex. This justifies our seeking psychological or any

other behavioural science input into the understanding of such complex process of human

motivation.

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Maslow

Maslow proposed hierarchy theory of human motives. This theory is known as self-

actualisation theory, humanistic psychology, or third world psychology. Its strongest

support comes from those whose focus is management development and organizational

development. It is their opinion that this theory is valid. Existential philosophy provides

the basis. This philosophy argues that human beings are capable of a meaningful viable,

potential filling existence. . But they are prevented from this path by the conditions

prevailing in the environment. Behaviour in a self-actualising manner is to be supported

by the environment. They have been forced by circumstances to behave in a sub optimal

manner. This has to be remedied. The manager therefore should get to know the factors

that prevent people from reaching self-actualisation and then change the conditions

accordingly. The aim must be to facilitate self-actualisation.

The major assumption of this theory is that all humans posses the potential for self

actualization. Being and becoming are two facets. Becoming is the goal and humans have

the potential for this. Maslow (1954) proposes that a person’s behaviour is organized

around a hierarchy of motives with the lowest being physiological needs such as hunger

and thirst. Once these needs are satisfied security needs assume importance. These are

followed by social, self- esteem, and self-actualisation as needs and motivators of

behaviour. Higher needs become potential as the lower needs are satisfied.

There were supporters of Maslow. People look for satisfying higher needs as the lower

needs are satisfied or else the motivators continue at a level yet to be satisfied. The line

of argument looks tenable It is then suggested that we change the work settings to

allow opportunity to higher needs level needs if we want workers to be well motivated

for productive work behaviour. Improving work environment would benefit both the

employee and the organization. This does not need elaboration.

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Thus when we look back from the time the theory was proposed and subsequent t

developments a question arises. The theory became very popular, but is it adequate to

explain human behaviour in term of these needs. Are the needs strictly hierarchical as it

is made out? Granting the five needs do operate do they arrange themselves in the

hierarchical manner as proposed or is it dependent on the individuals? The importance of

each of these needs as they relate to each other can vary from person to person, from

situation to situation. We have to take note of individual differences and also situation

differences in determining the relative importance by these needs.

Aspirations are influenced by various factors and social factors do play a dominant role

in the level of aspiration of a person. Asch (1956) and Milgram (1965) have

experimentally demonstrated that individual opinions have changed by what others say,

either by the majority factor, or with status factor or by both these go to show that social

influence on one’s behaviour is factor to reckon with... The Hawthorne studies have

shown group influence in production level in clear terms.

Such changes and adoption of new opinions occur as due to social influence cannot be

debated. We go by the groups and group opinions when there is no other yardstick to

measure that our opinion is true and can stick. Under group influence we shape our

behavior by comparing our achievement with that of the group. We should note how

pronounced the group influence is governing group dynamics operate here also to

determine the social effect in achievement performance level.

In the actual working we find that the traditional and modern terms are mixed up and it is

contingency that seems to dictate motivational efforts.

In the context of work motivation for effective performance we have to take note of

many aspects. The concepts and factors involved here are very complex.

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To begin with we will examine two aspects namely, motivating and behavior, and

motivating environment.

Let us examine the first two, namely hierarchy of motives and behaviour. Basically

behaviour is goal seeking or goal directed. . Our behaviour is generally motivated to

attain some goal. The individual ordinarily knows the specific goal he is seeking to

attain. But some times he may not be aware of why he did what he did.

There are individual differences in ability and equally so in motivation. That which

motivates A may not motivate B. There are difference in strength of different motives

intra individually and inter individually. These issues complicate our understanding of

human motivation in general and work motivation in particular.

We said behaviour is goal seeking and naturally we should locate the goal that we are

seeking. There are goals. . They are rewards or incentives. There are tangible financial

rewards. But we also know that there are intangible rewards such as recognition, and

achievements etc. The former are called extrinsic rewards, the letter intrinsic rewards.

The strength of each of these is an individual matter. But these could be influenced by

social factors.

We accept that behaviour is motivated, which means behaviour is the cause to satisfy

innumerable number of motives. There innumerable number of motives competes among

themselves seeking gratification. Then we can reasonably ask as to which of these the

individual is seeking to gratify simplest owner can be the strongest need. At any given

time attainment of gratification is a different issue.

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Motive strength may vary from time to time or may cause gratification based on

environmental factors at the time of seeking gratification depending on probability and

possibility of gratification... According Maslow, when a need is satisfied it is no longer a

motivator, and then a competing need seeks gratification. If a need seeks gratification

and fails it results in frustration, and sometimes gets weakened but only when coping is

attempted. Coping behaviour may be rational. The person may repeat efforts for

gratification, or postpone, or try a detour or give up.

Blocked motives and continually unsuccessful coping behaviour may lead to irrational

coping behaviour. Festinger (1957) in his theory of cognitive dissonance has dealt with

the relationships that exist between perceptions people have about themselves and their

environment. When individual perceptions have nothing to do with each other, they can

be irrelevant to each other. If one supports the other then there will be consonance. If

one opposes the other then there is dissonance. Dissonance creates tension which is

uncomfortable. This makes the individual try to reduce tension and consequent

discomfort by modifying one of the incompatible factors – this is a case of changing

coping behaviour, an attempt to regain condition of equilibrium or consonance.

Cognitive dissonance itself can be a motivator to behaviour.

The blocking of goal attainment can cause frustration. Frustration is a condition of the

individual rather than outside the individual. A real barrier or an imaginary barrier can

cause tension. At times blocking of goals attainment may lead to aggression and.

rationalization can also be one of the out comes of blocking of goal attainment.

In some cases blocking of attainment of goal may lead to strengthening coping behavior.

Here the individual is attempting to be stronger than the blocking effect.

Goal directed activity and goal activity are activities resulting from high strength needs.

These concepts are important for organizations because these can have differing

influences on need strength.

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Goal – directed activity

The individual has a goal to reach. His activities are directed towards how to the reach

the goal. He is ideationally or actually moving in that direction, i.e., in the direction of

the goal that can satisfy his need.

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Goal – activity

The individual after reaching the goal or attaining the goal involves himself in the goal

itself.

The goal directed activity, as the activity is initiated and person is moving on towards it,

tends to strengthen the need seeking gratification. The activity tends decrease the strength

of the need as this activity progresses towards gratification.

Need strength is affected yet by another set of factors, namely expectancy and

availability.

Expectancy is the perceived probability of satisfying a need based on past experience or

by observing others, i.e., experience can be either actual or vicarious. The latter comes

from parents, peer group and available literature.

Availability refers to the perceived limitations of the environment. It is determined by

how accessible the goals that satisfy a given need are perceived by the individual.

Availability is an environmental factor as perceived by the individual where expectancy

is a subjective factor. Behaviour is determined by a combination of expectancy and

availability.

There are several needs that people have. The workers look for what the jobs can give

them to gratify their needs.

Several authors have produced several lists of what the workers want from their jobs.

Briefly stated:

Good working conditions

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Appreciation of work done

Management loyalty

Good pay

Promotion and vertical growth

Job security

Interesting work

This list is not exhaustive. There are many needs that workers look for. The strength of

each of these in relation to other requirements varies from person to person and from

level to level among personnel. Each organization should have a research and

development department to aid the management to feel the pulse of the workers.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Efficiency experts like F.W. Tailor, Gilbreth, and Mayo designed their studies

manipulating the environmental factors in order to enhance work efficiency. All these

derived enormous interest and Mayo’s work alone endured for long and stimulated

important research projects. With the study of Mayo with Hawthorne electric company

human relations movement gathered momentum. The leader of the group involved in this

significant study, Elton Mayo received recognition and he was counted. .

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Elton Mayo and his team from Harward Business School started their work in the

Hawthorne Electric Company where efficiency experts were thrown into confusion with

the contradictory results they obtained in their efforts in manipulating the environmental

factors for increasing efficiency of their workers. They thought it is best to leave the

matter to social scientists. Then there came Elton Mayo and his team to try their expertise

in the matter.

They started their work with a group of women who assembled telephone relays and like

efficiency experts; Mayo and his men uncovered astonishing results. For over a year and

a half during this experiment, Mayo’s researchers improved working conditions of these

women by implementing innovations like scheduling rest pause, lunch at company cost,

and shorter weeks.

Then they took away all these facilities, but their output increased to a new high. The

question loomed large.

This question could not be answered in terms pf working conditions. Human aspects

were thought of for the first time as having effect on production. Then the researchers

lavished attention on the workers and these women were made to feel important as part

of the company. Feelings of affection, competence and achievement were elicited by this

innovation.

Elton Mayo and his team, encouraged by these results extended this to 20,000 workers

and interviewed them. The workers came from every department of the company.

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After several rounds of interview Mayo and his group found that structured interview

was not really useful. Prepared questions for interview were given up and the workers

were allowed to ramble around, as they wanted in the interview sessions. In the modern

times we call this non-directive interview. This resulted in a wholesale change of

attitude and they began to feel that the management cared for them and that they are

wanted.

The study further brought out a sufficient need that management should address the issue

of relationships among their people. It is not just pay or working conditions, but

interpersonal relationships within work groups that hold key. Informed groups in the

organization identified with the management and productivity rose.

Close supervision was detrimental to production. Workers are not machines either.

Management held negative feelings towards workers and Mayo felt that this should

change management’s assumption that workers are a contemptible lot according to Mayo

this is: Rabble Hypothesis”. He deplored authenticity task oriented management practices

that its rabble hypothesis created.

Theory X and Theory Y

Mayo’s work favouring human factor in management and his rejection of rabble

hypothesis paved the way for theory X and Theory Y as expounded by McGregor (1960).

Traditional organization with emphasis on centralized decision making, superior

subordinate relationship, and external control of work behaviour is similar to X Theory

of McGregor. This theory assumes that most people prefer to be directed, are not

interested in assuming responsibility, and above all they want safety. According to this

theory people are motivated by money fringe benefits and the threat of punishment.

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Managers, who accept theory X attempt to structure control and closely supervise the

workers. These managers feel that external control is clear by appropriate for dealing

with unreliable irresponsible and immature people.

McGregor after describing theory X questioned whether such a view of human nature is

correct and if management practices based upon it are appropriate at all. McGregor

concluded if universally applied that this theory would be wrong.

McGregor felt practices based on a more accurate understanding of human nature, and

motivation is essential. This led him to propose the theory Y, a contrast of theory X.

Managers who adhere to theory X are for direct control of workers. But McGregor

believed that most people are mature, independent, and self-motivating. Most people

have the potential to be self-motivated, mature and have responsibility. They care for

recognition more than material benefits. Theory Y supports this view.

But it may happen that managers who themselves having theory Y assumptions, but find

it necessary to treat workers as if they had X assumptions with some people in the short

run to help them grow up until they are ready to be truly Y theory people. This is an

instance of discrepancy between attitude and behaviour.

Management is interested in work, so are workers. Work can be as satisfying as play.

Both work and play involve physical and mental efforts. The difference may be the

intended goal.

Motivation – Hygiene Theory

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As is well known needs such as esteem and self-actualisation seem to become more

important, promote maturity of personality. Herzberg (1959) developed a theory of work

motivation which has implications for management and its effort to utilize human

resources.

Theory is known as Motivation – Hygiene theory (two factor theory) Knowledge of

human nature, motives, and needs be invaluable to both organizations and individuals.

The main goals of industry are increased productivity, decreased absenteeism and

smoother working relations. To the individual an understanding of the forces that lead to

improved morale which can bring greater happiness and greater self realization

(Herzberg, 1959) went on empirically collecting data on job attitudes from which

assumptions about human nature could be made. The analysis of these data led him to

formulate Motivation Hygiene Theory. He concludes that two different categories of

needs exist. They are essentially independent of each other and affect behaviour in

different ways. He found when people were dissatisfied with their job; they were

concerned with environment in which they were working. On the other hand when

people were satisfied with their jobs, they were concerned with the work itself. This he

labelled Hygiene factors and Motivation factors respectively. His view was that the

second named factors seemed to be effective in motivating people for better

performance.

Hygiene Factors

Under this heading Herzberg lists the following:

Company policies and administration

Supervision

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Working conditions

Interpersonal relations,

Money

Status, and

Security

These are not an intrinsic part of the job, but they are related to the conditions under

which a job is performed. He relates his use of the word “hygiene” to its medical

meaning (i.e., environmental conditions preventing disease) Hygiene factors do not

promote growth in worker output capacity; they only prevent losses in work

performance. He called item maintenance factors for the same reason.

Motivators

Satisfying factors involve feelings of achievement, professional growth, and recognition

that a worker experiences are motivators. He used this because they often show

improvements in work output.

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CHAPTER – VIII

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance evaluation is the most important simple device available to an organization

for setting up of goals and obtaining its goals. Performance appraisal is defined as the

process by which an organization obtains feed back about effectiveness of performance

of its employees.

The development of adequate methods for measuring performance effectiveness of job

efficiency is one of the most difficult problems facing the management, practitioner, and

organizational psychologist.

The measurement of performance in organizational setting has occupied the attention of

psychologists for several decades. Performance description and prediction play an

important role of all personnel divisions. Indices of effectiveness or relative worth are

necessary for administrative decision-making with respect to present employees or those

currently, employed. Information on performance is necessary for feed back for

employee counselling and for employee training which necessary inputs for human

resource development are. The process of employee performance evaluation itself may

function as a reward and be capable of inducing feelings of satisfaction in some

employees (Landy, Bares, and Murphy, 1978)

The most widely used means of gathering information about individual’s performance in

organizations is to obtain supervisor’s rating of their performance. The management

practices have attracted much attention as performance appraisal. In has been accepted by

a variety of organizations over several decades and has become for many an integral part

of their management development activities. The knowledge gained can very well serve

human resource development program.

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The employee’s performance is not generally one-dimensional. There are many aspects

of job performance that need to be assessed. Various dimensions or aspects of job

performance a manager considers depends upon the purpose of the performance review

(Szilagyi Jr. and Wallace Jr. 1980)

In most organizations the performance appraisal process is designed to facilitate

information exchange and influence performance. In other words performance appraisal

process is designed to provide the individual and the organization with data about what is

going on and to be a medium though which the organization tries to influence the

behavior of its employees. Many researchers in the area of performance appraisal have

concluded that a model of some sort is necessary before any significant advances can be

made towards understanding and developing performance measures (Zedeck, Kafry, and

Jacobs, 1976)

There are certain characteristics brought to the rating tasks that are properties of rater and

the rated. The rater brings to the task contain biases that may be related to age, sex, race

etc, leadership style, personal relationship with the rated besides the rater possesses

certain characteristics in addition to level of performance, in the dimension under

consideration it may influence the judgment (Landy and Frarr, 1980).

Apart from these main effects that these respective rater and rated characteristics

represent, there are the interactions of rater characteristics. The rated characteristics on

performance ratings are very important in performance appraisal.

Personality traits and Job performance

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Most research in the area of job performance has been about the effects of a variety of

job related variables in employee satisfaction, work motivation, and performance.

Several researchers have reported findings that indicate that individual’s effective

behavior responses to his work depend not only on the characteristics of his job, but also

in certain aspects of his personality.

Meyer and Walker (1961) hypothesized that high achievement motivation would be

associated with positive responses to performance appraisal programs. Thirty one

managers from several manufacturing units of General Electric Company and 31

specialists whose position levels in the organization was approximately same as

managers were chosen as subjects. The 62 subjects were administered a projective test,

Thematic Apperception Test designed to score for need for achievement and a risk

preference questionnaire to measure low, intermediate, and high risk options. The use of

this risk questionnaire as an index of achievement motivation was based on the

theoretical model presented by Atkinson (1957). The criterion used to measure the

success of the performance appraisal program was the improved performance of the

subject based on his last performance discussion. Of the measured designed to assess

motivation the TAT measure of need achievement showed only low correlation. This was

not significant statistically with the criterion variable. But intermediate risk levels as an

index of achievement motivation was highly correlated with the criterion. The study

reveals that skill with which the superior handles the appraisal feed back discussion with

his subordinates is a key factor in determining whether or not the performance appraisal

program is effective in motivating behaviour changes or not. The performance appraisal

program is at least effective in motivation to behaviour changes.

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In a study (Prein and Liske, 1962) using a sample of 96 subjects data were collected for

both in incumbent self – rating and first level supervisor’s ratings on self appraisal

dimensions, namely, social skills, persuasiveness, leadership, intellectual capacity,

creativeness, planning, motivation, and overall effectiveness. Factor analysis revealed has

the supervisors and in incumbents agree as to the importance of the intellectual

component in performance, but not with reference to the social aspects of job

performance.

It was reported by Kornhauser (1965) using blue collar auto- industry workers in lower

skilled jobs compared to those in higher skilled jobs, more frequently reported low self

esteem with anxiety, fewer friends, low level of satisfaction with life, and an absence of

an active or goal directed orientation to life. Kornhauser, further views that work

normally serves as stabilising, integrating, and ego satisfying influence on the pattern of

one’s life in general.

A study using a sample as big as 3100 men employed in civil occupations (Kohn and

Schooler, 1969, 1973) revealed that freedom from close supervision and substantive

complexity of jobs are significantly and positively correlated with strong values and

intellectual flexibility.

Argyris (1973) suggested that work which presents independent behaviour presents the

development and expression of adult vs. infant personality characteristics; we can infer

that treating workers as autonomous adults is favourable for job satisfaction.

A study on subordinate satisfaction with the organization, subordinate satisfaction with

role expectations, and subordinate performance conducted by House and Kerr (1973)

revealed that the subjects scoring high in the organizational independence had higher

expectations for competent, employee oriented management practices, while subjects

scoring low were mere content with whatever competence level or style of management

practices they were subjected to.

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Ahmed and Kendirth (1976) showed that participation in decision making would have a

more positive effect on satisfaction and effectiveness of egalitarian subordinates with

strong independence need and less positive effect on satisfaction of authoritarian resource

with weak independence need.

METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Economic results achieved by an organization are the sum total of performance of

individual managers it employs. In order to review whatever they are achieving the

organizations have to evaluate performance of managerial personnel on a periodic basis.

The managerial effectiveness reflects the over all effectiveness of the organization. Such

an evaluation is simple, informal and easy in small organizations. In large organizations

it is a complex process. Further the present day technological advancements and changes

bringing about automation in many areas of work have made operations in organizations

multi-product, multinational and interdisciplinary. Evaluation of managers in such a

situation both on quantitative and qualitative aspects of job has acquired a new dimension

and a difficult one at that.

Over the decades now practicing managers and professional psychologists have been

focusing much attention on these aspects of management practice in order to develop

objective criteria for performance evaluation.

Whatever be the changes that have taken place performance appraisal cannot be given a

go by. It stays. It has its utility as a feedback for planning corrective and human resource

development. Just as training is indispensable, performance appraisal is here to stay and

serve its purpose. Workers at all levels have to be evaluated by some one at some time.

Done on a regular and systematic basis performance appraisal is an absolute necessity.

We may now see a few studies in this area.

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Guion (1965) reported “A survey of validation studies appearing in the Journal of applied

psychology, and personnel psychology between 1950 and 1955 reported that 81% relied

on some form of rating criterion”.

Developing performance criteria is among difficult and complex problem in

psychological research. The most common is rating in some form or other. One has to

identify valid job criteria on which personnel are to be rated.

Beuce (1977) attempted to compare three types of rating scales on attitude and

motivation of 23 Head Nurses and 164 Staff Nurses... The forms of rating scales

compared by Beuce were

Old graphic rating scale containing arbitrary job dimensions;

A new graphic rating scale, and

A Behavioural-Expectation scale

The comparison was made to detect halo errors and errors of leniency. The New Graphic

Rating Scale and the Behavioural Expectation Scale showed no significant difference in

terms by halo effect. The Behaviour Expectation Scale was found to result in a higher

degree of leniency than the Old Graphic Rating Scale and the New Graphic Rating Scale.

Bhatia, in his study (1974) in an Indian industry stressed that appraisal design is a very

important element in a set of several variables that affect the social relationship and team

work in an organization. He also founds evidence to indicate that appraisal design either

directly or indirectly will have a major influence on ratings and thus on the management

itself. Self-Ratings are generally found to be more lenient than other (superior) rating.

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Holzbech (1978) explored an analysis of superior, self, and peer ratings on performance

and found that self-ratings had significantly higher leniency errors on performance than

other rating There are biases in superior rating as a result of influence of specific job

factors, biases in peer ratings and self ratings are influence by factors other than those

that would be reflected in the overall effectiveness item. Supervisors are found to be

more experience in performance appraisal, exhibit greater responsibility in evaluating job

performance, have greater awareness and sensitivity of individual job related behaviours,

both for specific individuals they are rating and for subordinates in general. Multiple

criteria measures are desired, rating by superiors offer greater potential for differential

ratings as every job is multidimensional.

Rater training and having appropriate rating format reduce errors although we cannot say

which format suits all occasions. It is suggested by me that every organization develop its

own format, one for each layer of the organization and periodical using accumulated data

and up date the scale.

Warke and Billings (1979) examined the effects of lecture, group discussions and

participation in performance scale construction on errors within experimental and

subsequent administrative ratings. These subjects were supervisors. The results supported

there are higher-level halo errors in administration ratings and also that training can

significantly affect experimental but not administrative rating. In administrative rating

errors do occur.

Bingham (1939) has commented on the positive aspects of halo errors. In a personnel

testing context, increasing the number of testing measuring the same construct generally

increases reliability of that instrument likewise, if raters treat a number of rating scale

dimension as “items measuring the same construct., overall performance, that is, it refers

to the halo error, the reliability of their ratings is likely to be increased. There will be

diminishing of the halo errors.

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Attempts to reduce halo effect through rater training have met with some success.

Borman (1975) studied effect of training on reducing halo error in performance rating on

90 low and middle level managers in a large nation wide Insurance company. Halo error,

inter rater reliability, and validity of ratings were assessed, first before training and

second after training. The finding revealed that the halo error decreased significantly (P<

0.01) between before and after testing.

In sum, we can say that performance appraisal in organizations has attracted the attention

of psychologists for over 70 years. The most commonly used method of performance

appraised is rating. Performance description and prediction plays an important role in all

personnel decisions. A review of studies in this field has demonstrated that the best

method of evaluation done on job performance is a rating scale.

The history of systematic performance appraisal techniques dates back to merit rate

systems employed of many organizations as a mean of determining wages increase for

hourly paid workers. With the emergence of formal management development

programmes in the early 1959s the emphasis changed towards performance appraisal of

technical, professional, and managerial personnel. The aim of this modern approach has

been to achieve the systematic evaluation of the individual with respect to his work

performance and his work potential.

Performance appraisal is a formal way of recording and documenting the job

performance of individuals at all levels in the organization. There are several methods

used for evaluation of job performance.

These are:

Casual, unsystematic, and often haphazard appraisal

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The traditional and highly systematic measurements of employee characteristics and

employee contributions,

Mutual goal for emulation through management by objectives (MBO)

The casual approach method is commonly used, but studies show that choosing a formal

method is very much favoured. When formal methods are chosen, most organizations use

one of the many variations of traditional and systematic measurements by superior... This

type is systematic in that it evaluates all performances in the same manner, utilizing the

same approach, so that rating obtained for various personnel and comparable. The result

of this systematic and periodic appraisal is the accurate measurement of human

performance.

In both traditional and management by objectives approaches, the importance lies in the

attempting to evaluate what the person does rather than what he is. Thus the abilities of

the person and the factors of job performance do enter into rating process. Hence the

term “Performance Appraisal” is more appropriate than the earlier ones such as “mixed

rating”, “employee rating”, and “service rating.” Appraisals of subordinates by superiors

are deemed by many to be an essential part of the executive job.

As already mentioned, performance appraisal is done through some form of rating.

Paterson (1922) introduced graphic rating scale Smith and Kendal (1963) introduced a

new method of rating scale called behavioural expectation scaling. This is also known as

behaviourally anchored rating scale.

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Borman and Vallon (1974) were of the view that the appraisal scales in settings may be

used only in the settings in which they were developed Goodale and Burke (1975), and

Landy et al (1978) demonstrated that generalizing of appraisal scales beyond the setting

where it was developed is not feasible. (Kavanagh 1971) argued that the empirical

literature does not allow one to choose unequivocally the type and content of the rating

scales.

The Vijayalakshmi Scale of Personnel appraisal (1982)

Vijayalakshmi (1982) constructed a performance appraisal scale under my guidance. This

is presented here for purposes of illustration.

Steps Adopted

The appraisal format used by large industrial establishments at that time was selected.

The traits generally measured or rated in these formats were collated. All these

constituted a pool of items of which 24 items were extracted by factor analysis which

formed the final Performance Appraisal Scale. These were further subjected to expert

scrutiny and finalized. The experts were three personnel managers and two academic

psychologists. The experts approved the 24 items.

In order provide ample decision space for the rater a nine-response format was provided

for each item or trait. A nine-point scale was preferred as it could reduce halo effect. The

nine points start with excellent to unsatisfactory through average ratings.

Performance appraisal is one of the most important devices available to any organization

for setting and accomplishing organizational goals. It is a process by which an

organization obtains feed back about the effectiveness of its personnel.

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Performance is not uni-dimensional. There are many aspects of job performance that

must be assed. These aspects or dimensions vary according to the purpose of the

performance review.

The organization hires personnel who can be trained and influenced to perform jobs so

that the organizational goals are achieved. This is because organizational goals are

oriented and includes various technologies that require some form structural arrangement

to improve the probability of successful and effective performance that gives the

organization a character. This can be achieved by employing appropriate persons train

them and periodically assess their performance. The point now here is assessment or

appraisal.

A person selected and placed on the job is not an empty basket. He brings with him his

entire past in the nature of experiences, talents, general abilities temper, temperament,

character, and to state in a single word he brings with him his personality. All these are

developed at home, neighbourhood, school, formal an informal organizations with which

he would have come into contact. This adds to the complexity of training program and

assessment as he progresses in his job. . This necessitates the effort to integrate the

individual with the organization. This process is some times dominated by the

organization factors and some times by the employee factors.

Organizations are made up of personal, social and technological components. As such

they may be characterized as socio-technical systems. The effective management

demands that the manager be able to systematically diagnose, predict, and control

behavior of personnel and help them contribute to organizational development. The

effectiveness of a manager is measured by:

Economic results achieved by the people assigned to him,

Developing subordinates to perform higher tasks and

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Promise shown in assuming responsibilities

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Performance Appraisal

At this point it is well to repeat that performance appraisal or evaluation is the most

important single device available to an organization for setting and realizing those goals.

Performance appraisal can be defined as the process by which an organization obtains

feedback about the effectiveness of its employees.

It should be accepted that development of adequate methods for measuring job efficiency

is formidable task by it.

In order to avoid vagueness in the concept of performance we have to develop a method

of quantification of this concept. The available method is to define and describe the

concept and adopt an acceptable scale. In describing the concept we have identify all the

components of the concept or attribute namely, performance. The next step is to follow

all the psychometric steps of scale construction. A few details are given in a later

chapter

What do we do with Performance Appraisal Data?

These data are useful in several purposes. For example the data treated as feed back can

be for review sessions. Review should be conducted periodically. Review session is a

dialogue between the concerned employee and reviewer. It is aimed at improving

performance in any specific area of performance. The reviewer must be a trained

person in psychosocial skills. Both the appraiser and the person appraised should make

adequate preparations.

Examples of Appraisal Scales

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Rating scales are the most widely used in personnel appraisal methods. Personnel are

rated on a number of traits and job components. Rating is a kind of quantification of

traits rated as applicable to the job. I present here a sample of two widely used employee

appraisal formats:

Example I- Graphic Rating Scale

Trait: Job Knowledge

Exceptionally Above Average Below Poor

good average average

The rater ticks one of the above while evaluating an employee regarding job knowledge.

In this example we have shown a FIVE point rating scale.

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Example –II Multi- step Rating Scale

Error:

Reference

source not foundE

XCELLENT

ABOVE

AVERAGE

AVERAGE BELOW

AVERAGE

POOR

High accuracy

dependable

irrespective of

volume of work

High accuracy

dependable

when volume of

work is not high

High accuracy

dependable

when volume of

work is

moderately not

high

Low accuracy

when volume

of work

moderately

high

Low

accuracy

even when

volume of

work is low.

169

Error: Reference source not foundThe rater places a (X) in the appropriate box

applicable to the person rated. In this example I have marked in the box “Average”

Example- III Likert Type Scale

Excellent 1 2 3 4 5 Unsatisfactory

The rater ticks the appropriate number as applicable to the employee. In this I have used

a FIVE point scale. One can have SEVEN or NINE point scales according to the dictates

of trait rated.

The possible errors have been listed here under:

Halo effect: Being high in one trait may include a rating as high in any other.

Constant error: Reters may tend to be lenient through out the process.

Error of central Tendency: Tendency to give “average” rating to all or most persons.

Logical error: Thinking one trait is logically related to others results in similar rating for

many traits.

Contrast error: Rating others in the direction opposite to how the rater rates himself.

Error due to propinquity: physical proximity between the rater and the person rated.

Interpersonal liking: lead to error leniency.

To over come the above possible errors: Rating should be based on facts – not on

opinion; Interpret in terms of job demands; use supplementary information; Avoid being

influenced by other; Avoid personal liking; Rate each trait independently uninfluenced

by rating on other traits.

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Review of performance should be done periodically. Review is process which involves

responsibility, skill and knowledge of the job which the employee is doing. Besides,

there a few essential qualities the reviewer should posses. These qualities can be

cultivated. Here is a short list of these qualities:

He should be loving person

He should be non-manipulative

He should be open to new ideas and new relationships

He should be congruent and genuine

His self-esteem should be high

He should be a good listener.

He should be in touch with his feelings including negative ones

The list could be longer. The reviewer and the person evaluated should function as a

team. The reviewing process should enable the employee to rise above the present level

to higher levels.

The reviewing process should result in change in the employee in the desired direction. It

should facilitate action on the part of the employee.

171

SUMMARY

Stage I Responding

Reviewer Employee

Responding to what the employee says and what he

wants to say with empathy – develop a working

relationship.

Desires to exploration about his

feelings, his efficiency or lack of

it.

Stage II Integrative understanding

Begins to piece together all the data

available from appraisal records, get a

broad picture, and help the employee to

integrate the data by his own effort.

Attempts towards dynamic self – under –

standing, see a need for change, learn to

put things together, identify his own

resources, try to help himself to improve

where needed

Stage III Facilitating Action

Work together in a collaborative way, help

the employee to act on his own new

findings, help him to help himself

Acting working more effectively handling

social and other dimensions of the job

effectively, avoid self defecting

behaviours, explore copying

172

Reviewing skills include self – acceptance and acceptance of other. In order to build and

maintain interpersonal relationships the reviewer should be self – accepting and other

accepting. The greater the self – acceptance greater will be other – acceptance. This

implies that the reviewer of appraisal data should develop and maintain a high level of

self – acceptance. Lack of self – acceptance results in cynicism self - acceptance is based

on judgment about one’s own self – worth. It is a process of conceptualization and

evaluating information about oneself.

If you think well of yourself you will think well of others. The reviewer derives ideas of

his self – worth based on the following:

Reflected Self–acceptance: On the basis of how others think of him and see him.

Basic self–acceptance: A belief that he is intrinsically and unconditionally acceptance.

Conditional self – acceptance: Based on how well he meets the external standards and

expectations.

Real–ideal comparison: The reviewer may judge how his real self compares with his

ideal self, comparison between what he thinks he should be.

The reviewer should have a high sense of self – worth in order to be self–worth which in

turn results in other – acceptance. Successful reviewing of self – appraisal data is based

on a positive approach on the lines of special skills discussed in the foregoing.

Finally it should be stated that performance appraisal is most crucial to human resource

development.

173

Apartment from the error proneness in the programme we have to note various other

factors that influence performance appraisal. There could be invalid and misleading data

that is generated in performance appraisal.

There are other important outcomes of personnel appraisal. The data can be used to

motivate the employees for further improvement. The employees can get valid feed back

which they can use for their own benefit.

The performance appraisal should be also to provide for betterment of employees and

organization. This can be possible of both job activities and results are evaluated. The

whole exercise should be done in a scientific atmosphere. There should be a participative

method in the appraisal process

174

CHAPTER – IX

LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR

INTRODUCTION

Organizations are composed of individuals. These individuals usually are clustered into

groups. These groups are either formal or informal. Individuals ordinarily have to

interact with one another to carry on their functions. Any given individual may belong to

more than one group. This could be a formal arrangement or informal. This it emphasizes

the fact of social nature of work environment.

Among members of a group there are individual differences in power and influence.

These differences may be an arrangement in formal groups. In informal groups such

differences emerge as a result of group dynamics. In formal groups functions are specific

as required by policies.

Here we are dealing with formal groups and formal functions assigned by the

management based on a hierarchical structure.

Individuals in supervisory or managerial positions are expected to plan, coordinate, direct

and control task relevant activities of those for whom they are responsible. These

assignments indicate that they are leaders of the respective groups. These are also called

institutional leaders as different from elected leaders. Whichever way the person has

come to be in a leadership position he has to have certain attributes to be successful. The

attainment of goals of the organization is very much dependent on the leaders of various

groups in the organization. This one reason is enough to consider leadership for intensive

scrutiny and research. Extensive research is available as on date on leadership in

organization.

175

Leadership is an abstract concept. It is also an elusive concept because leadership means

different thing to different people.

POSITION

To some, leadership is a position in an organization. This means, a position is a set of

prescribed behaviours for the person assigned to it. Persons in this position of leadership,

in addition to whatever is assigned, acquire to certain attributes expected of them. These

are called leadership behaviours. In other word how a person in this position carries out

what is assigned is what he acquires as he goes on with his work. It is therefore doing

something more than what is assigned. For example, a person is given the power and

authority over a set of people and how it is up to him how he uses these to meet the goals

of the organization. The successful attainment of these goals depends upon how this

person in this position uses power and authority vested in him. How he enacts his role in

a crucial point. It is a role, and naturally role perception, role expectation, and role

enactment are crucial.

THE PERSON

Leadership is seen as what the person is. The answer to the historical question is

leadership qualities. What are these qualities? Abilities, Personality, Interests, and Values

have been investigated as possible explanations of differences among effective and

ineffective leaders.

THE PROCESS

Leadership is seen as a process by which leaders lead. Leaders influence others. They

must achieve group goals by getting aid and commitment of those under them to

contribute time and energy towards the accomplishment of group goals. This influence

over their subordinates must be more than routinely exercising their power and authority.

176

Looking at the three perspectives mentioned it looks as though all the three points of

view may as well be combined. The view that a leader influences his subordinates is not

determinate by his position alone, not entirely any way.

Systematic research on leadership has been focused as personal characteristic. This

effectiveness is though too related to aggressiveness, intelligence, and other personal

characteristics such age, or physical attractiveness. In addition several traits are stated to

be associated with effective leadership. A few of them are:

Initiative, self-assurance, decisiveness, maturity, occupational achievement, need for self-

actualisation, need for help financial reward, need for security.

Leadership research shifted its focus from trait approach to behavioural approach. This is

largely because progress in trait approach was not forth coming. It appears behavioural

approach is easier to grasp than the trait approach.

BEHAVIOR DIMENSIONS OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS

Indexes can easily be obtained of leadership effectiveness. Group productivity, group

member satisfaction, and grievances are some of the indexes. Studies in this direction

brought forth two leader types of leadership behaviour. One of them is concerned with

the employees. This is known as employee centred style. The second one is concerned

with execution of assigned work. This is called task centred style. Research indicates that

employee centred leader behaviour showed better leader behaviour effectiveness which

led to improved social and emotional responses on the part of the employees.

Major conclusions from these can be that in employee centred leader, behaviour social

and emotional responses of the employees showed a desirable trend. Nothing more came

out of these studies.

177

Leadership is one of the topics in which there is a systematic flow of research and

thought. It is seen how an initial concern with leader traits moved on to the study of

leader effectiveness. This happened because there was not much progress in trait theory

approach to leader behaviour. This brought situational leadership to focus. This last

mentioned appears to have much promise for leadership training as against trait

approach. Further research is warranted. Every approach to understand leadership

behaviour has its own contribution and as such there is no need to discard any particular

approach. Sustained effort to understand leader behaviour is rewarding and productive

particularly in developing human resources.

TABLE 5

GOOD LEADER POOR LEADER

Delegates authority

Fair minded

Available to all, employees

Discuss problems with

employees.

Recognizes merit

Appreciation of merit

Patience and understanding

Sincerity.

Calm, Collected.

Depend in higher – ups.

Lack technical knowledge

Interface with work.

Favouritism

Resents public expression

Petty, jealous, self-

contradictions, superficial

dealing, impulsive, emotional

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Note: All individuals have all these qualities. The rating of good or poor is

What matters? This set of items can form the bases for scale construction.

Every research focus on productivity and employee attitudes has a bearing on leadership.

In sum we can say that study of leadership has a wider span than other topics. We recall

this time and gain. As we deal with leadership.

Leadership behaviour is formalized and defined by the organization. In that sense those

in leadership position is a role to perform designed, defined, and described by the

management. In such a case there is little or no reason to dwell too much on this area of

human resource, i.e., leadership. But leadership behaviour spills very much over and

above the prescribed role. Herein come the need for research and training .in this vital

area of human resource. Leadership is not a just a function of the demands for

effectiveness and it is not function of the demands for behaviour that a social system may

demand but it is also a function of the type of individuals involved. There could be

individual differences.

It has been generally stated that the leader should be able to among other things influence

people. Leader behaviour itself is influenced by several factors. For instance the top

management may make fresh demands on the leader.

The traditional model is the nature of role prescriptions and it has its own role

perceptions. McGregor (1960) has set forth certain prescriptions by his well known

Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X prescriptions

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Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise –money,

materials, equipments, and people in the interest of economic ends.

With respect to the personnel this is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them,

controlling actions, and modifying their behaviours to fit into the needs of the

organization.

Personnel would be passive without the active intervention by management, even

resistant to organizational needs, they must therefore be persuaded, punished, controlled,

and their activities must be directed.

These prescriptions follow certain assumptions of man as propounded in Theory Y. They

are:

The average worker is indolent; he works as little as possible.

He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, and prefers to be led.

He is inherently self-centred and indifferent to organizational needs.

He is resistant to change

He is gullible, not very bright; a charlatan or a demagogue readily dupes him.

According McGregor him these views were not supported by research. But the Theory Y

was well supported. The assumptions of Theory Y are:

TABLE 6

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

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THEORY –X THEORY – Y

Work is inherently

distasteful to most people.

Most people are not

ambitious, have little desire

for responsibility, and prefer

to be directed.

Most people have little

capacity for creativity in

solving organizational

problems.

Motivation occurs only at the

physiological and safety

levels.

Most people must be closely

controlled and often coerced

to achieve organizational

objectives.

Work is as natural as play, if

the conditions are

favourable.

Self – control is often

indispensable in achieving

organizational goals.

The capacity for creativity in

solving organizational

problems is widely

distributed in the population.

Motivation occurs at the

social, esteem and self-

actualisation and security

levels.

People can be self – directed

and creative at work if

properly motivated.

181

Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive elements of

productive enterprise- money, materials, equipment, and people in the interest of

economic needs.

People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs but have become so

as a result of experience in organizations

The motivation, the potential for development and the capacity for assuming

responsibility towards organizational goals are all present in the people. Management

does not put it there.

The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of

operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts

towards organizational objectives.

The Theory Y assumptions are in agreement with psychologist’s point of view. There is a

contrast between traditional viewpoints which agree with Theory X assumptions, and the

modern view points which are in line with Theory Y assumptions. Tannebaum (1966)

states that by giving the subordinates an opportunity to exert personal control over their

job content and behaviours will increase work motivation and identify themselves with

the organization which leads to better communication and understanding.

The Effective Leader

The three dimensions of behaviour are cognitive, motivational, and personality

characteristics. This applies to all. A research issue is how leaders differ from non leaders

in regard to these dimensions. This is a research worthy problem. We need to look at this

issue closely.

182

Error: Reference source not found

Figure 4: 3 – D Management Style

Basically this boils down to selecting a person who has the potential to become an

effective leader. Two approaches seem o in vogue. One of them is centred on

characteristics of the effective leader independent of situational characteristics, the

second view is centred the contingency approach. The latter approach contends

effectiveness of a leader varies according to the demands of an organization.

There is no confirmatory evidence for either view. There are leaders who are effective

despite differences in the organizational demand, and there are those who are ineffective

even when environment is conducive. This requires scrutiny.

The research focus in this regard can take two routes. Both concentrate on personal

factors as determiners of effectiveness. But they are different conceptually. One of them

is type approach the other is trait approach. For example, leaders may fall into two major

types. They are autocratic or democratic types. The second view i.e., trait approach view,

says that there certain characteristics such as, self-assurance, initiative, intelligence,

creativity sociality, and so on (list can be very long), contribute to leader effectiveness or

absence of it.

.A research program should examine whether authoritarian leader is more effective or a

non authoritarian leader is more effective. And equally in trait approach traits that make

an effective leader have to be identified.

TABLE 7

Ghiselle’s Management Success Factors.

183

Personality Traits Motivational Traits

Intelligence: General verbal,

Symbolic

Initiative: Willingness to strike

Off in new directions.

Supervisory Ability: The ability

to direct other.

Self – Assurance: The

favourability of self –

evaluation.

Affinity of the working class.

Decisiveness

Masculinity: femininity

Maturity: Conformance to age

norms.

Need for occupational

achievement.

Need for self- actualisation

Need of power over others.

Need for high financial

incentives.

Need for job security.

184

Note: hierarchy of these two sets together can be arranges by empirical study individually

by the concerned organization.

Ghisseli (1963, 1971) has made significant contribution in providing a list of managerial

traits. The list is comprehensive. There are two parts to this list.

PART I

Personality Traits

Intelligence: verbal and symbolic

Initiative: willingness to strike off in new directions

Supervisory ability: the ability to direct other

Self-assurance: favourable self-evaluation

Affinity for working class

Decisiveness

Masculinity-femininity

Maturity: conforms to age norms.

PART II

MOTIVATION TRAITS

Need for occupational achievement.

185

Need for self-actualisation.

Need for power over others.

Need for with financial rewards.

Need for job security.

These traits are not independent of each other. Cognitive factors are important for

cognitively oriented supervisory functions. “Power over others” is not in the hierarchical

power structure and not as important as theory Y would endorse security orientation is

not a priority for successful leadership.

Fiedler (1966) is associated with contingency theory of leadership. His work consisted of

empirical research of both experimental and correlational nature. Fiedler argues the

environments can be ordered according to their degree of favourability for the leader and

necessary leadership characteristics vary according to this of favourability. He mentions

three characteristics as favourable to a leader. They are:

186

Leader – member relations.

The task structure

Once environments are classified along the dimensions desirable leadership characteristic

vary ranging from extreme permissiveness to extreme authoritarianism. Thus the leader

behaviour is contingent upon the environment in which he functions.

Contingency model has limitations. The approach normally is static and involves fitting

together of two parts, i.e., the environment to the person or person to the environment.

Then we have problems of knowing before hand the values of Need for Contingency

variable. This variable as an attribute should be measurable. Is this possible? This is a

difficult question to answer.

More recent literature is focused on developing Contingency models for authoritarianism

democratic leadership dichotomy.

Leader Effectiveness – An Assessment of the Three-dimensional Model

Leadership style refers to the behaviour pattern that the person exhibits when attempting

to influence the activities of other perceived by those others. This is different from how

the leader perceives his own behaviour, which can be defined as self – perception rather

than style. A person’s leadership style involves some combination of either task

behaviour or relationship behaviour. The task behaviour and relationship behaviour

enters into a combination in leader behaviour. These are central to the vary concept of

leadership style.

187

Task behavior, the extent to which leaders are likely to organize and define the roles of

the members of their group to explain what activities, each is to do and when, where and

how tasks are to be accomplished; characterized by endeavouring to establish well –

defined patterns of organization, channels of communication and ways of getting job

accomplished.

Relationship behaviours the extent to which leader are likely to variation personal

relationships between themselves and members of their group of opening channels of

communication, providing socio – emotional support, “Psychological strokes” and

facilitating behaviour.

To repeat leadership style involves these two dimensions in different combinations.

There cannot be a rule of the thumb as to relative importance of each dimension and how

the two get into a combination in what proportion. Two get into a combination in what

proportion. This may depend on a number of factors which may not be varying obvious

as first fight. It is believed a reasonable proportion of each in a combination should make

leadership effective (R+T=E), Relation +Task = Expectancy how much each should be

the leader should decide based on requirements. So far we have seen two-dimensional

views. Reddin (1970) formulated a three dimensional view of leadership style.

The 3 – D management Style Theory

The two dimensions already mentioned are task oriented ness, relationship oriented ness.

Now the third dimension is added to make the leadership style a three dimensional one.

This adds expectancy dimension.

Reddin influenced a great deal in the development of tri – dimensional leader

effectiveness model.

188

If a particular style in a given environment yields results it is called effective otherwise it

is considered in effective. If effectiveness depends upon the situation and not on the

actual behaviour of the leader, then the appropriateness of this behaviour to the

environment is to be estimated. It is the interaction between the basic style with the

environment that results in a degree of effectiveness or ineffectiveness. The third

dimension is called effectiveness because in most organizational settings various

performance criteria are used to measure the degree of effectiveness or ineffectiveness of

a leader.

All in all we can say that there is nothing like the best style of leadership. Successful

leaders adapt their style to meet the group and of the particular environment.

Effectiveness depends upon the leader, the followers, and situation to be effective.

The 3 – Dimensional leader effectiveness model is warranted, as it appears to be more

complete than the earlier ones. We are yet to discover the so-called “best” leadership

style.

Leader effectiveness

We need to distinguish between management and leadership. Leadership is a broader

concept than management. We consider management as a special type of leadership in

which accomplishment is the main goal. All leadership behaviour is not directed towards

accomplishing organizational goals. Many times when we are trying to influence some

one we are not a part of an organization. When we are influencing some others we are

not necessarily managing them. But when managing some people we are influencing

them. All managers may not be leaders but all leaders are managers.

189

Effectiveness is not the same thing as efficiency. There could be managers who work

efficiently and gain advancement to higher levels. Here the manager is concerned with

his own goals of advancement and not of the organization. In some cases this may be at

the cost of the organization itself. Therefore effectiveness must be viewed in a broader

context of the organization and possibility of personal advancement of the concerned.

This argument leads us to recognize the difference between individual goals,

organizational goals, leadership, and management. .Leaders exercise power. Etzioni

(1961) discusses the difference between position power and personal power. He bases

this on the concept of power as the ability to influence behaviour. Power is derived from

an office or it may be personal power or both. Managers get their power from the

organizational office. It comes from above, not inherent in the office. Managers

occupying positions may have more power or less power than the predecessor in the

same position and in the same organization. It is not a matter of office having power, but

it is office and the man in it. Power in an organization flows down the hierarchy.

Personal power is the extent to which followers respect, feel good about and committee

to their leader and feel that their goals are satisfied by the goals of their leader. This

involves that followers are willing followers and not that a leader is thrust on them. The

leader is their leader. There could be instance where managers are equally occupied with

the group implying they do have personal power as well.

French and Ravens (1960) have traced the source of personal power and position powers.

The sources are:

Reward power: Stems from the number of positive reward (money, projection, etc) that

people perceive that a potential leader can muster.

Coercive power: Stems from the perceived expectations of the people that punishment

will follow if one does not comply with aims of a potential leader.

190

Legitimate power: Develops from “internalised values” and that one has an obligation to

accept owes influence.

Referral power: Is based on the identification of people with potential leader and what

that leader stands for or symbolizes, and

Expert power: Results from a potential leader having expertise or knowledge in an area

in which that leader wants to influence others.

The very best results are obtained by a leader when he has both personal and position

power.

Can we equate successful leadership with effective leadership? Do the two mean the

something? Or are they supplementary and complementary?

An attempted leader is one who makes an effort to influence the behaviour of another

person or persons. This behaviour may be successful or unsuccessful. But in the case of a

business manager he has to be successful to stay where he is. It is not the attempt that

counts but the outcome. This is measurable in terms of the results. Attempted leadership

may lead to success or failure. But this is not an all – or – none principle. Success –

failure is a continuum. An attempt made may have some success and find a place in the

continuum. It can also be that even successful attempt may not always be effective.

Success does not guarantee effectiveness. Again here the effectiveness is not an all – or –

none affair. It is a continuum.

Attempted leadership being successful now finds itself on effective – ineffective

continuum. It may occupy any point in the scale denoting the degree of effectiveness.

191

Now we are in a complex situation. We want successful and effective leadership. An

unsuccessful attempted leadership that is low on successful – unsuccessful continuum

does not come into the picture at the second level. Attempted leadership with success

reaches the second level and effectiveness is measured on this dimension.

When both criteria are satisfied the outcome will be high production.

Organizational Effectiveness

Individuals together constitute organizations. Organizations prosper or fail owing to

success or failure of individuals and also other resources they command. Most of the time

organizational prosperity or otherwise is thought of as a consequence of leadership

effectiveness or ineffectiveness. This could be true but does not tell the whole story.

Likert (1967) identified three variables, namely, causal, intervening, and end – result

which are useful in discussing effectiveness of organizations.

Causal Variables

As the name indicates causal variables are those factors that influence the course of

development with in the organization and its results or accomplishments. These variables

are also called independent variables that can be changed or altered by management with

in the organization. Leadership strategies, skills, and behaviour, management decisions

and policies are a few examples of causal variables. These can contribute to the

maintenance and even growth of an organization or can also destroy it.

Intervening Variables

192

Leadership strategies, skills, and behaviour, and other causal variables can affect human

resources. Human resources are the intervening variables. Human resources may be

strengthened and properly utilized or let down which can speak of organizational

effectiveness.

According Likert (1967) intervening variables represent the current condition of the

internal state of the organization. Commitment to objectives, motivation, and morale of

members, leadership skills, communications, conflict resolution, decision-making, and

problem solving are all reflected by the health of the intervening variables.

End – Result Variables

These are dependent variables. These reflect the achievement of the organization.

Achievement of the organization would vary according to variation in the independent

variables, and also through changes that occur in the intervening variables – changes in

the intervening variables can only be inferred by the end – result variables which are

amenable for measurement and quantification.

In organizational development programme our concern will be intervening variables.

These variables related to developing the organization. These intervening variables

contribute to development of long – term goals. A careful planning of making these

intervening variables available and promoting these to higher and higher levels.

However, the management cannot overlook the importance of short – term goals, but

should emphasize long – term goals and not get carried away by short – term

achievement that some times are short lived.

Korman (1966) dispels the idea that one can hope far a single best style of behavior. In

fact any style can be effective depending upon the situation.

193

We mentioned before that effectiveness of leader depends upon how their leadership

style interrelates with the situation in which they operate, an effectiveness dimension

should be added to the two dimensional model.

This brings to the issue of the tri – dimensional – model, which is built upon the concept

that effectiveness results from a leader using a behavioural style that is appropriate to the

demands of the environment. Therefore the success and effectiveness of the leader

depends upon how he understands his environment.

Therefore, a need now arises to identify environment variables. The total environment in

an organization consists of the leader, the followers of that leader, superiors, associates,

the organization itself and the job demands (Reddin, 1967).

Any style of behaviour is based upon expectations. Any role has role perception, role

expectation, and role enactment. The last mentioned is dependent upon the first two.

Similarly a role has a style and a correlated expectation. Think of the roles of leaders,

followers, superiors, associates, organization as having corresponding style of operation,

each has correlated expectation. Leader’s style has a corresponding leader’s expectation.

Job demands are based on job analyses.

Style may be defined as “the consistent behaviour patterns that one uses when working

with and through other people as perceived by them”. If is the consistency factor that is,

predictability holding situation constant.

194

Expectations are the perceptions of appropriate behaviour from one’s own role and

perceptions of roles of others within the organization. Role expectation defines what they

should do under various circumstances in their particular job, and how they think about

others should behave in relation to their positions. These others include superior

associates, followers, and so on in its organization. Each of these persons should perceive

accurately and accept their own role and the role of the others. There should share

expectations. This requires understanding and empathy. . When this occurs every body’s

effectiveness becomes a reality.

All this imply in the context of leader effectiveness, that a leader should be able to

appreciate that his role is complex; he is the pivotal point around which all other

environmental variables interact. All these variables of the environment are in a sense

communicating role expectations to the leader. This may be implied or direct.

Style and expectation interaction is generally structured, i.e., some managerial position or

roles are structured by expectations, this in a sense prohibits people occupying those roles

have little room to express their own style. In some managerial positions such rigorous

prescriptions may not express giving room for experimenting, innovating and expressing

their own style. This is dependent upon the organizational style.

It is possible that followers implicitly alter the leader’s style, even as the leaders try to

alter the follower’s style.

Leaders should have the ability to know the followers’ style and their expected style so

that they apply appropriate skills to get them conform to the expected style. Such a

situation occurs when one takes up a new job of a leader. His predecessor may have

established a style to which the group has conformed over along period and thus

stabilized in that style. The new incumbent may have different ideas. Therefore he may

have to make some adjustments in his expectation others and at the same time get they

make adjustment to his style thus gain a comfortable relationship with the followers.

195

This kind of adjustment is warranted while dealing with others in the organization. The

above illustration is with regards to followers. This has to be extended to other personnel.

Appropriate reciprocal adjustments have to be made for a smooth sail and for the sake of

effectiveness.

Job demands also are constituents of environmental variables. Role style adjustments

have to be made to suit the task demands and time factors. The latter relates to time

management.

196

197

CHAPTER – X

PERSONALITY

Personality is a fascinating word. It is used in varied senses. Most of these popular usages

fall under one of two headings. The first use equates personality to social skills or

adroitness. Personality is assessed by the effectiveness with which person is able to elicit

reactions from a variety of persons under a variety of situations. It is in this sense the

concept of “personality training” came to popularity. Some refer to “personality

problem” which only mean that a given person does not have adequate social skills to

maintain harmonious relations with others.

The second usage considers personality of the individual to consist of most outstanding

impression he can create in others. A person may be said to have an aggressive

personality, or a submissive personality, etc. In each case the person’s attribute or quality

that is highly typical of the individual and that is assumable as an important part of the

overall impression created in others and the personality of that person is identified by that

term. In both these usages an element of evaluation is involved.

But the psychologists have endowed this term with a variety of meanings... Allport

(1937) has made an exhaustive survey of the literature on the subject and has identified

fifty different definitions and classified them into certain broad categories...

Literature in this area is very extensive. Hall and Lindsey (1978) have written extensively

on theories f personality. They have presented fifteen major personality theories. Each

theory has a point and a distinct contribution to make.

We need to make out from these that there is a general trend in spite of differences

though it is necessary for a serious student of personality to know as many theories as

possible in the context of this book I would present a brief summary.

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A discussion of the cotemporary personality theory can bring out the fact that the human

being is a striving, seeking, and a purposive creature. The beginning of 20th century saw

stalwarts like McDougall, Tolman and other leading personalities who focused their

attention on purposive nature of man. This appeared true even a bit later in the second

and third quarters of the 20th century. The contribution of Allport, Murray, Rogers (to

mention a few), placed a very emphasis on purposive nature of human behaviour. There

has been no significant opposition to this type theory even by those like Miller and

Donald, Skinner, and Sheldon. But these theorists did make an attempt to emphasize

rewards. Importance of self and the centrality of motivation did find a place in all

theories. This position is a tacit acceptance of purpose in human behavior. The latter

mentioned theorists may not take the concept of purpose explicitly, but do not make it a

matter of hot dispute.

There is a serious discussion and disagreement on the issue of unconscious determinants

of behaviour as opposed to the importance of conscious determinants. This disagreement

seems to persist but the exact basis is not clear. I for one would not lean on unconscious

determinants of behaviour as these appear to me to be in the realm of conjecture.

Error: Reference source not found

Figure 5: Discretion to use the type of reinforcement rests with the manager.

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The importance of reward and reinforcement as determinants of behaviour is widely

emphasized by Skinner, Miller and Donald. They hold on to reinforcement theories.

Cattel, Murray, and Sullivan accept the law of effect as primary for reinforcement. But

Rogers, Allport and Goldstein play down the concept of reward to a secondary position.

These psychologists view that human behaviour is motivated by conscious effort to

maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Reward is a determinant of behaviour and there is

a growing trend among theorists to lay emphasis on reward as a motivator. But

psychologists are not inclined to lose the importance of individual’s specific behaviour

when formulating laws about people in general. Allport calls this formulation as both

ideographic and nomothetic

A very important feature of personality theories is their numerous and distinctive

schemes for representing personality structure. This is an important development.

Any theorist who adopts a holistic view is in fact recommending one of two approaches

to the representation of human behaviour. The important fact is that a successful theory

must be complex, multivariate, and include reference to the situation within which

behavioural events occur as well as other behavioural events of the individual has come

to prominence. The univariate cannot be holistic.

This point of view accepts complexity of behaviour. All theories, whichever approach

made by them recognize that the structure of personality can be dislocated or even

shattered by anxiety, frustration, and physical trauma. Some individuals cope with these

with resilience and maintain balance while some others yield and breakdown.

A distinction is made between psychological environment and physical reality.

Personality theorists are more impressed with the importance of the psychological

environment than the physical environment.

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Theories of Allport, Cattel, Lewin, and Murray have given full recognition to diversity of

human motivation. In each of these theories there is a firm emphasis on the fact that

behavior can be understood only with the identification and study of “large number” of

motivational variables. It is always a multiplicity of motivation and we are dealing with a

complex phenomenon. A simplistic approach is sterile, and unproductive.

All personality theories do not make out a case for personality structure. A degree of

constancy of behavior is accepted as adequate for theory making.

Even a brief scanning an extensive literature in personality we can grasp that there is vast

array of theoretical formulations of personality. Among them there are similarities and

convergences and equally diversities and divergences. Yet there is a recognizable

progress in understanding behavior as a personality phenomenon. We do not classify a

theory as right or wrong. A theory is a formulation based on empirical support

generated by a school of thought. This has its merit and it automatically involves

divergence.

Any theory is valid to the extent it helps us in predicting and providing for control of

behavior. It is a matter of wonder and appreciation that so many psychologists have

toiled intelligently and creatively to create formulations in explanatory constructs. It is

for us to derive benefit from their efforts.

Personality research is a branch of psychology dealing with personality apart from

abilities (Eysenck et al, 1972). All researches as understood with the help of the theories

stated above it looks as though that personality theory is a system of suppositions which

represent a frame of reference in explaining or describing human behaviour and

experience relevant to some definition of personality. Personality traits show a degree of

constancy over a period of time.

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I wish to add brief note here that personality as theorized by some authorities is amenable

to measurement and quantification. This is tied up to the theoretical orientation held by

the researcher.

In Psychometrics the term objectivity of a test refers to certain criteria. They are:

Selection of response format, such as YES/NO or multiple response format using a scale

for each item

Objectivity focuses on the kind of behaviour chosen for measurement

Obtained results should be comparable to results already obtained by other researchers

Replicability either by oneself or by others

Make it possible to predict within certain established probability limits

Standardization in the sense of clear instructions and provision for normative data

Reliability and validity should be established according to psychometric criteria.

Objectivity can be defined in the context of psychological measurement as the extent to

which findings are independent of investigator regarding the ways they are obtained and

interpreted.

There are several tools used in psychological measurement. I will present here a very

brief account of questionnaires as tools of psychological measurement. We will have

more in a later section

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The term questionnaire describes a variety of instruments. Often a questionnaire is a

printed form containing a structured set of questions. The subject is required to answer

all questions. This is done usually in writing and at times questions are presented orally

and answers elicited orally. Questionnaires may be opening ended or closed ended with

predetermined response format. Many psychological variables including personality are

subjected to measurement using questionnaires that are developed based on psychometric

criteria and standardized.

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PERONNEL SELECTION

Personnel selection is a systematic choosing among available persons according to

certain criteria especially with regard to their fitness for certain vocations, positions, or

activities. Such criteria deal almost always with physical or psychological activities and

personality characteristics.

Personnel selection is matching individuals to jobs. This involves decision making

process. It refers to choosing from a number of available candidates one or more

according to needs of the organization. The entire process involves a clear knowledge of

the job requirements and selecting a person who would be equal to the requirements.

The process is directed towards identifying the individuals who possess the qualities job

performance requires. Here we have two issues. They are:

Job requirements, and

Personnel specifications

Personnel selection should be directed towards identifying persons who stand the best of

chances of success in the job. This implies that we should know the characteristics which

are most likely to contribute to job success (job in question). There should be some set of

variables that are called personnel specifications or job specifications. This should be

based empirical evidence and past experience of the management. These personnel

specifications are of two classes. The first is that the specifications are intrinsic to the job

which is required for successful performance of the job. The second class refers to

specific requirements associated with labour market conditions.

Intrinsic requirements vary from job to job. Job requirements are not absolute. They

depend upon value judgment of acceptable standards of performance.

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ESTABLSHING PERSONNEL SPECIFICATIONS

Personnel specifications should be valid. They should the power of prediction. Personnel

specifications are predictor variables, i.e. they are independent variables of a criterion in

our mind. Relevant personnel data can be had from the following:

Personnel Tests

Application Blank

Interviews

References

There are important considerations of reliability and validity. These psychometric issues

will be elaborated in the chapter on Research Methods in Organizational effectiveness –

Human Resource Development. For now it is enough to mention that these should have

high reliability and validity

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CHAPTER XI

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND THEIR USE

The concept of individual differences is central to the study of human behaviour. The

need for psychological tests is all the more pronounced for this reason.

It is a fact of history that systematic measuring instruments made their appearance in the

field of abilities prior to spreading to other areas of human behaviour. Tests of

intelligence were the first to make their appearance. The attempt to make quantitative

assessment of intelligence took the lead. Then aptitudes, learning, and memory tests

made their appearance. Subsequently tests of personality, interest, aptitudes, and other

non-ability factors came to be quantified and research in all these areas progressed. The

advent of computer aided and accelerated the progress of psychological tests in all

aspects of human behavior made their appearance. Periodical updating of the tests has

been in progress.

Psychometric, research methodology, and statistics jointly brought sophistication to

psychological research. Construction and standardization of psychological tests came to

be easier and more meaningful. We can reap the benefit of such a development for

human resource development and organizational effectiveness. Today several

organizations are utilizing such a resource.

The utility of psychological services is manifold. Psychological testing for personnel

selection, placement, personnel training, and employee promotion is only a part of the

story.

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In this section we deal with the use of psychological tests in organizations. Psychological

tests are objective and standardized measures of a sample of behaviour (Anastasi, 1961).

A psychological test is a systematic procedure for comparing different individuals

(Chronbach, 1960).

We will start with cognitive process and work related behaviour.

Given the best of environment leadership with motivational support we expect

performance effectiveness. Nothing can be far from truth and reality. There is yet another

constituent, namely ability to do the job. I mentioned earlier that it is a fact of history that

ability testing preceded non cognitive aspects of human behaviour. I am bringing

cognitive aspects not because of this historical fact, but an emphasis has to be made.

Given the above favourable conditions one may perform well, another may fail.

Similarly two individuals endowed with equal ability may also differ in their

performance effectiveness owing to differences in non-cognitive aspects namely

motivation personality, environmental factors, etc.

That apart, we will examine a few aspects of cognitive processes.

Human Abilities

It was Bitnet’s contribution that started a systematic quantitative study of intelligence.

Binet in collaboration Simon developed a test of intelligence that came to be known as

Binet- Simon scale. He put into the concept of intelligence a number of components.

This scale was able to differentiate between good performers and poor performers among

pupils in school.

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Research on Intelligence...

There are close links between researches into intelligence and thought process to

prerequisite facility in thought process. The aim of research into intelligence is to use

statistics to compare and determine the various conditions underlying various types of

performances. They used correlating to estimate the extent of similarity of two different

conditions. The beginning of 20th century is significant for contributions emanated from

psychological laboratories regarding intelligence took some shape at the hands of Charles

Spearman (1927). He was a pioneer, the first to develop on this basis a method of

analysing the relations between performances. His statistical method of analysis is the

foundation for a very significant and elegant method called factor analysis by subsequent

psychologists. He insisted that intelligence consisted of two factors namely a general

factor and several specific factors. He designated this as the well known two – factor

theory of intelligence. Spearman has brought this out very clearly in his book “Principles

of cognition and nature of intelligence”. Thurstone (1948) offered a new factor model of

intelligence that does not contemplate a general factor but only specific factors. He

defined as primary factors and named seven of them. Guilford went further and carried

out extensive factor analysis, suggested a three – dimensional system of one hundred and

twenty factors. Guilford’s model includes convergent thinking ability and divergent

thinking ability, Divergent thinking ability conforms to creativity.

Intelligence and Personality:

Intelligence is considered to be a characteristic, an aspect, or area of personality. This

would mean that personality would not be completely characterized if intelligence is not

considered. But researches have not shown any significant correlation between

performances in intelligence tests and other personality characteristics determined by

personality tests.

There are several intelligence tests today dating from 1905.

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Abilities

By ability we mean all the psychological conditions needed to perform an activity.

Ability may be defined operationally, as the activity with which it is associated. This

would imply that there are as many abilities as there are activities. Therefore it does not

make much sense if we ask for nature of intelligence and its components. We can at best

say that primarily intelligence is an abbreviation for all psychological conditions needed

to perform a given activity. The implication is only of the necessary conditions for a

given activity. But we may exclude the non – cognitive aspects and insist on how much

of these abilities are needed for a given activity. We may also note that activities have a

certain specificity of the required abilities.

Empirical research in this area has brought to focus the notion of abilities is that abilities

are no longer considered as innate uniform and distinct powers as a set of conditions.

This attitude has been motivated by research into the relation between abilities using

correlational analysis. Factor analysis provided a method of determining and defining

conditions and factors common to a set of activities. Correlation coefficient among

different abilities varies from very high to very low. This indicates that all abilities are

not equally related among themselves, some more intimately, some not so intimately. But

correlations do exist among abilities.

The concept of abilities is significantly important in applied psychology, to name only

two such:

Organizational effectiveness (OE) and,

Human resources development (HRD)...

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Ability research is a branch of psychology which classifies the prerequisite for a given

type of activities, and to what extent that any one posses the requisite abilities for

effective functioning in that given activity.

Psychological tests are considered objective and scientific. They are easy to administer,

and are economical in terms by money and time in the assessment of individuals for

given purposes. Statistical processing and qualification of tests data give a degree of

precision in addition to objectivity in the assessment programme.

Psychological testing is an important inclusion in employee selection and training

programmes (OE & HRD). Blum and Naylor (1968) are of the opinion that

psychological tests can be of good use.

Job performance is equally dependent on verbal abilities and cognitive skills. There is

extensive knowledge in this area that suggested that jobs are pre – arranged in a

hierarchical manner. The highly valuable and prestigious job is considered to require

high scores on verbal and numerical abilities; all though certain other non-ability factors

like interest and personality factors have their role be play. Abilities by themselves do

not assure effectiveness performance.

McClelland (1973), reports that research evidence of usefulness of psychological tests

in predicting real – life behaviour is poor or minimal at best. There is little correlation

between general mental abilities measures and job success when they are used to predict

behaviour at work. Thorndike and Hager reported 12,000 correlations for 10,000

respondents and very few significant correlations. Others have not been able to establish

any significant positive correlations between general mental ability measures in social

leadership, arts, science, and police work (Kent and Eisenberg, 1972).

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Therefore, a different orientation from traditional to novel is the need. Tests and

measures should be standardized having a bearing on job success for present future. New

approach has to be made. We should develop measures of constellation of interpersonal,

cognitive, and additional skills and capacity to symbolize that may be job restaurant. The

basis is organizational needs. . The tests could be organization specific.

I am of the view that the organizations should institute a research and development wing

to develop organization- specific tests. The team effort from the top management and

consultant psychologists could constitute R & D team who list the characteristics of each

position and develop tests. Continuous updating is very essential to keep with the

changing times and attendant changes in the role in these positions.

Motors Abilities

Cognitive process and social skills are important to work behaviour. In addition to the

abilities that are relevant to job that needs them. These are physical manipulation of in an

environment, also known as psychomotor abilities. Vehicle operators, mechanics,

maintenance personal need psychomotor skills in good measure.

Research in this area in the psychological laboratories is found to be extensive and more

easily transferable to real life situation than cognitive and personality tests.

Researchers have found that there is no support for the idea of general factor in manual

or psychomotor abilities that could distinguish some persons as generally good and others

generally poor. Various tests of motor abilities generally have low correlations among

themselves, i.e., an individual’s score on one test of motors abilities does not generally

predict the score in an other test of motor abilities.

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The nature of motors skills indicates that specific abilities do not significantly correlate

among themselves. In addition we also find that motor skills are numerous. However

Fleshman (1962) has attempted based on his research over a decade to present a list

which is comprehensive though may not include every thing under the sun. They are:

control precision, multi limb coordination, response orientation, and reaction time, speed

of arm movement, rate control, manual dexterity, finger dexterity, wrist, finger speed,

and aiming.

Creativity

Interest in creativity dates back to many centuries, the curiosity of man to explore,

examine and understand Mother Nature is really ancient. Man’s curiosity in himself and

the environment is based on his ability to reach, compete, discover, and invent. This has

contributed to progress.

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The concept of creativity appears illusive and vague, but in the recent decades it has been

brought under empirical investigation. Creativity involves the development of something

unique. The steady and rapid growth of literature on cognitive processes brought to the

force divergent thinking abilities. Guilford’s structure of Intellect Model is a point in this

direction. Fluency and flexibility in thinking bear special relevance to creativity. Guilford

propounded four fluency factors, namely, associational fluency, spontaneous flexibility,

adaptive flexibility, redefined and elaboration. The last two item are factors of

originality. It has been demonstrated that correlation between creativity and intelligence

is strong. Intelligence is needed up to level beyond which it may not have any additional

advantage. Many authors contend that intelligence is a cognitive process called

convergent, relative, and constructive. These authors suggest that the two processes are

so intimately related that it could be impossible to identify individuals who are high in

one and not concomitantly high in the other. This contention needs verification.

Investigators (Getzels and Jackson, 1962) designed a study by selecting two groups of

subjects, one group high in intelligence and not concomitantly with in creativity, the

other group high in creativity and not concomitantly high in intelligence. This

classification led them to conclude that the conversional 1Q measures are inadequate to

account for total variance relating to creative process. They employed correlational

analysis. Getzels and Jackson found a small relationship between intelligence and

creativity. They do maintain, however, a distinction between creativity and intelligence.

Criticism of this study stems from the particular intelligence measure these investigators

used, and sampling procedures. In other words there was disagreement regarding

methodology. Burt was of the opinion that creativity falls under the broad domain of

intelligence. This view was supported by Vernon (1964).

Wallach and Kogan (1965) demonstrated distinction of creativity domain from

intelligence. They worked on the basis Guilford’s structure of Intellect Model where

divergent productive thinking has a district prominence Wallach and Kogan instrument

was independent of intelligence and in that sense is a pure measure of creativity.

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214

The Creative Process

It can be accepted that a distinct dimension of creativity exists as a human resource.

Variables of creativity have to be identified.

There are certain principles underlying creative thinking. The data generated by several

investigators point out that creative solution to problems are based on true manipulation

of symbols and that they are characterized by unpredictability and suddenness of

emergence. Number of ideas collide forms into groups in a new combination and result

in a creative solutions. That is the existing cognitive structures in the mind enter into new

combinations and emergence of a cognitive structure is what we may call creative

thinking or solutions. The end product that we call new solution as evidenced by

introspective accounts, relates to associate fluency of thought process and uniqueness of

response. Creativity can be defined in associative terms.

Associative Thinking

Maltzman (1960) traced creative thinking can be increased in an individual by

manipulating the experimental conditions and creating an attitudinal disposition that is

favourable for producing more divergent responses in tests using word association. This

not only includes divergent kind of association but also result in uniqueness of response.

Word association technique produces a large number of ideas and at the same time makes

it possible for uniqueness of ideas which would constitute creative thinking or divergent

thinking.

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Maltzman worked on originality in thinking in terms of associative gradient. Steeper is

the associative gradient, the better the emission of original ideas, the flatter the gradient,

the higher the original ideas. This can be achieved by manipulating the experimental

conditions, by inducing a condition in which the subject is required to respond with

associations which possessed a lower degree of probability of occurrence as response.

The original thinking occurs less frequently is uncommon under given conditions, and is

relevant to those conditions. With this description you may examine the earlier stated

associative gradient.

We may be content with two indexes of creativity:

Number of ideas generated and,

Uniqueness of responses

The latter may sometimes be a reference to specific situations. Number of responses has

the advantage as an index in that a solution to a problem can emerge from out a large

number of ideas. In this sense both criteria can be applied as index of creativity.

Creativity and Personality

It is very interesting to note that creativity and intelligence are correlated up to a point,

there onwards increases in the level of intelligence does not provide any additional

advantage for creativity. We may now examine of there is relational ship between

creativity and personality.

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Cognitive style seems to have a bearing on creativity. There are different methods in

achieving creative solutions. The role of previously learnt methods of approaching

problems ad their influence on the probability of creative solutions requires to be

stressed. Perceptual and conceptual cognitive styles may partly be responsible for

different aptitudes for creative work in differing fields.

There is a view which stresses that creativity should be defined and understood in terms

of personality. Allport (1937) holds that the creative motive assumes functional

autonomy in the individual. Rogers (1959) attributes creativity to the encounter between

the uniqueness of the individual and his milieu. Maslow (1945, 1954, and 1962) makes a

distinction between “special talent creativeness” and “self actualising creativeness”.

Others have mentioned that achievement accomplished by individuals as criteria to

identify creative individuals.

Research in creativity - personality area is characterized by diversity of interests, motives

and approaches. Personality variables play a very important role in creative activity and

accomplishments.

Literature in creativity is very vast. But do not want to take my readers too far into this

eminently important area of human behaviour, but to get back to our main issue of

HRD& OE area.

Any organization concerned with Human Resources Development Programmes will be

deeply interested in developing creative skills in their work force. There are various types

of training programmes available to an enlightened management.

Brain Storming

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This involves training and encouraging individuals separate, time wise, the generation of

ideas from idea evaluation. The goal is to overcome the implicit censoring mechanisms

that prevent participants from being open to new ideas and approaches, as they would

like to be. This can be done in groups and also individually. Each has its own advantage

and disadvantage.

Attribute Listing

Attribute listing involves training individuals to itemize the important attributes of a

particular social object and to consider how each of the attributes may be changed or

improved.

Morphological Synthesis

This programme is somewhat similar to the previous one, but is different in that the idea

is to consider two dimensions of a particular social object at a time.

Synthetic Techniques

These techniques involve learning to use analogies as ways of developing creative

solutions. There are four different types of analogies that can be used as suggested by

Gordon (1961)

Personal Analogy: This is similar to role – play and empathy. Imagine your self to be X

and try to understand how X feels about an issue.

Direct Analogy: Imagining and looking for another process that would parallel the

process directly under consideration, i.e., comparing the present problem with another

one which would parallel your problem.

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Symbolic Analogy: Using objective and impersonal images to describe a problem all

though the image or model developed may be technologically inaccurate

Fantasy Analogy: Thinking about how to solve a problem in a fantasy world. All other

conditions are ideal for problems solving.

These exercises may be elaborated according to resources available in the organization

and effective training programme could be evolved.

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CHAPTER – XII

EMPLOYEE SELECTION AND INDUCTION

One of the major functions of an organization is a systematic and well planned selection

of its work force from shop floor to higher level personnel. Selection operations include

calling for applications, interviewing shorted listed candidates, personnel testing and

induction of selected candidates. But behind these operations successful organizations

would have carried out research to establish selection standards, construct and

standardize personnel tests and procure consultancy services of those who are competent

in this area. .There is several aspects of personnel selection. The process is not as simple

as it may look at first sight. It is a critical function of making lasting decisions to avoid

problems such as absenteeism, tardiness, inefficiency, lack of job involvement, and lack

of job satisfaction.

In a technical sense personnel selection refers to choosing from among the available

candidates for employment. Such decisions are not made haphazardly, but based on data

obtained related to prospective employees. These data are gathered from various sources.

We have referred earlier to concepts of job requirements and personnel specifications.

The objective of setting up of personnel specifications is to state those items of personal

data that are valid for selection of persons to particular jobs. We have job requirements

for the latter. It is as simple as saying “these are the requirements of the job, and does an

applicant possess qualities to be equal to these requirements.” Here the term validity

gains prominence.

220

The issue is how we establish personnel specifications. There ought to be some standard

procedures which satisfy psychometric criteria such as reliability, validity, and norms.

Objectivity is the hall mark of quality of these procedures. A reliable standard established

will stand test of rigorous scrutiny. The scrutiny is made regarding its stability that means

that these measures yield same or nearly same results on repeated applications. It should

contain elements that bear significant correlations among themselves. This is known as

internal consistency of the measures. All these criteria can be assessed by using

coefficient of correlation which is an index of reliability.

The three basic approaches for estimating reliability are:

Coefficient of stability

Coefficient of equivalence

Coefficient of internal consistency

These will be elaborated in the chapter on research methods in Human Resource

Development.

Validity is a bit more complex. These criteria should meet the question as to how

relevant our measure is. There are three basic types of validity recognized by

Psychometric. They are:

Criterion – related validity.

Construct validity.

Content validity

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The question we are seeking answer for is how valid is our measure. It should satisfy one

of these criteria. More of these will be presented later, in the Chapter on Research

methods.

In the same way of personnel specifications we should have job component validity. The

following may be considered in this connection:

A few methods of identifying and qualifying the various components of a job:

A method of determining human attributes

A method of combing the two

In personnel selection criterion-related validity is most employed validation procedure.

In personnel selection as mentioned earlier job requirements and personal specifications

are crucial. Induction and training will follow as a part of human resources development

(HRD).

Structured job analysis procedure is the basis for personal specifications. In a man –

position approach a detailed knowledge, a structured one at that, becomes necessary. Job

analysis gives a detailed account of components. The personnel requirements of these

components then are established either on the basis of judgments or by way of statistical

analysis. The latter can be established for each job and the requirement is the presence of

research and development wins in each organization. I feel that this is by far the better

method, i.e., establishing a statistical relation between job requirement and personal

specifications.

Job requirements may not be as simple as the term implies. We should include job –

related physical requirements, social requirements, administrative requirements and

psychological requirements. It is a complex process indeed.

222

Similarly personnel specifications must be based on objective criteria and statistical

analysis. We must establish human characteristics analysis. We must establish human

characteristics (predictor variables) using statistical analysis.

The uses of statistical analyses are generally regarded as the best for developing

personnel specifications. This is recommended. This method is the most defensible.

Except for the chance error that may creep in it is objective and quantitative and hence

can be defended.

Psychological Tests

Psychological tests can be useful for personnel selection, as they are in many other areas

of organizational behaviour, Human Resources Development.

The enthusiast for psychological tests is also having his own reservations. It is never

claimed to be infallible. It is not as though they are not error prone. In spite of all

psychometric, statistical and methodological support things can still go wrong. A true

scientist will not claim that he has said the final word. There is scope of improvement

and efforts are always on in that direction.

Tests used in employee selection can be classified in several ways. They may be group

tests which can be administered to small group at a time, individual tests which have to

be given to one person at a time. They may be psychomotor test, aptitude tests,

personality, attitude and interest tests to name a few. Almost every attribute of human

behaviour has come under measurement and as such tools are developed refined and

standardized to meet the rigors of psychometric.

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On the applied areas tests are in use for corporate enterprises, health care providers,

education, etc, almost every applied are is covered be psychological tests. More work

needs to be done as fresh additions and continuous updating and fine tuning of the

existing ones is a necessity. . It is a continuous process. Test data interpretation in any

area is to be done with expert help.

Functional value of personnel tests is dependent on reliability and validity.

A reliable and valid test is to be put to use. The taste of the pudding is in its testing. So

are psychological tests. There are certain directions as to how to use the psychological

tests. I would add to this how not to use theses tests.

Test norms for a particular job would give us the cutting score in a test above which

selection is expected to be successful. Testing present employees who are successful in

their jobs will give us the critical score with which a decision can be made. This critical

score or the cut off point is subject to variation from time to time. The users of these tests

should constantly estimate the cut-off score.

It is advisable to use a battery of tests rather than depend on only one tests combining

tests into a battery is technical issue and psychologists’ help may be obtained.

Multiple cut of points emerge when we use a battery of tests. Drawing a prosier of scores

would help us as where the examinee stands with reference each of these tests of the

battery. The battery of tests is not merely an assemblage of discrete tests but a set of

interrelated subtests. Each subtest may have its own components either orthogonal or

oblique components.

Any one administrating psychological tests should adhere to ethical considerations. (See

the chapter research methods in HRD).

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Employee Induction

The organizations should follow scientific procedures to get the selected and placed

employees to get acclimatized to the organization of which they are going to belong.

A sense of belongingness, ego involvement in the job and organization would go a long

way for demands of the respective jobs and to the organization where they work.

Experts both from management and psychologists are devoting their time, energy, and

expertise, to assist the organization to achieve their goals. In this context one of the most

predominant efforts has been personnel selection.

Questions relating to the question of basis on which the individuals enter right to privacy,

right to information about the organization are gaining momentum.

Personnel selection procedures have to account for the process, the values, and the

individual’s right to privacy, right to information about the organization and the right of

the organization to access job relevant information about the individual. We have to look

into the legitimate needs of the individual, the organization, and the society in the process

of personnel selection making way for entry into organization. .

We can raise queries. How error free is the predictive variables? How objective and

trained are those who take decisions on selection?

Validity of predictor variables depends up on the criteria chosen for validation of

predictor variables. The second query refers to judgmental error which can be

summarized as follows:

The Halo Error: The tendency to allow one characteristic of a rating object to dominate

rating of all dimensions of the object.

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The Central Tendency Error: The tendency to rate all rating objects around middle or

mean of a continuum and not to use the extremes.

The Leniency Error refers to the tendency to rate all rating objects in a relatively

favourable manner and not to attribute negative aspects to them.

There could be several judgmental errors and that list could be long. The three mentioned

above are generally recognized. Corrections can be applied only by training the persons

involved in decision-making in the selection process.

Objective personality tests measure personality traits in a structured format leaving little

or no leeway to the test administrator is a step in the right direction.

Ethical Issues in Personnel Selection

This is a matter of great concern in the area of personal selection. As it is now practiced

it relates to persons privacy. This especially is true where personality, attitude, and

interest questionnaires are employed. These tests are generally used in the selection or

promotion of executive and managerial personal. The questionnaires may ask a person to

describe various aspects of his personal life, which may have only tangential relevance to

the job in question. The questionnaires responses may be used later after selection is

completed, for purposes other than intended. (More about ethical considerations are

found in the chapter on “Research Methods” in Human Resource Development).

It is incumbent on the part of the organization to give a complete orientation to the

selected persons about the organization. The selected individual has a right to such

information and this should be done as a part of employee induction process.

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The individual has to know policies, structure, and functions of the organizations, and

future plans should be made known to the selected individual. The person needs to be

sensitised.

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CHAPTER – XIII

HUMAN RESOUCE DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION:

We have examined the concept of human resource in the earlier chapters. Human

resource as an asset or an asset – complex, has utility value both for the person and

others, and at the same time has the potential to grow and develop.

The present chapter deals with human resource development. Having seen the

connotation of human resource we should now try to find out what we mean by

development.

The term development refers to a sequence of changes in organism, animals, or man. The

concept of development was used in psychology to trace the whole life span of the

individual.

Different theoretical conceptions led to two main areas of definition. On the one hand

development is regarded as growth and described as quantitative increases; on the other,

it is understood as a qualitative change that are taking place in phases or stages leading to

higher developmental forms by way of superimposing on lower layers. Some describe

development in terms convergence of natural endowment, environment, activity. This

accounts for self- formation and self-realization. This last mentioned can be taken as

adequate study human resource development. To repeat development is a convergence of

natural endowment, environment and activity.

Error: Reference source not found

Figure 6: convergence of endowment environment and activity = development.

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We can adopt this definition of development o human resources development. Whether

structured or not this process goes on from cradle to grave. All that the organizations

have to do is to harness this natural process to their and to the advantage of other

persons concerned.

In CHAPTER I introduction we have examined human resource as an asset or a complex

of assets. Now we have brought in the concept of development and define it. It remains

how this natural process can be harnessed in an organizational set – up. In this context we

have individuals who have already attained stage in their development and are moving

forward. In this triangular relationship as in the figure the organization has only one area

to handle, that is, environment in such a way it triggers suitable or desired activity, thus

influencing the endowment so that progress towards development is made possible.

In the triangle of endowment, environment and activity environment provides the

impetus to activity, activity leads to development which implies that endowment gets

stimulated which results in development. Endowment is not a fixed entity, nor is it static,

it amenable to change in either direction, i.e., slide down in adverse conditions, or climb

up in favourable environmental condition. If sliding down is not acceptable as a

possibility we can at least say it does not develop.

Within certain constraints placed by hereditary factors behaviour is influenced by

environmental factors. We always say in common parlance one has learned to do things

that way. Learning takes place within the ambit of one’s environment.

Every individual while joining an organization brings with him his own assessment of

already learned behaviours met as, physical skills, knowledge, language skills, templates,

temperament, interests, attitudes, motivation, attitudes habits and idiosyncrasies. He is

not an empty bag. The organization has its own characteristics. The two have to work for

harmonious functions to start with and later plan to fit the new incumbent and the

organization.

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Training and extensive practice helps an individual to reach a state of mental and

spiritual capacity or to maintain the same. “Training on the job” is a short but intensive

systematic introductory practice at the place of work itself (Eysenck et al, 1972).

But human resource development program is not the same thing as raining. Training is

involved in it but it is much more than training. The term “development” says it all.

Gaining expertise in executing can be part of the story. The human nature is characterizes

by a desire for higher levels not only in specific skills of job performance but also

develop into a mature a personality with qualities that are both mundane and sublime.

In a limited context of organizational effectiveness development includes among other

things:

Develop appropriate positive attitudes

Develop appropriate interests

Develop sensitivities

Self- actualisation

Social skills

Self-esteem

Enhance potential

Resilient ego

Assertiveness and a host of other positive qualities

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It is assumed that all these are present as endowment factors. Only that these have to be

stimulated by appropriate environmental factors. An interaction of endowment factors

and environmental factors result in activity that in turn results in development.

Human resource development program has a goal and methodology to reach the goal.

Once the goal is identified method shapes itself. Training is management of the learning

process. There cannot be a simple omnibus method. The method varies from level to

level of personnel in the organization and the out side environment. Intra organizational

and inter organizational factors are also to be addressed.

We begin form the beginning. In the context of jobs we can appreciate the range of

behaviours that would be optimal, or most appropriate. The goal of training in this sense

is to connect job performance and environmental stimuli. This would hold well in simple

routine jobs and certainly is a simple proposition. But in complex job performance

aspects the process of training programme could be complex. In such jobs developing

simple skills would not fulfil the objectives of the training programmes, hence the

programme is called human resource development programme than merely personnel

training programme.

At all levels of such a programme learning is involved. The environment provides

facilities for learning and participants learn what they are provided for.

Learning is a process. The end product of this process can only be inferred in the nature

alteration or modification of behaviour. This can be measured.

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Learning principles include:

Reinforcement

Knowledge of results

Motivation

Distribution of learning sessions

Reinforcement relates rewards, material and non – material. These facilitate learning

process. Knowledge of results helps to encourage and prompt the learner to continue his

efforts. Motivation is partly taken care of by rewards, but intrinsic motivation has

profound influence on learning process. Distribution of practice sessions helps in

consolidation and strengthens learning process.

The programme of training has to be well designed. Training needs are to be identified

by the organization.

Among methods, most popular ones are

Lecture method

Use of audio visual aids

Conference and workshop methods

Simulated role-play methods

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The last mentioned is gaining popularity in the name of business games or management

games. Participants are presented with a management “Problem”. The team organizes

itself into small groups and final solution to these problems. These practice in decision

making, problem solving and also promote interaction with others in the organization.

This method has its limitations. Conditions under simulation are not the same as real –

life situation. Many organizations are enthusiastic about these games, but there is no hard

evidence of their effectiveness as a management training method. However we need not

dismiss this method, but further rigorous evaluation needs be made.

Any programme in training is followed by evaluation. The concept of validity applies to

training as much as it does in other areas. Goldstein (1984) proposed the following:

Training validity is determined by the performance of the trainees on established criteria.

Performance validity: Measured by performance in transfer setting or in the job.

Intra organizational validity: Performance a new group of trainees within the same

organization that developed the programme.

Inter organizational validity: Whether a training programme validated in one

organization can be utilized in other organization.

These issues of training validity proposed by Goldstein clearly indicate internal validity.

This has limitation with regard to generalization that can be obtained some external

validity criteria are developed.

We may take up some special issues for purposes illustration. The major purpose of

human resource development is personality.

Motivation

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The construct motivation has empirical anchors. A construct gains a scientific status if

we can state how it manifests. This implies predictability of behaviour through a

construct satisfies this need. The antecedents of behaviour indicate an intervening

variable which can be identified. Such a thing is possible in the construct motivation.

The most obvious is the fact that behaviour is variable. It varies from moment to moment

in any given individual. This is within subject variability. Behaviour shows inter subject

variability. This is called between subject variability makes an eminent possibility for

training programme in this area of human behaviour.

Variation is behaviour is caused by other constructs as well. They are stimulus, and

learning. These two constructs are as important as the construct motivation.

Behaviour is multi- determined, but we can concentrate here on three major variables,

namely, stimulus variation, prior learning and motivation.

Behaviour shows variability and it has is remarkably stable or consistent. It gives

character to the person’s interaction with his environment.

A number of researchers in social psychology have focused on motivation variables.

Motivation affects attitude change, as far example Festinger’s cognitive dissonance.

Clinical psychologists use the construct motivation extensively in problems diagnosis and

treatment. Wherever psychologists deal with behaviour of human beings in real – life

situation the construct motivation is extensively used and given with importance.

Personality theorists have given a very prominent place for the construct motivation.

Psychology of motivation has made use of concepts and points of view from the various

specialties in psychology. Personality theories typically describe not only the adult

personality but also its development from childhood, thus paving the way for accepting

learned motivates.

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Little wonder therefore, that psychologists lay so such emphasis on the construct

motivation in human resources development in organizations.

The fact that there are learned motives; the human resource development programme

emphatically considers personality development and training in motivation acquisition,

or motivation strengthening where it already exists.

Making use of expectancy and availability factors of motivation a training programme

can enable the personnel to make a reasonably realistic estimation of expectancy, i.e.,

perceived probability of satisfying a certain need, and realistic estimation of availability

which is an environmental variable. Creating an environment that gives a realistic view

of both expectancy and availability factors of need satisfaction does this. We are thus

enabling the personal to make adjustments. Making adjustments may by itself denote a

change in their behaviours.

Those at decision making levels like managers should be enabled for a realistic self –

perception which can lead to change in accordance with needs of the organization.

Leaders should know haw they are perceived by their followers. It does not mean or is it

possible to get a feed back by direct confrontation. There is need to help self – perception

in an objective manner. This may not be easy. .

Sensitivity training helps individuals to learn how others perceive their behavior. This

method is called “Sensitivity or T – group training”. The assumption is that a number of

individuals meeting in an unstructured situation with open climate will develop working

relations with each other and will learn a great deal about them as perceived by others

Bennis (1966).

Training should include creating awareness in the managers about the cultural

background of followers. It should be geared to the level of maturity of the followers.

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Self – perception of leaders is a significant dimension in human resources development.

Feedback and disclosure would constitute other areas of enhancing human resource.

Johan window illustration would be beneficial, but caution is that excessive disclosure is

detrimental to interpersonal relationship.

All these make it clear human resource development programme is a specialty within

specialty. Human resource development is a continuous process and omnipresent. People

develop their psychological resources wherever they are. Human being is not a static

entity, but a dynamic organism. He has the flexibility and adaptability to the

environmental demands. No society is static. All societies all over the world keep

changing due to various factors; the fauna and flora keep pace with these changes. This is

a natural phenomenon.

The presence of human being in social contexts is not new. Man is a social animal. He

has to keep his place in the society and this call for new adjustments and seemingly new

talents. The individual is continually learning and fine tuning his potential.

The modern society has many organizations, formal and informal. Every individual has a

multiple membership; he is a member of more than one organization and conducts

himself in accordance with them and carries on. All these things take place silently and

continuously through a process of socialization.

Apart from the general process of socialization which human behaviour implicitly the

individual voluntarily and or out of necessity, becomes a member of certain other

organization. This refers to where he works for a consideration. He holds a job there. He

becomes a part of that organization for duration of time that may be short or long and has

to subordinate him to the disciplinary requirement of that organization. He serves and is

rewarded and he grows and develops in that context.

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Any given organization institutes a programme for the development of its resources in its

own interests that can equally benefit the persons who constitute a resource by

themselves. This is what we call development of human resources. We have examined

the human element as a resource in the earlier chapter. Now it is our turn to know how it

is done.

Human resources development is done in an organized way and is research based. Every

aspect of psychology of human resource development is a systematic endeavour.

Therefore we can consider an autonomous wing in the organization looking after the

programme of human resource development.

For convenience, let us call it HRD. It should have structure of its own. Members of this

department should draw from various specialties, all concerned with human behaviour. It

shall be a multi disciplinary structure with an interactive function.

It is not appropriate to restrict the scope of this department to develop human resources

for better performance. The scope is much wider. It is not a welfare department either

though not precluded from the ambit of welfare. In fact it ought to be multifaceted. The

visible beneficiaries are the organization, the individual worker, and the nation. A good

quality of work – life is a guarantee for all around quality of life of the individual.

Quality of life is subjective experience derived from objective realities and personal

predilections.

Human resource is the dominant resource among all the resources the organization has at

its disposal. Taking care of them is not a matter of charity; it is an obligation and a

necessity.

HRD functions are many. The list cannot be exhaustive. We may mention a few here.

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Man power planning, performance appraisal, identifying areas of employee counselling,

training programmes, communication, research and development plans and projects,

initialisation of outside consultancy where needed, a professional approach to all issues

concerning employees and the organization, maintaining good human relations, etc.

Exercise in self – appraisal

The activity is aimed at giving you chance to look at the ways you relate to others. On

the basis of this form you may analyse the ways in which you to grow in order to develop

more satisfying relationships with others.

For each statement underline the number that best identifies your place on the scale.

Then go through the exercise again and draw a circle around the number that best

expresses where you would like to be.

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Example: 1 2 3 4 5

Ability to listen to others in an understanding way

Not at all able 1 2 3 4 5 completely able

Willingness to discuss feelings with others

Completely unwilling 1 2 3 4 5 completely willing

Awareness of the feeling of other

Completely unaware 1 2 3 4 5 completely ware

Understanding why I do what I do

No understanding 1 2 3 4 5 completely understanding.

Tolerance of conflict and antagonism

Not tolerant 1 2 3 4 5 tolerant

Acceptance of expressions of affection and warmth from others

Uncomfortable 1 2 3 4 5 welcome readily

Acceptance of comments about my behaviour from others

Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 welcoming.

Willingness to trust others

Completely suspicious 1 2 3 4 5 completely trusting

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Ability to influence others

Completely unable 1 2 3 4 5 completely able

Relations with peers

Wholly competitive 1 2 3 4 5 whole cooperative

Periodically test yourself and see to your improvement self-improvement indices in these

regards.

CHAPTER – XIV

RESEARCH NEEDS IN HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

We now enter into an area of discussion that is difficult to make its presence.

Nevertheless it is the most important approach in any field of activity and especially

where human element is involved. Organizational effectiveness is no exception.

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The basic feature of research is to find relationships among a set of variable of interest in

the context of human resource development. This is important because it is a scientific

approach...

Scientific research helps in finding facts. This in turn helps understand various aspects of

the problem. In this endeavour we ask questions and seek answers of importance to us.

Research is basically a problem-solving endeavour. Establishing relationships among

variables does this. These are to be accomplished by empirical observations and

systematically gathered data.

Research is not a mere fact finding effort. It is a problem solving effort to enrich our

knowledge and through this enhance the quality of life of all concerned.

Knowledge is not piecemeal. It is cumulative. Research is a process and a disciplined

mental activity. The purpose is to continuously add to existing knowledge, and enriching

our knowledge. . Science does not believe in saying the final word on any issue and seeks

to update knowledge continuously.

Research has to produce a report of all details of the process for the benefit of other

scholars and stake holders,

Research methodology is a sophisticated body of knowledge which when utilized

appropriately is capable of rendering benefits and help in developing reliable and valid

knowledge. Human resource development area of pursuit has a great potential for

utilizing research methodology.

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In the recent decades psychologists have realized that without human subjects as

participants in research would be futile. Research on animal subjects ha limited utility in

the area of human behaviour. Logic of the experiment or any measurement process is that

something is applied to some body by some body in a given manner. But this is far from

truth. Because, the subject has his ways of thinking and acting which are based on his

predispositions and his present situations: Therefore, there are possibilities of obtaining

dubious results? The researcher has to safeguard proper methodological procedures.

Carefully selected research problems, careful planning, and commitment of the

researcher will go a long way in reducing the errors if not totally eliminate them.

Most behavioural research is aimed at making predictions of behaviour under

investigation. In this endeavour we consider a minimum of two variables. They are:

The predictor variable, and the dependent variable

The first variable is called the independent variable, the second is called criterion

variable. In research process we manipulate the independent variable and note its effect

on the criterion variable. The criterion is also known as the dependent variable.

Research studies are classified into two types, namely experimental research and quasi

experimental research. In the area of organizational effectiveness and human resource

development research is quasi experimental

MEASUREMENT

The identified variables are to be measured in quantitative terms. This is for objectivity

and easy comprehension. . Quantified data are amenable for statistical for statistical

processing.

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Research strategy involves designing a study, choosing the variables and measuring

instruments. Then we may proceed to collect the data from an appropriate sample of

subjects. Next stage is data processing using relevant statistical package.

Selection of Variables

The variables are selected based on theoretical and practical considerations. The term

theory implies constructs or attributes. For example some people do not keep punctuality.

Punctuality is an attribute. This is to be investigated. We may simply ask a question

WHY it is so. This leads to finding out the causes or antecedents. The former is the

predicted variable and the latter are the predictor variables.

There could be multiple antecedent variables. Then it is natural for us to devise a

multivariate research design. Data gathered might reveal the facts we are looking for.

Data Processing

There are several statistical packages available for data processing. Computers come

handy in using these statistical packages. The most widely used statistical package in

social sciences is SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). Univariate and

multivariate analyses can be done with ease and comfort.

The research results of behavioural data are amenable for quantitative analyses. These

analyzed data can be used for establishing a theoretical view point, or may be used for

practical purposes for which research was initiated, or both. However, we have to make

sure that we reliable and valid measuring instruments before starting data collection.

Reliability

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Reliability is equivalent to dependability, stability, consistency, predictability, and

accuracy. A reliable test has these qualities. This is one of the major psychometric

criteria and this has to be statistically established.

There are three methods for establishing reliability. If we measure the same set of

subjects again and again by the same instrument we should the same results within

reasonable deviations. This is stability or dependability, or predictability.

Reliability coefficient is computed using correlation method. Significance level of the

reliability coefficient is tested against probability value.

Often we relay on internal consistency of the test items in the test as an index of

reliability. This done by using Chronbach’s alpha or formula K 420

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Validity

Validity is more complex to establish and has a particular importance in behaviour

research. Validity presents a problem when we are measuring managerial attributes such

as, personality, interests, and attitudes to mention only few.

Validity is defined as a test or a measuring instrument measures what it is intended to

measure. This means the measuring instrument is giving the true picture of that which we

are measuring. The American Psychological Association (APA) classified validity into

three types .They are: content, criterion related, and construct validity.

Content Validity

Content validity is the representative ness or sampling adequacy of the criterion

measures. This can be obtained by proper sampling of the domain of items related to the

object of measurement.

Criterion Related Validity

This is studied by comparing data obtained by our new test with an already established

criterion as being representative of what we want to measure. In this approach we have to

compute the coefficient of correlation between our test measures and the criterion

measures. This called validity coefficient. To be accepted it has to be statistically

significant.

Construct Validity.

This is a judgmental process. The test favourably compares with the construct, or is a

construct based. The simplest example is factorial validity.

Variables and Definitions

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Variable is an alternate term for factor, which has some effect during observation of a

phenomenon or measurements. Variance is a measure of variability, which is used to

determine the degree of difference from one another of certain value or scores in a test.

We will revert back to this later. Variation and the degree of variation refer to change in

the item of measurement either intra-individual or inter- individual.

In this context we may examine the concept of dispersion. The individual scores

mentioned above show a scatter; the usual statistics are the standard deviations from the

mean.

The things that are observed are called variables. Any particular observation is called a

value of the variables. We normally get several values of the same variable by repeated

observation or get several values from a number of individuals (sample). These values

show dispersion measured in terms of standard deviation.

Behavioural variable refers to some response or action of an individual. These responses

vary from simple to complex types.

Stimulus variable is the one that precedes the behaviour variable. The intensity of

behavioural variable depends on stimulus variable or stimulus variables, both simple and

complex matching with simple or complex behaviour variables.

When a variable lacks continuity we call it a discrete variable. The values do not dovetail

into the next or other value. But there are variables, which can be measured and values

obtained show continuity. For example, introversion – extraversion is a continuum where

values show continuity, though in minor degrees they appear discrete we take it for

practical purpose as continuous variable.

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Quantitative variables are ordered and numbered, in other words numerical values are

ascribed to each measurement. The qualitative variable is unordered and is merely

descriptive.

Psychological research is concerned with methodology to improve the concepts of

variability and to devise and develop techniques for precise measurement of these

variables. This does not stop here. The next step is to know the relationships among

variables. For example, we may like to know the relation been locus of control and career

growth. We define these variables, obtain measures and find out the degree and direction

of relationship. Suppose we control locus control measures in a quasi-experimental

methodology we designate it independent variable, the other career growth the dependent

variable.

Measurement is basic to scientific enquiry. Measurement consists of rules for assigning

numbers or numerical values to object or objects. This cannot be done in an arbitrary

manner, but has to follow known definable procedures. This means we relate these

procedures to standardization, which is universally accepted. This procedure of

quantification tells us how of an attribute is represented in the object of measurement.

Quantification and measurements are interwoven. Standardized measures provide a

number of advantages. They aid in objectivity, communication including interpretation,

economy, and scientific generalization. All these are made possible by yet another factor,

i.e., statistics. Statistics has great implication for psychometric theory.

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Inferential statistics concerns itself with probability in order to relate observed measures

of samples to population parameters. In contrast we have descriptive statistics such as

mean and correlation of two or more measures. These help us to describe empirical data.

Inferential statistics used for testing significance need additional steps in the analysis. In

a large sample study descriptive statistics would be adequate, as the obtained values are

likely to be close to population values. Evolving a problem of study automatically results

in choosing the variables.

VARIABLES:

A variable is a symbol to which we ascribe numerals or values. A variable may take a

justifiable set of values, e.g., intelligence, attitude, etc., where values or numerals can

take the form of a scale. Some variables may have only two values, like gender, we can

assign 0 and 1. But this also is a variable. Therefore some variables are dichotomies some

others are multiple response scale values.

Concepts and constructs:

A concept expresses an abstraction formed by generalizations from particulars. An idea is

what we know of a thing, and a concept is a generalized idea of group of similar things.

A construct is a concept and is consciously adopted for some scientific purpose.

Definition

There are two types of definitions: Constitutive, Operational.

Constitutive definition defines a construct using other constructs. For example

intelligence can be defined as brightness or as capability to do things with a certain

degree of efficiency. If construct are to be scientifically useful they must have

constitutive definitions.

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Assigning meaning to a construct or a variable specifying the operations necessary to

measure is called operational definition.

A Closer Look at Variables:

There are three very important kinds of variables. They are:

Independent and dependent variables

Active and attribute variables.

Continuous and categorical variables

It is presumed that the dependent variable varies concomitantly (negatively or positively)

with the variation in the independent variable.

In experimental research any variable that is manipulated by the experimenter is called

active variable. And the measured as a consequence is called attribute variable.

A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values with in a range. A

categorical variable takes a nominal measurement. They are dichotomous values.

Constructs are unobservable intervening variables. They are inferred as being in between

independent and dependent variables.

Examples:

Independent and dependent variables

Study habits and scholastic achievement.

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Active and attribute variables.

Rate of reading and comprehension

(Rate of reading manipulated in an experimental setting.).

Continuous and categorical variables

Continuous variable can be ascribed values in the form of a scale such as 1 to 5 or 1 to 7

etc., e.g. rigidity-flexibility.

Categorical variable has nominal scale such as gender, religion, etc.

EXERCISE

Write a paragraph for each of the following (in 50 words):

Adjustment,

Aptitude,

Anxiety,

Attitude,

Authoritarian’s personality.

Bivariate distribution,

Causality,

Cognitive dissonance,

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Content analysis,

Convergent thinking,

Components of variance,

Concept,

Constitutive definition,

Creativity,

Dichotomous variable

Dependent variable

Statement of Problem

Exercise – 1

Cognitive dissonance

“…that whenever a person engages in some behaviour he does not believe in, he will be

uncomfortable because his behaviour is inconsistent with his belief”, (Festinger, 1957).

This leads to the possibility of reducing cognitive dissonance by motivation. Persuading

them to change what they believe in, and change their attitudes to be consistent with their

behavior, thus resolve dissonance or change their behaviour to be consonant with their

belief can do this.

Persuasion and attitude change

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Prestige,

Credibility of the persuading agent

Which aspects are persuadable, which others are not?

Effectiveness of communication...

Cognitive dissonance exists when there is a dissonant relation between two or more

cognitive elements, that is, knowledge, opinion, or attitude concerning any objects,

oneself, or one’s own behaviour.

According Festinger, cognitive dissonance is experience as unpleasant by the individuals

and creates pressure directed towards, the reduction of dissonance or toward consonance.

Strength of this pressure depends upon the strength of existing dissonance, which in turn

is a function of the relation between the importance and number of dissonance elements

on the one hand and the consonant elements on the others.

Fundamentally three possibilities of dissonance reduction are described:

Changing one’s own behaviour as a cognitive elements;

The changing of the environmental as a cognitive elements;

The addition of new cognitive elements can lesson the weight of the dissonant as

compared with that of the consonant models.

The motive for action results from the dissonance of two or more cognitive elements.

There is a case of dissonance when two or more elements mutually exclude one another.

From this disagreement comes pressure to restore harmony, which has been disturbed.

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Cannon’s (1932) theory of wisdom of the body described a process of maintaining a

certain physiological consistency, e.g., body temperature blood sugar level. etc., Cannon

made a distinction between different hierarchical, homeostatic level:

Reflex and instinctive levels;

Acquired habits and adaptation serve as the self – regulating system intent upon

maintaining equilibrium (Bertanfly, 1968).

The extension of the concept made it possible to move forward from study of organic

need to experimental analysis of psychological requirements within the framework of a

motivational and behavioural psychology.

Study the above and prepare a statement of a problem. Choose smoking behavior and

appropriate variables to be included in the problem of research.

You may choose any other aspect of human behaviour you want to change and state a

research problem.

Exercise - 2

Read the following:

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The human being is an information system. Experiential time is one aspect of much

information input. The individual constantly processes it. Time gives a psychological

structure mediating the here – now situation to the expended past and an anticipated

future. This helps us in the construction of time perspective. This again implies

recovering the past and anticipation of the future, but do not follow a simple arithmetic

or a mechanical process. An individual develops a variety of time perspectives related to

different facets of his life. These facets may revolve around a variety of variables such as

age, gender, socio – economic, status, intellectual capacity, personality, state of mind,

physical health, etc.,

Psychological time is both malleable and illusive, moulded by family, social, religious

and cultural traditions on the one hand and personal experience, present moods,

immediate circumstances on the other. This is addition to the list given above.

We live in the present, take an excursion to the past, and peep into the future for various

purposes. This process affects our efficiency or in our living, be it personal, social or

occupational.

Now you are to evolve a research problem with the theme “Rate of career growth and

future time perspective”

Organizational effectiveness (OE)

Evolving a research problem

Exercise – 3

It is the executive by virtue of his position in an organization that is responsible for

contribution that materially affects organizational prosperity.

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Twentieth century saw a rapid growth when it entered the cyber-age and continues to

grow at a pace, which is difficult to estimate and adjust.

So manger entrusted with the responsibility of administering the firm, its mission and

destiny riding on his shoulders has to adapt to the fast changing environment, a large part

of it did not exist when he entered the job. The power vested in him has to be used with

skill, which is an art by itself if he has to survive in his position as a power holder over

the people working under him.

Example:

Knowledge of the job, powers vested in him, creative intelligence, and innovativeness,

and computer literacy may be listed and there could be many more.

Use your resources and evolve a suitable research problem to study the effectiveness of

middle level managers in a corporate set – up. Use suitable variables for the study.

Exercise – 4 (OE)

Modern life style has all the potential for experiencing distress. While stress can be either

eustress or distress, it is the latter with which many researchers are concerned and

naturally so.

In the broad area of OE we are concerned with distress at work and consequences. This

necessitates the identification of sources of stresses, the stressors, their severity, and their

effect on job performance.

You are required to study literature on stress at work and experiential aspect of work of

the workers. Formulate an appropriate research problem and define the terms.

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Offer your justification of research in this area. Remember a research problem should be

solvable and replicable in similar situation.

Get your statement of the problem research scrutinize by experts.

Ethics and Responsibilities of Psychologist

In the recent decades the use of Psychology tests in India has shown a remarkable rise. It

may even be said that it is a phenomenal rise. Schools, colleges, individual

establishments, hospital have all been liberally utilizing psychological tests as aids to

make appropriate decisions.

Besides, individuals are knocking of the doors of counsellors to get them psychologically

screened.

There is a rapid growth in the “felt need” for psychological testing, and service providers

also are on the increase.

This expansion is gratifying however psychologically testing requires scrutiny. There is

need to know and assess the extent to which both professionalism and ethical

considerations coexist. We also should know whether the public welcome this trend, and

if they do, we should know whether those who take psychological tests are aware of the

implications. It is equally necessary for those administering psychological tests to obtain

informed consent. Subsequent to the administering the test or tests debriefing is a

necessity. Those who take this tests have right to know all about these.

The purpose of my writing all this is to promote healthy and acceptable way of

psychological testing in the service of generating new knowledge and also service where

it is needed.

257

To this end it is necessary and even mandatory that psychologists follow ethical codes as

all other professional do.

The American Psychological Association addressed this issue for several years

from1968. Professor Stuart Cook as chairman of a committee developed ethical

guidelines. Almost 20,000 members of American Psychological Association (APA)

contributed to the development of ethical standards. The findings were first published

1973; a revised version came out in 1982.

By and large we may follow these guidelines. But it could be necessary we should

develop such guide lines which would be suitable to our social and ethical ethos.

Broadly they relate to:

Planning a research study

Proper treatment of the subjects by the investigators and their collaborators and assistants

establishment of a fair agreement relating to mutual obligations should be in place as

shown below

Respect for individual’s freedom:

To participate or not

Withdraw from research at any stage of the research process.

The participants should be accorded psychical and mental comfort while taking the test

and there after too.

Provide the participant the results of the tests administered.

Any adverse effects detected while taking the test or there after have to be remedied.

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Strict confidentiality has to be maintained.

Other details

Psychologist should be aware and hold responsibility to ensure that their services are

appropriate to the situation.

Professional competence is very essential.

Psychologist should stand for high moral and legal standards.

Public statements made by the psychologist should enable the public to make their choice

of taking tests or not.

Confidentiality

Protect the integrity and welfare of the subject of research and clients receiving their

services.

Respect other colleagues and obligation to the organization where they serve.

Promote the welfare of the subject whenever any psychological assessment is made of

them.

Overall psychologists should be recognized by the society as compliment and or capable

of promoting the welfare who come into contact with them

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CHAPTER – XV

SUMMARY AND SYNTHESIS

According to Webster’s dictionary (1975) rhetoric is the art of using word effectively in

speech and writing. It is an artificial eloquence, showy and elaborate in style. Statements

made are categorical. A rhetorical question asked is merely to produce an effect. No

spoken or written answer is expected. Doubts are not entertained.

Sophistry implies reservation, mystification, and intuitiveness, independent of reasoning

style and is closely related to the rhetoric.

Science implies accuracy, exactitude, and plain, pure, unvarnished, well defined,

authentic, verifiable, reasoned, faithful statements as main characteristics. A versatile and

nimble mind with fondness to meditate, readiness to doubt and reconsider characterizes a

scientist according to Francis Bacon.

Over the centuries we have come a long way in our scientific pursuits in the religious and

philosophic backgrounds across the globe. Both have prospered. Scientific pursuit

resulted in the emergence of psychology as a natural science.

Modernity as we may call it saw the rise of science and rise of psychology as a natural

science is not an isolated development.

260

Achievements in science and technology in the last hundred years is the greatest works of

reason. In terms of food production and in terms of material production science has

made significant contribution to standard of life of citizens across the globe. Changes in

food habits, the manner we entertain ourselves and a host of other aspects found in us are

based on productive work of organizations which make mass production and labor saving

devices possible. We also notice a healthy development in the quality of health care

services.

While all these are made possible by the development of science and technology it would

be naïve to ignore the all pervading human relations component which is a very

important link in the chain of progress of mankind in happiness and contentment. In the

absence of this we would be reduced to the status of robots

The rise and development of science and technology has brought a sea change in socio-

economic aspects of the people. This brings into focus a demand for new adjustments by

the people who are to benefit from such a progress. In this context the role of psychology

is to be emphasized. People have to remake themselves to be able to make proper

adjustments to the emerging new environment created by the progress of science and

technology. We have to take the rise of modernity as a boon and a challenge. .

The emergence of psychology as a natural science in the 19th century should cause no

surprise. The emergence and development of science and technology is the result of the

creative impulse of man that has the inherent possibility of enslaving the creator himself.

It would thenceforth be an irony and a tragedy. This possibility has to be avoided.

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Scientific endeavour should go beyond the scope of natural science that is beyond

physical phenomena. . But the fact that human beings exercise considerable free will

human behaviour cannot easily be brought under empirical investigation. Suitable

methodology is to be employed.

. Modernity has taken its toll. This is the other side of the coin. Loss of community life

with related social isolation has made impact on the so called human nature. The modern

urban life is a classic example of this and we have to invoke psychological intervention.

Urbanization and industrialization have relevance in this regard. Anonymity, bystander

apathy is a part of urban life. Father Time dictates daily chores. Stress and strain are a

part of life.

In order to avoid an all-encompassing amorphous presentation I will focus on one aspect

of modern living, namely, organizational behaviour. We have travelled too far from

cottage industry to the modern large industrial establishments. This fits into what was

said in previous paragraphs.

The reference to organizational behaviour is to put both the management of such

organizations and the workforce on notice. The days were when industrial organizations

thought that by diligent and well-planned efforts can bring all achievements of

management can be brought down to quantitative figures. Presentations such as reduction

in accidents, reduction in fatigue and enhanced profit to the management and higher

wages for the workers were offered as due to the management of diligence and planning.

These were in the domain of efficiency experts. These efficiency experts may take note

of all these. Produce more by exerting less became a slogan. Management imagined that

changing the physical environment, redesigning machines, providing ingenious

262

incentives, giving scientific training to workers could lead to the belief that it is possible

to produce more by doing less. By minimum expenditure of energy maximum output of

work was thought to be possible.

Workers were not impressed by these efforts made by the management. These were too

good to be good. These efforts missed out something that was truer, more effective, and

more satisfying to both management and concerned personnel.

As mentioned earlier urbanization and establishment of large industrial houses employing

several hundred people has an unnoticed cause for missing out something that is more

precious than other aspects conjectured and attempted in large measure only to find a cull

de sac. Workers were considered as an assembly of isolated individuals seeking

maximum wage by putting minimum effort. It is interesting to note that those in love or

in battle field are propelled to great and even tedious efforts by motives other than those

mentioned earlier. These motives may sound eccentric and beyond the scope of scientific

enquiry. It probably is thought to be in the domain of poets, artists, and other literary

men. However, this has been a matter of curiosity.

We may then argue that physical environmental factors do not by themselves account for

human endeavour and a deep look at human nature is the need.

After the first target, namely, the environmental factors which could not tell the whole

story, the efficiency experts located a second target, namely, groups-formal and informal.

.The social aspects of work- environment has raised in importance. Enlightened

management and enlightened work force have nothing to fight about among themselves,

discovered that they both bear the responsibility to the larger society. They together

constitute organized servants of the society.

263

We have come a long way from individual oriented industrial psychology to the

organization oriented organizational psychology or organizational behaviour. The totality

or the configuration of the organization (the gestalt) is the behaviour setting where all

levels and all cadres of employees work together and give their best. .

One of the major issues is the understanding of all pervading attribute called attitudes.

We have to understand the attitudes of both the management and the rest of the work

force. This can be a tough task unless we see this from a historical perspective. We speak

of human nature which is a very complex attribute. Human nature is culture specific.

This is what makes it difficult for wide generalization across the globe. In fact all human

behaviour is culture specific. Attitude is one of them. A study of human nature has to be

free from a mechanistic outlook and an organismic outlook is the need. It should be

accepted that physical environment does have its role in human behaviour, but

consideration of these influences to the exclusion of nonmaterial influences can only tell

a part of the story and that too a distorted one. This may even result in our missing wood

for the trees. We have to take both physical environmental conditions and the more

subtle nonmaterial influences as interactive influences. The two cannot separate.

It could be emphasized that human nature can best be understood through whatever the

trinity of psychology, anthropology, and sociology offer through their concepts. This is

so because human nature is a product of human culture. Take for example, “Status”

based on birth in medieval times. But today it has to be achieved. We need to understand

the whole process of socio-economic change that plays a major role in differentiating

human behaviour of the bygone years and of today. Great deal of behaviour emanates

from within the group of which the individual is a member. Here I am recalling group

dynamics of Kurt Lewin. It should be noted that variability of human behaviour in

different behaviour settings follows this premise.

264

All that has been attempted from the days of F.W.Taylor, Gilbreth, Elton Mayo,

Herzberg, Atkinson, Maslow and host of others in the field to this day is to change or

modify worker behaviour for higher output of work. The basic underlying principle of

motivational theories is that all behaviour is caused and no matter what an individual

does he does so for good and sufficient reason. What is the outcome of all these

attempts? I think I am not sure. Let us accept the fact that all the social skills involved in

these aspects are not as advanced as we would like them to be. Two issues emerge out of

this discussion. 1. Whether social sciences can claim validity and reliability equivalent to

those of physical sciences; 2. Whether the social skills attained as of now are adequately

amenable for use. The latter refers to the possibility of bringing about behaviour

modification. The aim is therefore twofold: 1. Increase in production, and 2. General

well-being. The constraints in both are not wanting. It is not reasonable to think that men

are not interested in material gain and comfort affording a high standard of life and that

no one is interested in enhancing his quality of life. . . . . .

The aim therefore is two fold, namely, increase in production and general well being. But

constrains on these are not wanting. All these require a creative approach.

If I do not comment at least briefly on “work culture” I would leave a wide gap

uncovered. The expression work culture is making rounds in the recent times. I do not

wish to elaborate on this, but a mention has to be made. Culture is defined as man made

part of the environment. Here we can safely assume work culture is organization specific.

The expression organizational culture is also making rounds and gaining wide

acceptance. Briefly stated it refers to both physical and social environment in a given

organization. The demands that an organization makes on its work force are a significant

aspect of work culture.

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The modern hi-tech, high profile organizations using state of the art standards make new

types of demands which are not only required to enhance performance repertoire but

have also to make several new adjustments sacrificing their earlier habits of work. This

means giving up their existing work culture and adopting new work culture. This initially

is confronted as a tough proposition. These have to be made any way. It is not for

nothing the employer pays high wages. The employer expects the employees to deliver

the way the employer wants. High wages are not only needed but even welcomed by

employees. It is moot question as to how do the employees accept and adopt the new

work culture. It is also an issue as to how such an exercise impacts on the quality of life

of the employees notwithstanding the fact that there is a significant enhancement in the

standard of life of these workers and their families. This brings into focus a demand for

an in-depth research study.

It may be suggested that the employer enables the employees to develop new skills and

add them to the already existing human resource, and the employees give the best they

can. If this is done either party makes no sacrifice. We thus recognize both technical

efficiency and psychological factors as equally important.

But we have to take note of the fact that there is a disparity in the pace of development of

psychosocial efficiency and technical efficiency. Technical efficiency develops at a faster

rate for obvious reasons. The human element is complex and has an important factor of

variability both in terms of intra-individual and inter-individual factors. The gap has to

be narrowed if not eliminated.

There is a need for a concerted effort by organizational human resource specialists and

organizational behaviour specialists. They need to sit together, work in collaboration as

equal partners to enhance production and high quality of life of all concerned.

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Employee –Employer relations as key to success of any business organization is not a

new idea. It is a psycho-socio-economic interpersonal interactional process among all

those who constitute a business organization. The significant key to good employee –

employer relations is effective communication within the entire organization involving

all cadres from the very top to the shop floor.

Growth of social values like democracy has their influence in this regard. Trade unions

have an important role to play in this process, as they are themselves based on

democratic values.

Middle level management is the pivot in employee- employer relations. Leadership style

is the key factor. Managers are institutional leaders and to be effective they should

exhibit certain positive qualities.

Levels of Management

1. Top level management – the big boss,

2. Middle level management – the boss,

3. The front line management – foremen/supervisors.

Leaders at different levels do come into contact with all others in different degrees

related to different levels of functioning of the employees. Leadership is an interactive

process.

Qualities of a good leader

A few of the salient qualities may be listed. The list cannot be exhaustive.

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1. Intelligence, good judgements, insight, imagination, sense of humour, sense of justice, a

balanced personality, flexibility, open-mindedness.

2. Sound health, energy, and enthusiasm.

3. Sound technical / connected knowledge / expertise in his specific area of function.

Good leaders delegate authority and equally handle authority delegated to them

efficiently. They are fair minded and are available to all employees irrespective of cadre

and hierarchy. They discuss problems with concerned personnel to find solutions. They

appreciate and recognize merit. They sincerely exhibit patience and understanding.

Leaders who are not efficient depend on higher ups as an easy way to problem solution.

They are not adequately equipped with technical knowledge or knowledge specific to

their function that is necessary for efficient functioning. They do not hesitate interfering

in the on going work of an employee. They are often self-contradictory, impulsive, and

emotional.

Efficient management is dependent on the quality 0f harmonious relations within all the

personnel of the total organization.

Management and Leadership

Leadership is a broader concept. Management is organization specific. Planning,

organizing, and motivating are the three pillars of organizational management. Planning

implies goal setting with specific objectives. Organization implies bringing people

together and handling human resources development and utilization. Motivating

employees implies the ability to bring out the best of the available human resource.

Motivation

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Among the three pillars mentioned above motivation an abstract attribute needs a special

mention. There are two aspects of motivation requiring our attention. They are:

motivating behaviour, and motivating environment.

Motivating behaviour

1. Behaviour is goal seeking, goal oriented. Every individual has a desired to attain some

goal or other or even multiplicity of goals.

2. This desire may be rooted in intrinsic or extrinsic factors.

3. An effective leader identifies and strengthens the intrinsic factors and thus enhances the

possibility to act or not to act in a direction that the manager desires.

4. An effective leader provides external situations that stimulate or triggers intrinsic factors.

5. Whenever a worker shows inadequacy the leader should make efforts to strengthen the

desire of the worker to realize the goal by suitable encouragements.

6. Leaders should recognize multiplicity of needs of workers. Need system is more complex

than what can be represented in a single write up.

7. High level goals stretch the individuals too far and may diminish motivation. Realistic

goal setting appears meaning full.

Motivating environment

This has been an issue of intense research studies in the past. The issue raised was the

extent to which environmental manipulation could positively affect employee

performance. If any of the environmental factors were thought to influence employee

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performance one could go after it. The extensive studies carried out did not provide any

clue.

The corporate organization

The management decides on policy and adopts a procedure, structures a job and

introduces a specific technology for the execution of the same. In effect it utilizes

procedures for motivation. These may support status quo in employee – employer

relations. The cognisance of this possibility promotes a fresh thinking for innovation.

Management starts thinking methods of introducing change in as many aspects of its

functioning. Corporate planning has to reckon with external influences supportive or

otherwise and adjust accordingly. Utilization of available human resource coupled with

human resource development programme goes a long way in registering organizational

success in its own progress and in equal measure keep the employee-employer relations

in good shape. This contributes to national benefit as well. .

Interpersonal communication is as old as mankind. In the not so recent decades World

War II bestowed on it an immense importance largely because of necessity and

possibility. Communication received attention in many fields such as, technology,

psychology, sociology, international relations, epistemology, art, advertising, and labour

relations. Such a development perhaps made it necessary by the reality of international

interdependence in trade, defence, science, travel, broadcasting, televising, education,

and a large number of other institutional activities,

In a discussion on communication we have to consider the issues such as

telecommunication, electronic media, automation, etc., which have developed to a great

270

extent. Equally concerns of people, their thoughts, knowledge, and their individual and

social behaviour are to be given prominence. These concerns are to be united.

Communication is by signs and symbols. Communication is always social whether

between people or within the individual as in the case of thinking. In other words

communication involves relationships.

Observation is the basic of communication. We can distinguish between two types of

observations. They are social and non-social, but observing humans is social and

observing a rock or a tree is non-social. All knowledge of the world is based on these.

Let us have brief look at social observation and knowledge thus derived. Society and the

individual are so intertwined as to be inseparable. It is for this reason we see through the

society to which we belong. Society sets the norms for our perceptions based on person –

society interactions. This interaction is mediated through communication. .We are taught

through various social agencies such as family, the school, places of worship,

neighbourhood and through peers.

The theory of knowledge, which came into being from the early empiricists, has

developed into a science called “Semiotics.” This has three related branches. They are:

1. Syntactic: This refers to arrangement of words in a sentence. It has reference to

grammar dealing with usages of grammatical construction. It is the orderliness without

reference to meaning.

2. Semantics: The formal relations between signs and their designates have significance

to logic and linguistic theory.

3. Pragmatism: This refers to signs and their varied usage by specific persons in

specific situations.

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DIALECTICS IN COMMUNICATION

Observation leads to perception, retrospection leads to thinking, data production leads to

feeling, and verbalization leads to communication such as speaking, and writing. The

dialects occur imperceptibly.

Total observable universe is too vast and we can grapple only with a limited area of this

observable universe. All communications are retrospective. Changes can occur between

observation and communication. Therefore we have to take note of what happens in

between observation and communication. This can only be inferred and not directly

observed... They however play a major role in bringing about changes between

observation and reporting. These are called intervening variables.

Communication prepares the ground for forming impression about ourselves and others.

Communication takes place under different frameworks, namely, pre-scientific frame

work and scientific frame work. These sometimes are not easily distinguished. Beliefs

and knowledge of people in every day life situation are not necessarily based on

scientific and systematic observation. They can be pre-scientific beliefs as well. But they

need not be always wrong and sometimes we cannot act without such impression forming

process.

Impression formation that is the basis for person-perception results in personication.

Errors in this process can be traced to both the person who personicates and the person

personicated. To personicate is to attribute some quality to a person or group of persons

and refer to them by the name of that quality.

Communication involves relationships that may be real, implied, or imaginary.

272

Effective communication is a matter of skills. Effective communication depends upon

communicator, the message, medium, and the receiver. Inadequacy in any one of these

may render communication ineffective and even lead to unexpected consequences.

Communication is bi-dimensional. It is both giving information or message and receiving

information. Communication involves listening. Listening is an art. It is not it the same

thing .as hearing. Listening has two levels. They are: 1. the level of words, 2. the level

of feeling. It is the same thing as saying getting to know what may be there behind the

spoken or written message. It is grasping the feeling tone behind the spoken or written

message. Listening is as much an art as delivering the message or information. In spoken

communication body language provides the cue to what is behind the spoken word or

spoken message delivered.

273

We started with our excursion with a brief recollection of the past history of psychology.

I have mentioned in a separate occasion that we have to make “Past meaningful and

future purposeful”. I hold to that thought of mine even here while attempting to picturise

human resource development. I am a trained psychologist and an academic one at that.

Naturally I have my predilections leaning more towards academic narration than

displaying any practical wisdom. I have no regrets.

Psychology has a long past and short history. Similarly is management science and

human resource development. There is nothing new about this field that human abilities

and skills have to be developed and utilized for the benefit all concerned. Be it

agricultural operations, or urban activities in terms of various organizations human

element stands up as the most prominent component. Little wonder that modern man has

devised well cultivated, fine turned methods of developing and using human resources.

The employer looks for the best available talent to meet his needs. A business enterprise

is naturally and rightly seeking to make as much profit as possible and increases its

market share in a severely competitive world of business. They need the best of material

resources and the best of human resources.

In our ramblings in this book our focus is human resources.

The historical perspective and even the later developments indicate that the social

scientists are acting more as technical support to management for furthering the goals of

the latter with a slogan as it were minimum input and maximum output. Those scientists

were an intelligent lot. They devised work methods and training to suit this interest.

There was F.W Taylor, there was Gilbreth, there was Elton Mayo, and just look at the

work of all these personalities. They are impressive and well directed towards the goal of

work effectiveness. Disenchantment was felt later.

274

Later motivational experts arrived. These experts were not concerned with changing the

work methods but operated on motivation as related to work – or work motivation.

Then a group of scientists came on the scene that did recognize the higher reaches of

human activity. To this group belong Atkinson, Maslow, Carl Rogers, and a few others.

Today things stand there. I am not touching on other developments such as labor

movement, trade unionism, collective bargaining, etc; these also have added their share

of interest in the area of organizational effectiveness.

My focus as the title of the book indicates is on human resource development and

organizational effectiveness. The two are intimately inter- woven. One cannot exist with

out the other. Any attempt to put across ideas about organizational effectiveness normally

overlaps on human resource development and vice – versa. We can put it as OE in HRD

or HRD in OE.

Several areas have been examined and I do not claim to have examined all that is there. .

Literature in this area is very vast, several authors have certain predilection of their own

and at the same time overlap is not altogether avoidable...

Starting with what is meant by a resource and how human being is treasure of many

resources, some pronounced, some not so pronounced I have gone through a fair sample

of human behavior in a few roles and factors that given these behaviours. Shop floor

workers, middle level managers, top management positions all call forth for certain

resourcefulness. These are cultivated in a proper environment endowment interaction

resulting in activity paving the way for development.

275

My question is whether human resource development is the goal or a medium for serving

some other goal or goals. If it is the latter whose goal or goals human resource

development serves? My next question is at whose initiative this concept and subsequent

programme is developed? Did the worker want it? If so why does he want it? Does the

management want it, then why? Are we not in a new avatar serving as technicians of the

personnel department of the organization as Taylor did, or Gilbert did or any one else

including motivational psychologists? To put it in a nutshell locate the motive behind the

programme of human resource development (HRD).

All these questions can be put to rest when we think of lager interest of the economic

growth of the nation. In these days of globalise economy these measures may have to be

taken. Some of these ethical issues have been dealt with in the Chapter XIV RESEARCH

NEEDS OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT.

I have traced several areas where human resource concepts are directly applicable. They

are mainly personality, performance appraisal, attitudes and job satisfaction, abilities and

so on. An enlightened management does not stop with recruitment, but continues to

follow up towards enriching the employee all around. This serves both the employee and

the organization.

Research is a continuous process. The organization has the obligation to conduct research

as much as if not more than they generally do on material resources. The philosophy

should be that an organization is known more by the people in it than any thing else.

Appropriate human resource is not as easily replaceable as material resources because of

the very nature and complexity of this most valuable component of the total organization.

It is obligatory on the part of the organization to carry out a well-planned comprehensive

employee induction process to acclimatize them to the ethos of the organization. This

should not be left to the natural process that any way takes place, but to be sure this takes

a long time and in addition can be disturbing.

276

A prosperous organization is one that has happy and prosperous work force.

I have tried simplicity in my exposition with out sacrificing professional approach to the

al important area of human behaviour.

I have taken a stand that human resource development does not exist in a vacuum. It has

to anchor in organizational effectiveness. Human resource develops by itself and by the

support of others. This is a general aspect. But in the context of writing this book I have

necessarily confined to organizations, that is the work place where we all spend a major

part of each working day in particular and major part of our life span n general.

Organizations have a role to play in human resource development for multiple reasons. .

The philosophy is not merely to grow, but to develop, and to contribute. Take the road to

success and happiness and prosperity.

Employee –employer relations as key to success of any business organization is not a

new idea. It is a psycho-socio-economic interpersonal interactional process among all

those who constitute a business organization. The significant key to good employee –

employer relations is effective communication within the entire organization involving

all cadres from the very top to the shop floor.

Growth of social values like democracy has their influence in this regard. Trade unions

have an important role to play in this process, as they are themselves based on

democratic values.

Middle level management is the pivot in employee- employer relations. Leadership style

is the key factor. Managers are institutional leaders and to be effective they should

exhibit certain positive qualities.

Levels of Management

277

1. Top level management – the big boss,

2. Middle level management – the boss,

3. The front line management – foremen/supervisors.

Leaders at different levels do come into contact with all others in different degrees

related to different levels of functioning of the employees. Leadership is an interactive

process.

Qualities of a good leader

A few of the salient qualities may be listed. The list cannot be exhaustive.

1. Intelligence, good judgment, insight, imagination, sense of humour, sense of justice, a

balanced personality, flexibility, open-mindedness.

2. Sound health, energy, and enthusiasm.

3. Sound technical / connected knowledge / expertise in his specific area of function.

Good leaders delegate authority and equally handle authority to them efficiently. They

are fair minded and are available to all employees irrespective of cadre and hierarchy.

They discuss problems with concerned personnel to find solutions. They appreciate and

recognize merit. They sincerely exhibit patience and understanding.

Leaders who are not efficient depend on higher ups as an easy way to problem solution.

They are not adequately equipped with technical knowledge or knowledge specific to

278

their function that is necessary for efficient functioning. They do not hesitate interfering

in the on going work of an employee. They are often self-contradictory, impulsive, and

emotional.

Efficient management is dependent on the quality 0f harmonious relations within all the

personnel of the total organization.

Management and Leadership

Leadership is a broader concept. Management is organization specific. Planning,

organizing, and motivating are the three pillars of organizational management. Planning

implies goal setting with specific objectives. Organization implies bringing people

together and handling human resources development and utilization. Motivating

employees implies the ability to bring out the best of the available human resource.

Motivation

Among the three pillars mentioned above motivation an abstract attribute needs a special

mention. There are two aspects of motivation requiring our attention. They are:

motivating behaviour, and motivating environment.

Motivating behaviour

1. Behaviour is goal seeking, goal oriented. Every individual has a desired to attain some

goal or other or even multiplicity of goals.

2. This desire may be rooted in intrinsic or extrinsic factors.

3. An effective leader identifies and strengthens the intrinsic factors and thus enhances the

possibility to act or not to act in a direction that the manager desires.

4. An effective leader provides external situations that stimulate or triggers intrinsic factors.

5. Whenever a worker shows inadequacy the leader should make efforts to strengthen the

desire of the worker to realize the goal by suitable encouragements.

279

6. Leaders should recognize multiplicity of needs of workers. Need system is more complex

than what can be represented in a single write up.

7. High level goals stretch the individuals too far and may diminish motivation. Realistic

goal setting appears meaning full.

Motivating environment

This has been an issue of intense research studies in the past. The issue raised was the

extent to which environmental manipulation could positively affect employee

performance. If any of the environmental factors were thought to influence employee

performance one could go after it. The extensive studies carried out did not provide any

clue.

The corporate organization

The management decides on policy and adopts a procedure, structures a job and

introduces a specific technology for the execution of the same. In effect it utilizes

procedures for motivation. These may support status quo in employee – employer

relations. The cognisance of this possibility promotes a fresh thinking for innovation.

Management starts thinking methods of introducing change in as many aspects of its

functioning. Corporate planning has to reckon with external influences supportive or

otherwise and adjust accordingly. Utilization of available human resource coupled with

human resource development programme goes a long way in registering organizational

success in its own progress and in equal measure keep the employee-employer relations

in good shape. This contributes national benefit as well.

280

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Name Index

Ahmed, A. A.

Allport, G. W.

Argyris, C.

Asch, S.

Atkinson, J. W.

Back Kurtin

Bakan, P.

Baritz, L.

Barnes, J.

Barret, G. V.

Beuce, M. R.

Bhatia, D. P.

Billings, R. S.

Bingham, W. V.

Binne, R. C.

Blum, M. L.

Boring. E. G.

Borman, W. C.

Burdick, H.

294

Burt, C.

Cartwright, D.

Chronbach, L. J.

Cottle, J. J.

Deci,E. L.

Decottis, D.P.

Eisenberg, T.

Eltizioni, A.

Etzione Amitai, A.

Farr, J. L.

Festinger, L.

Fiedler, F. E.

Flynn, J. P.

Frank, L.

French John, R. P.

Frey, R. L. Jr.

Getzeis, J. W.

Ghiselli , E.

Gilckerman, A.S.

Giles, B. A.

Gilmer, V. B. H.

Goldstein, I. L.

Goodman, P. S.

295

Goodstart, B. E. Gordon, W. J. J.

Grishbala Mohanty

Guilford, J. P.

Guion, R. M.

Haas, J. A.

Heneman, H. J.

Herzberg, V. B.

Holzbech, R. C.

Horner, M. S.

House, R. J.

Houstan, J. P.

Jackson, P. W.

Jacobs, R.

Kaffy, D.

Keith Davis

Kendal, L. M.

Kendirth, R.

Kent, D. A.

Kerr, S.

Kogan, N.

Kohn, M. C.

Korman, A. K

Lamm, H.

Landy, F. J.

296

Lawler, E. Lewin, K.

Likert, R.

Liska, R. E.

Locke, E. A.

Loehlin,J. C.

Maltzman, I.

Maslow, A. H.

McGregor, D.

McGuire, W. J.

McLelland, D. C.

Meade, R. O.

Mednick,S. A.

Meyer, H. H.

Michon, J. A.

Milgram, P.

Murphy, K.

Naylor, J. C.

Paramesh, C. R.

Parvathi, S.

Porter, L. W.

Prien, E. P.

Rama Rao, P.

Raven, B.

Redden, W. J.

297

Romanzuk, A. P.

Schachter, S.

Schmiot, W. R.

Schooler, C.

Schwab, D. P.

Scott, W. R.

Shaw, P.

Shiva Prasad Reddy, M.

Singh, S.

Smith, P. C.

Spearman, C. E.

Steers, R. M.

Subha, V.

Szilagyc, A. D. Jr.

Tannebaum, A. S.

Teevan, R. C.

Thurstone, L. L.

Trommscdroff, G.

Unni, K. A.

Vernon, P. E.

Vijayalakshmi, H.

Vroom, M. H.

Walker, W. B.

298

Wallace, M. J. Jr.

Wallach, M. A.

Warmke, D. L.

Weber, M.

Wofford, J. C.

Zander, R

Zedeck, S

299

SUBJECT INDEX

Achievement motivation

Affection

Aptitude tests

Attitude

Attitude change

Behaviour dimensions of

leadership

Causal beliefs

Classical theory

Cognition

Cognitive dissonance

Conation

Creative process

Creativity

Definition

Economic man

Emotion motivation

relation

Employee induction

Employee selection

Ethics and responsibilities

of

psychologists

Fear of failure

Fear of success

Goal activity

Goal directed behaviour

Group cohesiveness

Group dynamics

300

Hawthorne studies

HRD functions

Human Resource

Human resource

development

Industrial psychology

Job satisfaction

KAP

Leader – Three-

dimensional model

Leader effectiveness

Leader personality traits

Leadership behaviour

Leadership style

Level of aspiration

Level of expectation

Motivation

Motivation:

environmental factors

Organizational

effectiveness

301

Performance appraisal Personal specifications

Personality

Personality and job

performance

Personality research

Personality theories

Personnel selection

Psychoanalytic approach

Psychological tests

Reinforcement

Reliability

Research into intelligence

and abilities

Research needs in HRD

Risk – taking

Scientific Principles

Self – actualisation

Self – appraisal

Social Learning Theory

of Personality

Systems approach

Temporal perspective

Theory X and theory Y

302

Training program validity

Validity

Variables

Wofford’s managerial

style

*****

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303