How to Read a Scientific Paper

What is a scientific paper? ………………………..…….. 2 Scientific papers are peer‐reviewed....……….....… 3Anatomy of a scientific paper ……………………….... 4How to read a scientific paper ………………………… 5Ethics in research and publishing ………………….... 6Understanding numerical data ……….…………….… 7What does “statistical significance” mean? ....... 8Case study: Buy My Oranges……………..……………..9Appendix: Numerical analysis .....……………….... 12Additional resources and credits  ………………… 13

Copyright 2013 American Society of Plant Biologists. www.aspb.org  

What is a scientific paper? Scientific papers go straight to the source If someone asks you about a new movie you haven’t seen yet, what do you say? Maybe, “I haven’t seen it, but I’ve heard it’s good.” We generally try to distinguish first-hand from second-hand

information. Like the children’s game of “telephone,” information can change as it is passed along. To get the real story, whether a film review or the results of a new research study, go to the source. Scientific papers present data and interpretations Scientists report the results of their research by writing and publishing scientific papers, which are written in a very formal style. One of the objectives of a scientific paper is to make available the data from a set of studies so that others can learn from them and build on them to address new questions. By publishing and sharing data, scientists work together to advance our understanding. Some articles include results from a few targeted studies, and others present large datasets that other scientists can

use in new ways to address different questions. The authors of scientific papers also provide an interpretation of what they think their new information means and how it contributes to our understanding of how the natural world works. By presenting the data itself as well as the analysis, other authors can evaluate these interpretations for themselves. Because our understanding is always changing, sometimes the interpretations of the data can be re-evaluated in light of new ideas and new data. Society needs scientific literature Much scientific research is publicly funded, and the knowledge and technologies that emerge from research have social impacts. Traditionally, the output from scientific research has been published in journals that are not widely available outside of university libraries, but in the past decade there has been a trend toward increasing openness in science and a desire to make research articles more broadly available. However, it is not sufficient to make these resources available, as in many cases they are written for experts and practicing scientists and therefore not readily comprehensible to those who haven’t been trained in the discipline. We’ve written this article as a guide to help people learn to read the scientific literature, with the goal of increasing access to science and communication about science.

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Anatomy of a scientific paper

 

 

 

 

TITLE

AUTHOR INFORMATION

 

DISCUSSION: An analysis and interpretation of the data presented that integrates the new information with prior findings, states the implications of the work, and sometimes generates new hypotheses tobe tested.

RESULTS: A description of the research conducted and the results obtained.

Results are presented as tables, large datasets, and figures, which can include graphs, videos, diagrams, and photographs.

Some papers include additional supporting data as a supplement.

INTRODUCTION: A statement of what is currently known about the study subject that articulates the questions being investigated. It cites other scholarly works, lays the foundations for the study, and sometimes states a hypothesis to be tested.

REFERENCES: The list of the articles cited in the paper that provide information on the research topic and the methods used.

ABSTRACT: A summary of the study and findings, written by the author.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 METHODS: A description of how the studies were conducted, with sufficient detail so that others can repeat them exactly.

 

 

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Therefore, by repeating the measurement, we can work out whether the two samples are different or the same. Because scientists regularly measure small but meaningful differences, replication, numerical analyses, and statistical testing are essential tools for scientists. Other considerations Which of these statements are supported by this study? B oranges are healthier. If I eat B oranges I will get fewer colds. B oranges are a better value. B oranges always have more

vitamin C. The answer is that none of these statements are supported by the data presented in this study. Based on the distribution of values shown in the second, “alternative hypothesis,” dataset our study showed that there is slightly more vitamin C on average in the B oranges, but any claims beyond that are unjustified extrapolations. To investigate these issues, we would have to design and perform additional experiments. We could also examine the scientific literature to investigate the relationship between vitamin C consumption and the incidence of colds. Furthermore, the characteristics of a fruit are somewhat variable and

depend on the conditions in which it was grown. Perhaps next year the vitamin C level will not be different between A and B. It would be nice to see a difference that extends over more than one harvest season and more than one growing region. Science provides us with a set of very powerful tools with which to understand the world, but our knowledge accrues in small steps. Any single study provides an incremental advancement, but also lays the groundwork for further studies. Caveat emptor If you wanted to buy a car, you wouldn’t take the advice of the salesperson on the car lot, would you? You would first do a side-by-side analysis of the cars you like to compare fuel efficiency, safety ratings, and the reputation of the manufacturer. An educated consumer makes good choices by looking at evidence. We are all consumers of science, whether it informs our decisions about voting, health care, eating, purchases, energy use, or merely how we understand the world. Although the scientific literature can be a bit daunting, it is an important resource. Learning to read scientific papers empowers you to cut through the hyperbole and hype, to see for yourself the evidence that lies behind the claims, and to draw your own informed conclusions from the studies.

Appendix – Numerical analysis Here are the numbers graphed on the page titled “Understanding numerical data.”

  Graph 1  Graph 2  Graph 3

  4  0  0 

  5  0  0 

  6  0  0 

  7  1  0

  7  1  0 

  8  1  0 

  8  2  0 

  8  2  0 

  9  2  0

  9  2  0 

  9  4  0 

  10  6  0 

  10  6  0

  10  7  0 

  11  9  0 

  12  10  0 

  12  12  0 

  13  16  0

  13  20  0 

  14  20  37 

  14  22  51 

  15  33  66

  16  54  76 

      Mean  10  10  10

StDev  3.23  13.01  23.16 

The mean and standard deviation were calculated using functions in Excel (2010). To calculate the mean of a group of numbers, in an empty cell below them, type “=average(…)”. The space between the parentheses is filled with the first and last cell in the column—for example, (A6:A29). After you type the left parenthesis, you can use your mouse to draw a box around the column of numbers and then type the right parenthesis. To calculate the standard deviation, type into an empty cell “=stdev(A6:A29).”

Here are the numbers used on the page titled “What does ‘statistical significance’ mean?”

 

East  Rest.  West Rest. 

West 

School 

  154  182  125 

166 166  140

  172  159  136 

  148  155  160 

  158  143  125 

173 177  150

161 156  158

  180  172  136 

  175  168  124 

  155  165  180 

159 145  172

  183  156  124 

  174  154  118 

  165  157  156 

  147  172  145 

164 167  136

  167  154  145 

  177  177  154 

  150  184  167 

173 158  158

 

Mean  165.05  163.3  145.4 

StDev  10.80  11.54  17.63 

t‐test  0.633 (ER vs. WR) 

  0.005 (WS vs. WR) 

The mean and standard deviation were calculated as described previously. The t-test was also calculated using a function in Excel. Click on the function box (fx) icon at the top of the page. In the pop-up window, select the category “statistics” and then T.Test. In the pop-up box, select one set of numbers for Array 1, the second for Array 2. For this kind of data, (independent, Gaussian distributed), select “2” for tails and “2” for “type.”

Additional Resources and Credits Additional Resources American Statistical Association: Education.

(http://www.amstat.org/education/onlineresources.cfm)

Benchpress Project. (2012). Resources to teach journalists about scientific papers and statistics (http://www.benchpressproject.org.uk/)

Hans Rosling. (2010). The Joy of Stats (Video) (http://www.gapminder.org/videos/the-joy-of-stats/)

Sense About Science Making sense of statistics (http://www.senseaboutscience.org/resources.php/1/making-sense-of-statistics)

Peer review: The nuts and bolts (http://www.senseaboutscience.org/resources.php/99/peer-review-the-nuts-and-bolts)

I don’t know what to believe: Making sense of science stories (http://www.senseaboutscience.org/resources.php/16/i-dont-know-what-to-believe)

University of California Museum of Paleontology Understanding Evolution The journal club toolkit

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/teach/journal/index.php

Understanding science: How science really works The social side of science: A human and community endeavor

(http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/socialsideofscience_01)

Publish or perish? (http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/howscienceworks_15)

Scrutinizing science: Peer review (http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/howscienceworks_16)

A blueprint for scientific investigations (http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/howscienceworks_03)

Visionlearning Scientific communication: Understanding scientific journals and articles (http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?c3=&mid=158&l=)

Scientific communication: Peer review (http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=159)

Scientific communication: Utilizing the scientific literature (http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=173&l=)

Scientific research: The case of the ivory-billed woodpecker (http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=174&l=)

Produced by Mary Williams for the American Society of Plant Biologists (www.aspb.org). About the American Society of Plant Biologists (ASPB) WHAT IS ASPB? ASPB is a professional society devoted to the advancement of the plant sciences. It publishes two world-class journals and organizes conferences and other activities that are key to the advancement of the science. Membership in the American Society of Plant Biologists is open to anyone from any nation who is concerned with the physiology, molecular biology, environmental biology, cell biology, and biophysics of plants and other related matters. WHAT IS A PLANT SCIENTIST? A plant scientist specializes in the scientific study of plants. Within plant biology there are many areas of interest, including cellular and molecular biology, genetics, development, evolution, physiology, and biochemistry. Plant scientists are working worldwide in nearly all sectors including academia, corporations, pharmacology, research, nonprofits, and government.