How Car Suspensions Work

8/22/2019 How Car Suspensions Work

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How Car Suspensions WorkbyWilliam Harris

Browse the articleHow Car Suspensions Work

Introduction to How Car Suspensions Work

When people think of automobile performance, they normally think ofhorsepower, torque and zero-to-60

acceleration. But all of the power generated by apiston engineis useless if the driver can't control the car. That's whyautomobile engineers turned their attention to the suspension system almost as soon as they had mastered the four-stroke internal combustion engine.

Car Suspension Image Gallery

Photo courtesy Honda Motor Co., Ltd.Double-wishbone suspension on Honda Accord 2005 Coupe. See morecar suspension pictures.

The job of a car suspension is to maximize the friction between thetiresand the road surface, to provide steeringstability with good handling and to ensure the comfort of the passengers. In this article, we'll explore how carsuspensions work, how they've evolved over the years and where the design of suspensions is headed in the future.

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If a road were perfectly flat, with no irregularities, suspensions wouldn't be necessary. But roads are far from flat.Even freshly paved highways have subtle imperfections that can interact with the wheels of a car. It's theseimperfections that apply forces to the wheels. According to Newton's laws of motion, all forces have both magnitudeand direction. A bump in the road causes the wheel to move up and down perpendicular to the road surface. Themagnitude, of course, depends on whether the wheel is striking a giant bump or a tiny speck. Either way, the carwheel experiences a vertical acceleration as it passes over an imperfection.

Without an intervening structure, all of wheel's vertical energy is transferred to the frame, which moves in the same
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direction. In such a situation, the wheels can lose contact with the road completely. Then, under the downward forceofgravity, the wheels can slam back into the road surface. What you need is a system that will absorb the energy ofthe vertically accelerated wheel, allowing the frame and body to ride undisturbed while the wheels follow bumps in theroad.

The study of the forces at work on a moving car is called vehicle dynamics, and you need to understand some ofthese concepts in order to appreciate why a suspension is necessary in the first place. Most automobile engineersconsider the dynamics of a moving car from two perspectives:

Ride - a car's ability to smooth out a bumpy road

Handling - a car's ability to safely accelerate, brake and cornerThese two characteristics can be further described in three important principles - road isolation, road holding andcornering. The table below describes these principles and how engineers attempt to solve the challenges unique toeach.

Principle Definition Goal Solution

RoadIsolation

The vehicle's ability toabsorb or isolate roadshock from thepassenger compartment

Allow the vehiclebody to rideundisturbed whiletraveling over

rough roads.

Absorb energyfrom roadbumps anddissipate itwithoutcausing undueoscillation inthe vehicle.

RoadHolding

The degree to which acar maintains contactwith the road surface invarious types ofdirectional changes andin a straight line(Example: The weight ofa car will shift from therear tires to the front tiresduring braking. Because

the nose of the car dipstoward the road, this typeof motion is known as"dive." The oppositeeffect -- "squat" -- occursduring acceleration,which shifts the weight ofthe car from the fronttires to the back.)

Keep the tires incontact with theground, becauseit is the frictionbetween the tiresand the road that

affects a vehicle'sability to steer,brake andaccelerate.

Minimize thetransfer ofvehicle weightfrom side toside and frontto back, as this

transfer ofweight reducesthe tire's gripon the road.

CorneringThe ability of a vehicle totravel a curved path

Minimize bodyroll, which occursas centrifugalforce pushes

outward on acar's center ofgravity whilecornering, raisingone side of thevehicle andlowering theopposite side.

Transfer theweight of thecar duringcornering fromthe high side ofthe vehicle tothe low side.

A car's suspension, with its various components, provides all of the solutions described.
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Let's look at the parts of a typical suspension, working from the bigger picture of the chassis down to the individualcomponents that make up the suspension proper.

Car Suspension Parts

The suspension of a car is actually part of the chassis, which comprises all of the important systems located beneaththe car's body.

Chassis

These systems include:

The frame - structural, load-carrying component that supports the car's engine and body, which are in turn supportedby the suspension

The suspension system - setup that supports weight, absorbs and dampens shock and helps maintain tire contact The steering system - mechanism that enables the driver to guide and direct the vehicle

The tires and wheels - components that make vehicle motion possible by way of grip and/or friction with the roadSo the suspension is just one of the major systems in any vehicle.

With this big-picture overview in mind, it's time to look at the three fundamental components of any suspension:springs, dampers and anti-sway bars.

SpringsToday's springing systems are based on one of four basic designs:

Coil springs - This is the most common type of spring and is, in essence, a heavy-duty torsion bar coiled around anaxis. Coil springs compress and expand to absorb the motion of the wheels.


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Photo courtesyCar Domain

Coil springs

Leaf springs - This type of spring consists of several layers of metal (called"leaves") bound together to act as a single unit.Leaf springswere first usedon horse-drawn carriages and were found on most American automobilesuntil 1985. They are still used today on most trucks and heavy-duty vehicles.

Torsion bars - Torsion bars use the twisting properties of a steel bar toprovide coil-spring-like performance. This is how they work: One end of a baris anchored to the vehicle frame. The other end is attached to a wishbone,which acts like a lever that moves perpendicular to the torsion bar. When thewheel hits a bump, vertical motion is transferred to the wishbone and then, through the levering action, to the torsion

bar. The torsion bar then twists along its axis to provide the spring force. European carmakers used this systemextensively, as did Packard and Chrysler in the United States, through the 1950s and 1960s.

Photo courtesyHowStuffWorks Shopper

Torsion bar

Air springs - Air springs, which consist of a cylindrical chamber of air positioned between the wheel and the car'sbody, use the compressive qualities of air to absorb wheel vibrations. The concept is actually more than a century oldand could be found on horse-drawn buggies. Air springs from this era were made from air-filled, leather diaphragms,much like a bellows; they were replaced with molded-rubber air springs in the 1930s.


Leaf spring
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Photo courtesyHSW Shopper

Air springs

Based on where springs are located on a car -- i.e., between the wheels and the frame -- engineers often find itconvenient to talk about the sprung mass and the unsprung mass.

Springs: Sprung and Unsprung MassThe sprung mass is the mass of the vehicle supported on the springs, while the unsprung mass is loosely definedas the mass between the road and the suspension springs. The stiffness of the springs affects how the sprung massresponds while the car is being driven. Loosely sprung cars, such as luxury cars (thinkLincoln Town Car), canswallow bumps and provide a super-smooth ride; however, such a car is prone to dive and squat during braking andacceleration and tends to experience body sway or roll during cornering. Tightly sprung cars, such as sports cars(thinkMazda Miata), are less forgiving on bumpy roads, but they minimize body motion well, which means they canbe driven aggressively, even around corners.

So, while springs by themselves seem like simple devices, designing and implementing them on a car to balancepassenger comfort with handling is a complex task. And to make matters more complex, springs alone can't provide aperfectly smooth ride. Why? Because springs are great at absorbing energy, but not so good at dissipating it. Otherstructures, known as dampers, are required to do this.

Dampers: Shock Absorbers

Unless a dampening structure is present, a car spring will extend and release the energy it absorbs from a bump at

an uncontrolled rate. The spring will continue to bounce at its natural frequency until all of the energy originally putinto it is used up. A suspension built on springs alone would make for an extremely bouncy ride and, depending onthe terrain, an uncontrollable car.

Enter the shock absorber, or snubber, a device that controls unwanted spring motion through a process known asdampening. Shock absorbers slow down and reduce the magnitude of vibratory motions by turning the kineticenergy of suspension movement into heat energy that can be dissipated through hydraulic fluid. To understand howthis works, it's best to look inside a shock absorber to see its structure and function.
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A shock absorber is basically an oil pump placed between the frame of the car and the wheels. The upper mount ofthe shock connects to the frame (i.e., the sprung weight), while the lower mount connects to the axle, near the wheel(i.e., the unsprung weight). In a twin-tube design, one of the most common types of shock absorbers, the upper

mount is connected to a piston rod, which in turn is connected to a piston, which in turn sits in a tube filled withhydraulic fluid. The inner tube is known as the pressure tube, and the outer tube is known as the reserve tube. Thereserve tube stores excess hydraulic fluid.

When the car wheel encounters a bump in the road and causes the spring to coil and uncoil, the energy of the springis transferred to the shock absorber through the upper mount, down through the piston rod and into the piston.Orifices perforate the piston and allow fluid to leak through as the piston moves up and down in the pressure tube.Because the orifices are relatively tiny, only a small amount of fluid, under great pressure, passes through. This slowsdown the piston, which in turn slows down the spring.

Shock absorbers work in two cycles -- the compression cycle and the extension cycle. The compression cycle

occurs as the piston moves downward, compressing the hydraulic fluid in the chamber below the piston. Theextension cycle occurs as the piston moves toward the top of the pressure tube, compressing the fluid in the chamberabove the piston. A typical car or light truck will have more resistance during its extension cycle than its compressioncycle. With that in mind, the compression cycle controls the motion of the vehicle's unsprung weight, while extensioncontrols the heavier, sprung weight.

All modern shock absorbers are velocity-sensitive -- the faster the suspension moves, the more resistance theshock absorber provides. This enables shocks to adjust to road conditions and to control all of the unwanted motionsthat can occur in a moving vehicle, including bounce, sway, brake dive and acceleration squat.

Dampers: Struts and Anti-sway Bars

Another common dampening structure is the strut -- basically a shock absorber mounted inside a coil spring. Strutsperform two jobs: They provide a dampening function like shock absorbers, and they provide structural support forthe vehicle suspension. That means struts deliver a bit more than shock absorbers, which don't support vehicleweight -- they only cntrol the speed at which weight is transferred in a car, not the weight itself.


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Common strut design

Because shocks and struts have so much to do with the handling of a car, they can be considered critical safetyfeatures. Worn shocks and struts can allow excessive vehicle-weight transfer from side to side and front to back. Thisreduces thetire'sability to grip the road, as well as handling andbrakingperformance.

Anti-sway BarsAnti-sway bars (also known as anti-roll bars) are used along with shock absorbers or struts to give a movingautomobile additional stability. An anti-sway bar is a metal rod that spans the entire axle and effectively joins eachside of the suspension together.

Photo courtesyHSW Shopper

Anti-sway bars

When the suspension at one wheel moves up and down, the anti-sway bar transfers movement to the other wheel.This creates a more level ride and reduces vehicle sway. In particular, it combats the roll of a car on its suspension
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as it corners. For this reason, almost all cars today are fitted with anti-sway bars as standard equipment, although ifthey're not, kits make it easy to install the bars at any time.

Suspension Types: Front

So far, our discussions have focused on how springs and dampers function on any given wheel. But the four wheelsof a car work together in two independent systems -- the two wheels connected by the front axle and the two wheelsconnected by the rear axle. That means that a car can and usually does have a different type of suspension on thefront and back. Much is determined by whether a rigid axle binds the wheels or if the wheels are permitted to moveindependently. The former arrangement is known as a dependent system, while the latter arrangement is known asan independent system. In the following sections, we'll look at some of the common types of front and back

suspensions typically used on mainstream cars.

Dependent Front SuspensionsDependent front suspensions have a rigid front axle that connects the front wheels. Basically, this looks like a solidbar under the front of the car, kept in place byleaf springsand shock absorbers. Common on trucks, dependent frontsuspensions haven't been used in mainstream cars for years.

Independent Front SuspensionsIn this setup, the front wheels are allowed to move independently. The MacPherson strut, developed by Earle S.MacPherson of General Motors in 1947, is the most widely used front suspension system, especially in cars ofEuropean origin.

The MacPherson strut combines a shock absorber and a coil spring into a single unit. This provides a more compactand lighter suspension system that can be used for front-wheel drive vehicles.

The double-wishbone suspension, also known as an A-arm suspension, is another common type of frontindependent suspension.
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Photo courtesy Honda Motor Co., Ltd.

Double-wishbone suspension on Honda Accord 2005 Coupe

While there are several different possible configurations, this design typically uses two wishbone-shaped arms tolocate the wheel. Each wishbone, which has two mounting positions to the frame and one at the wheel, bears a shockabsorber and a coil spring to absorb vibrations. Double-wishbone suspensions allow for more control over the camberangle of the wheel, which describes the degree to which the wheels tilt in and out. They also help minimize roll orsway and provide for a more consistent steering feel. Because of these characteristics, the double-wishbone

suspension is common on the front wheels of larger cars.Now let's look at some common rear suspensions.

Suspension Types: Rear

Dependent Rear SuspensionsIf a solid axle connects the rear wheels of a car, then the suspension is

usually quite simple -- based either on aleaf springor a coil spring. In theformer design, theleaf springsclamp directly to the drive axle. The ends oftheleaf springsattach directly to the frame, and the shock absorber isattached at the clamp that holds the spring to the axle. For many years,

American car manufacturers preferred this design because of its simplicity.

The same basic design can be achieved with coil springs replacing theleaves. In this case, the spring and shock absorber can be mounted as a single unit or as separate components.When they're separate, the springs can be much smaller, which reduces the amount of space the suspension takes

up.

Independent Rear SuspensionsIf both the front and back suspensions are independent, then all of the wheels are mounted and sprung individually,resulting in what car advertisements tout as "four-wheel independent suspension." Any suspension that can be usedon the front of the car can be used on the rear, and versions of the front independent systems described in theprevious section can be found on the rear axles. Of course, in the rear of the car, thesteering rack-- the assemblythat includes the pinion gear wheel and enables the wheels to turn from side to side -- is absent. This means that rearindependent suspensions can be simplified versions of front ones, although the basic principles remain the same.

Next, we'll look at the suspensions of specialty cars.

Historical SuspensionsSixteenth-century wagons and carriages tried to solve the problem of"feeling every bump in the road" by slinging the carriage body from leather

straps attached to four posts of a chassis that looked like an upturnedtable. Because the carriage body was suspended from the chassis, thesystem came to be known as a "suspension" -- a term still used today todescribe the entire class of solutions. The slung-body suspension was nota true springing system, but it did enable the body and the wheels of thecarriage to move independently.

Semi-elliptical spring designs, also known as cart springs, quickly replacedthe leather-strap suspension. Popular on wagons, buggies and carriages,the semi-elliptical springs were often used on both the front and rear axles.


Leaf spring
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They did, however, tend to allow forward and backward sway and had ahigh center of gravity.

By the time powered vehicles hit the road, other, more efficient springingsystems were being developed to smooth out rides for passengers.

Specialized Suspensions: The Baja BugFor the most part, this article has focused on the suspensions of mainstream front- and rear-wheel-drive cars -- carsthat drive on normal roads in normal driving conditions. But what about the suspensions of specialty cars, such as hotrods, racers or extreme off-road vehicles? Although the suspensions of specialty autos obey the same basicprinciples, they do provide additional benefits unique to the driving conditions they must navigate. What follows is abrief overview of how suspensions are designed for three types of specialty cars -- Baja Bugs, Formula One racersand American-style hot rods.

Baja BugsTheVolkswagenBeetle, or Bug, was destined to become a favorite among off-road enthusiasts. With a low center ofgravity and engine placement over the rear axle, the two-wheel-drive Bug handles off-road conditions as well assomefour-wheel-drivevehicles. Of course, the VW Bug isn't ready for off-road conditions with its factory equipment.Most Bugs require some modifications, or conversions, to get them ready for racing in harsh conditions like thedeserts of Baja California.

Photo courtesyCar Domain

Baja Bug

One of the most important modifications takes place in the suspension. The torsion-bar suspension, standardequipment on the front and back of most Bugs between 1936 and 1977, can be raised to make room for heavy-duty,off-road wheels and tires. Longer shock absorbers replace the standard shocks to lift the body higher and to providefor maximum wheel travel. In some cases, Baja Bug converters remove the torsion bars entirely and replace themwith multiple coil-over systems, an aftermarket item that combines both the spring and shock absorber in oneadjustable unit. The result of these modifications is a vehicle that allows the wheels to travel vertically 20 inches (50

cm) or more at each end. Such a car can easily navigate rough terrain and often appears to "skip" over desertwashboard like a stone over water.

Specialized Suspensions: Formula One Racers

The Formula One racing car represents the pinnacle of automobile innovation and evolution. Lightweight, compositebodies, powerful V10 engines and advanced aerodynamics have led to faster, safer and more reliable cars.
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Formula One racecar

To elevate driver skill as the key differentiating factor in a race, stringent rules and requirements govern Formula Oneracecar design. For example, the rules regulating suspension design say that all Formula One racers must be

conventionally sprung, but they don't allow computer-controlled, active suspensions. To accommodate this, the carsfeature multi-link suspensions, which use a multi-rod mechanism equivalent to a double-wishbone system.

Recall that a double-wishbone design uses two wishbone-shaped control arms to guide each wheel's up-and-downmotion. Each arm has three mounting positions -- two at the frame and one at the wheel hub -- and each joint ishinged to guide the wheel's motion. In all cars, the primary benefit of a double-wishbone suspension is control. Thegeometry of the arms and the elasticity of the joints give engineers ultimate control over the angle of the wheel andother vehicle dynamics, such as lift, squat and dive. Unlike road cars, however, the shock absorbers and coil springsof a Formula One racecar don't mount directly to the control arms. Instead, they are oriented along the length of thecar and are controlled remotely through a series of pushrods and bell cranks. In such an arrangement, the pushrodsand bell cranks translate the up-and-down motions of the wheel to the back-and-forth movement of the spring-and-damper apparatus.

Specialized Suspensions: Hot Rods

The classic American hot rod era lasted from 1945 to about 1965. Like Baja Bugs, classic hot rods requiredsignificant modification by their owners. Unlike Bugs, however, which are built on Volkswagen chassis, hot rods were

built on a variety of old, often historical, car models: Cars manufactured before 1945 were considered ideal fodder forhot rod transformations because their bodies and frames were often in good shape, while their engines andtransmissions needed to be replaced completely. For hot rod enthusiasts, this was exactly what they wanted, for itallowed them to install more reliable and powerful engines, such as the flathead Ford V8 or the Chevrolet V8.

Photo courtesyStreet Rod Central

1923 T-bucket
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One popular hot rod was known as the T-bucket because it was based on theFord Model T. The stock Fordsuspension on the front of the Model T consisted of a solid I-beam front axle (a dependent suspension), a U-shapedbuggy spring (leaf spring) and a wishbone-shaped radius rod with a ball at the rear end that pivoted in a cup attachedto the transmission. Ford's engineers built the Model T to ride high with a large amount of suspension movement, anideal design for the rough, primitive roads of the 1930s. But after World War II, hot rodders began experimenting withlarger Cadillac or Lincoln engines, which meant that the wishbone-shaped radius rod was no longer applicable.Instead, they removed the center ball and bolted the ends of the wishbone to the framerails. This "split wishbone"

design lowered the front axle about 1 inch (2.5 cm) and improved vehicle handling.Lowering the axle more than an inch required a brand-new design, which was supplied by a company known as Bell

Auto. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, Bell Auto offered dropped tube axles that lowered the car a full 5 inches (13cm). Tube axles were built from smooth, steel tubing and balanced strength with superb aerodynamics. The steelsurface also accepted chrome plating better than the forged I-beam axles, so hot rodders often preferred them fortheir aesthetic qualities, as well.

Some hot rod enthusiasts, however, argued that the tube axle's rigidity and inability to flex compromised how ithandled the stresses of driving. To accommodate this, hot rodders introduced the four-bar suspension, using twomounting points on the axle and two on the frame. At each mounting point, aircraft-style rod ends provided plenty ofmovement at all angles. The result? The four-bar system improved how the suspension worked in all sorts of drivingconditions.

The Bose Suspension System

While there have been enhancements and improvements to both springs and shock absorbers, the basic design ofcar suspensions has not undergone a significant evolution over the years. But all of that's about to change with theintroduction of a brand-new suspension design conceived byBose-- the same Bose known for its innovations inacoustic technologies. Some experts are going so far as to say that the Bose suspension is the biggest advance inautomobile suspensions since the introduction of an all-independent design.

Photo courtesyBOSE

Bose Suspension Front Module

How does it work? The Bose system uses a linear electromagnetic motor(LEM) at each wheel in lieu of aconventional shock-and-spring setup. Amplifiers provide electricity to the motors in such a way that their power isregenerated with each compression of the system. The main benefit of the motors is that they are not limited by theinertia inherent in conventional fluid-based dampers. As a result, an LEM can extend and compress at a muchgreater speed, virtually eliminating all vibrations in the passenger cabin. The wheel's motion can be so finelycontrolled that the body of the car remains level regardless of what's happening at the wheel. The LEM can alsocounteract the body motion of the car while accelerating, braking and cornering, giving the driver a greater sense ofcontrol.
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Unfortunately, this paradigm-shifting suspension won't be available until 2009, when it will be offered on one or morehigh-end luxury cars. Until then, drivers will have to rely on the tried-and-true suspension methods that havesmoothed out bumpy rides for centuries.

For more information on car suspensions and related topics, check out the links on the next page.

Lots More Information

Related HowStuffWorks articles

Car Suspension Quiz

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How NASCAR Race Cars Work

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More Great Links

About.com Auto Repair: Steering & Suspension

Answers.com: Vehicle Suspensions

Car Maintenance Bibles: The Suspension Bible

Monroe Shocks and Struts Tech Support

Samarins.com: How to check car suspension and steering when buying a used carSources

"Bose suspension." Edmunds.com, Inside Line. Accessed April 26, 2005.

Cars.com GlossaryDouble wishbone suspension.

Clynes, Tom. 2004 Better living through curiosity. Popular Science. December 3.

DiPietro, John. 2004.

Encyclopedia Britannica 2005, s.v. "damping." CD-ROM, 2005.

Kahn, Dan. Monroe Shocks and Struts.Tech Support, Technical Training.

Sherman, Don. %0A

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