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CLASS #1: APCLASS #2: AP/AdvPCLASS #3: AdvP, PPCLASS #4: PPCLASS #5: ADVERBIALSCLASS #6: ADVERBIALSCLASS #7: ADVERBIALS AND MIDTERM OVERVIEW

CLASS #8: MIDTERM OVERVIEW and SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #10: SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #11: COMPLEX SENTENCECLASS #12: COMPLEX SENTENCECLASS #13: COMPLEX SENTENCE , WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTS

MIDTERM

FINAL ANNOUNCEMENT!

THE MIDTERM EXAM IS SCHEDULED FOR

MAY 15, 2012 THAT’S NEXT TUESDAY. TIME:13.30-15.00PLACE: AUDITORIUM (‘AMFITEATAR’)

IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT!

THERE WILL BE NO PRACTICE CLASSES IN GEJ2 NEXT WEEK (NEITHER ON TUESDAY (GROUPS B, C and D), NOR ON WEDNESDAY (Group A)).

HOWEVER, YOU WILL HAVE A LECTURE ON WEDNESDAY.

BEFORE WE START THE LECTURE…DO YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS REGARDING YOU UPCOMING MIDTERM EXAM?

THE SIMPLE SENTENCELECTURE #2 – 2012-05-09

Basic concepts of a science are notoriously difficult to define, e.g. atom, number, society, etc.

WHAT DID WE DO LAST TIME?

REVIEW TWO WEEKS AGO WE DISCUSSED:

THE CONCEPT AND PROPER DEFINITION OF A SENTENCE WHAT IS A SENTENCE?

SENTENCE vs. CLAUSE CLASSIFICATION(S) OF SENTENCES

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION (number and type of clauses): SIMPLE, COMPLEX and COMPOUND

CLASSIFICATION OF SIMPLE SENTENCES BASED ON THE TYPE OF VERB

7 types of simple sentences: SVC, SVA, SV, SVO, SVOO, SVOC, SVOA)

SENTENCE ELEMENTS – SYNTACTICALLY DEFINED (what structures are used to realize a particular sentence element: e.g. Od can be an NP or a nominal clause)

SYNTACTICALLY DEFINED

SENTENCE ELEMENTS

SYNTACTIC CONSTITUENTS (S, V, O, C, A) can be realized in different forms: PHRASES and CLAUSES

SENTENCE ELEMENTS syntactically defined

PP In the state of nirvana is how I want to feel.

AdvP

Here is the latest report from Tripoli.Tomorrow is Thursday.

AP Beautiful beyond words is how I would describe her.

SENTENCE ELEMENTS syntactically defined

END OF REVIEW

SEMANTICALLY

SENTENCE ELEMENTSDEFINED

SENTENCE ELEMENTSsemantically defined

Let’s take a simple sentence as an example: Eric Cartman killed Kenny with a knife.

SUBJECT

VERB OBJECT

ADVERBIAL

A syntactic analysis of the sentence would yield the following syntactic structure: SVOA


Semantically speaking, every verb describes a SITUATION in which one or more PARTICIPANTS are involved.If we look at the sentence “Eric Cartman killed Kenny with a knife.” we can say that the verb KILL describes a situation which involves three different participants:

1 = THE PERSON WHO PERFORMED THE

ACTIVITY2 = THE PERSON WHO

WAS KILLED3 = THE

INSTRUMENT USED FOR KILLING


One SYNTACTIC ELEMENT/CONSTITUENT can have VARIOUS SEMANTIC ROLES.For example, the SUBJECT can have three different semantic roles:John opened the door. (SUBJECT is the AGENT)The key opened the door. (SUBJECT is the INSTRUMENT)The door opened. (SUBJECT is the THEME/PATIENT)Actually, this is just the tip of the iceberg: the subject can have as many as THIRTEEN (13!!!) different semantic roles.

SUBJECT – semantically defined

DIRECT OBJECT – semantically defined

INDIRECT OBJECT – semantically defined

COMPLEMENTS – semantically defined

NOW…

…SOMETHING COMPLETELY DIFFERENT

CONCORD

CONCORDConcord is AGREEMENT between two sentence elements with respect to certain grammatical features. Officially: CONCORD (sometimes termed AGREEMENT) is the relationship between TWO GRAMMATICAL UNITS such that one of them DISPLAYS A PARTICULAR FEATURE (e.g. plurality) that ACCORDS WITH A DISPLAYED (or semantically implicit) FEATURE in the other unit.*Marko_ je čitala zanimljivu časopis_.Marko_ je čitao zanimljiv časopis_.As we can see in Serbian, there seem to be several types of concord. Even in English! But more about it soon.

WHERE CAN WE SEE CONCORD?

*Mary were in London yesterday.

*John cut herself. *John cut themselves. *John is an actress.

*John considers Bill an actress. *John considers them an actor.

S-V concord

(gender, person , number)

S-O concord


S-O concord


S-Cs concord


O-Co concord


O-Co concord


CONCORD – types ofCONCORD

Depending on

SENTENCE ELEMENTSubject-verb

concord

Subject-complement

concord

Object-complement

concord

Depending on

GRAMMATICAL FEATURES

Concord of NUMBER

Concord of PERSON

Concord of GENDER

S-V concord: NOUN PHRASESThe CHANGE in male attitudes is most

obvious in industry.The CHANGES in male attitude are most

obvious in industry.

When the subject is realized by a noun phrase, the phrase counts as singular IF ITS HEAD IS SINGULAR.

S-V concord: AdvP and PPSlowly does it!In the evenings is best for me.

Prepositional phrases and adverb phrases functioning as subjects count as SINGULAR.

S-V concord: CLAUSESHow they got there doesn’t concern me.To treat them as hostages is criminal.Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your

health.

Finite and non-finite clauses generally count as SINGULAR.

However, there are some apparent exceptions.

S-V concord: clauses add-onWhat were supposed to be new proposals were in

fact modifications of earlier ones.What was once a palace is now a pile of rubble.Whatever book a Times reviewer praises sells well.What ideas he has are his wife’s. These are NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES: their number depends on the interpretation of the

number of the WH-ELEMENT, e.g. with determiners WHAT and WHATEVER the concord depends on the number of the determined noun (the last two examples)

S-V concord: general rulesGeneral rule of S-V concord:A subject which is not clearly semantically

plural requires a singular verb.In other words: SINGULAR is the

UNMARKED FORM which is to be used in neutral circumstances when there is no positive.

This explains why in informal speech we can often hear:

There is hundreds of people in the streets.

S-V concord: exceptionsMeasles is sometimes serious.Our people are complaining.

Apparent exceptions include SINGULAR NOUNS ending in –S (e.g. measles, billards, mathematics, etc.) and PLURAL NOUNS lacking the –S (e.g. cattle, people, clergy, etc.).

S-V concord: exceptionsCrime and Punishment is a great novel.Brother Karamzov is his masterpiece.The Cedars has a huge garden.‘Senior citizens’ means people over sixty.Plural noun phrases (including coordinate phrases)

count as singular if they are used as NAMES, TITLES, QUOTATIONS, etc.

Such NPs can be regarded as appositive structures with an implied singular head: the book ‘Crime and Punishment’, the expression ‘senior citizens’, etc.

S-V concord: exceptionsThe Canterbury Tales exists in many

manuscripts.The Canterbury Tales exist in many

manuscripts.The titles of some works that are

collection of stories may be counted as either singular or plural.

Principles of grammatical concord: NOTIONAL concord & PROXIMITY

No one except his own supporters AGREE with him. The head is NO ONE, but the verb agrees with

SUPPORTERS – this is called PROXIMITY. PROXIMITY (also called ‘ATTRACTION’) denotes

agreement of the verb with a closely preceding NP in preference to agreement with the head of the NP that functions as subject:

Proximity is here reinforced by NOTIONAL CONCORD (‘Only his own supporters agree with him’).

NOTIONAL CONCORD – how the speaker understands the concept denoted with the NP (singular or plural) regardless of the grammatical form

EXAMPLES OF NOTIONAL CONCORD Ten dollars is all I have left.

[That amount is…] Fifteen years represents a long period of his

life. [That period is…]

Two miles is as far as they can walk. [That distance is…]

Two thirds of the area is under water. [That area is…],

BUT: Sixty people means a huge party.

[That number of people means…]

Principles of grammatical concord: NOTIONAL concord & PROXIMITY Conflict between grammatical concord and

proximity increases with the distance between the NP head of the subject and the VP (e.g. when an adverbial or a parenthesis intervenes between the subject and the verb).

Proximity concord occurs mainly in unplanned discourse – in writing it will be corrected to grammatical concord.

We will discuss GRAMMATICAL CONCORD, NOTIONAL CONCORD and PROXIMITY in the following cases: Collective noun head Coordinated subject Indefinite expressions

COLLECTIVE NOUNSThe audience were enjoying every minute

of it.The public are tired of demonstration.England have won the cup.Our Planning Committee have

considered…Singular collective nouns may be

notionally plural. In BRITISH ENGLISH the verb may be EITHER SINGULAR or PLURAL.

COLLECTIVE NOUNSThe audience was enormous.The public consists of you and me.The crowd has been dispersed.The choice between singular and plural verbs

depends in BRITISH ENGLISH on whether the group is being considered as a single undivided body or as a collection of individuals.

On the whole: the plural is more popular in speech, whereas in writing the singular is preferred.

COORDINATED SUBJECTSWhen a subject consists of TWO or MORE

noun phrases (or clauses) coordinated by AND, we must make a distinction between:

COORDINATION (PROPER)COORDINATIVE APPOSITION

COORDINATION (PROPER) Tom and Alice ARE now ready. =[Tom is now ready and Alice is now ready.] What I say and what I think ARE my own affair. =[What I say is my own affair and what I think is

my own affair]BUT: What I say and do IS my own affair. COORDINATION REFERS TO CASES WHEN WE

HAVE FULL COORDINATED FORMS (not REDUCED FORMS).

A PLURAL VERB IS USED EVEN IF EACH CONJOIN IS SINGULAR.

COORDINATION (PROPER) His camera, his phone, his money WERE

confiscated by the customs officials. A PLURAL VERB IS ALSO NEEDED WHEN

THERE IS NO COORDINATOR.

COORDINATION (PROPER) Your problem and mine ARE similar. =[Your problem is similar to mine and

mine is similar to yours.] What I say and do ARE two different

things. =[What I say is one thing and what I do is

another thing.]Conjoins expressing MUTUAL

RELATIONSHIP are also PLURAL.

COORDINATION PROPER TRICKY ISSUE

Every adult and every child was holding a flag.

Each senator and congressman was allocated two seats.

Each of them has signed the petition.BUT: They have each signed allocated two seats.PREPOSED EACH AND EVERY HAVE A

DISTRIBUTIVE EFFECT AND REQUIRE A SINGULAR VERB.

COORDINATIVE APPOSITION This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad

taste was erected in the main street of the city. BUT: His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his

collected papers was with him at his deathbed. His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his

collected papers were with him at his deathbed. SINGULAR IS USED IF THE SERVANT AND THE EDITOR

ARE THE SAME PERSON (APPOSITIVE COORDINATION) AND PLURAL IS USED IF THEY ARE TWO DIFFERENT PERSONS (COORDINATION PROPER).

COORDINATION WITH OR AND NOR

1. Either the Mayor or her deputy IS (ARE) bound to come.2. What I say or what I think IS(ARE) no business of yours.3. Either the strikers of the bosses (HAS) HAVE misunderstood the

claim.4. Either your brakes or your eyesight IS (ARE) at fault.5. Either your eyesight or your brakes ARE (IS) at fault.When coordinated items have the same number, there is pure

grammatical concord: when they are both singular (1 and 2) the verb is also singular, when they are both plural (3), the verb is also plural.

When coordinated items do not have the same number, English follows the principle of PROXIMITY: whichever phrase comes last determines the number of the verb. (4 and 5).

NOT…BUT and NOT ONLY…BUT behave like EITHER…OR.

INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS AS SUBJECT - CONCORD INDEFINITE PRONOUNS (anyone/anybody, no

one/nobody, someone/somebody, everyone/everybody) and NOUNS OF DUAL GENDER (student, teacher, lawyer, judge, etc.) can be referred to by personal pronouns in THREE WAYS: UNMARKED HE (now considered sexist): Everyone

thinks he has the answer to that question. HE OR SHE (politically correct, but long and clumsy):

Someone has to make up his or her mind. THEY (the most politically correct form):

Everyone thinks they or her have the answer.Nobody called did they.Every applicant should hand in their application form now.

Nowadays the best choice because of PC.

NOW…

…SOMETHING A BIT DIFFERENT…

…AND RATHER NEGATIVE…

BASIC INFORMATION

NEGATION

NEGATION Negation is a LOGICAL OPERATION of

implying the opposite or absence of something that is without negation regarded as actual, positive, or affirmative.

GENERAL TYPES OF NEGATION CLAUSE NEGATION – the whole clause is syntactically

treated as negative: Rosie's [not an attractive elephant in any respect] (, is she?)

LOCAL NEGATION – one constituent/sentence element is negated: [Nothing] agrees with me more than oysters. LOCAL NEGATION

Eating nothing agrees with me more than eating oysters. LOCAL NEGATION [Nothing agrees with me more than oysters]. CLAUSAL NEGATION

Oysters agree with me more than anything else CLAUSE NEGATION PHRASAL NEGATION – one phrase is negated:

She gave me [not even a moment] to somehow collect my thoughts. PREDICATION NEGATION – very rare, applies to

predication only after certain auxiliaries (usually depends on pronunciation): They may [not go swimming]. [=They are allowed not to go swimming]NEGATION IS REALIZED THROUGH USE OF NEGATIVE

ITEMS.

NEGATIVE ITEMS NEGATION is RELIZED through NEGATIVE ITEMS. SYNTACTIC BEHAVIOR of NEGATIVE ITEMS:

NEGATIVE ITEMS trigger the use of NONASSERTIVE FORMS: John is not coming either. I don’t have many friends. I seldom get any sleep.

When NEGATIVE ITEMS are placed in the position BEFORE THE SUBJECT, they can cause a SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION (a.k.a. NEGATIVE INVERSION): Never have I seen anything like that before! Seldom has a truer word been spoken.

NEGATIVE ITEMS are followed by POSITIVE QUESTION TAGS: She rarely visits you, does she?

Remember them from GEJ1? Those are the words that

only appear in nonassertive sentences: any, anybody,

yet, either, any longer, much, etc.

NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS

The clause can be negated: EITHER BY NEGATING THE VERB (VERBAL NEGATION), OR BY NEGATING OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS (NON-

VERBAL NEGATION). Depending on what sentence element is being negated,

it is necessary to use different negative items: VERB NEGATION: the negative particle NOT is always used:

He does not drink. She is not a model wife. NEGATION OF OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS can be achieved

using DIFFERENT NEGATIVE ITEMS: Words negative in form and meaning (NUCLEAR NEGATIVES): no,

none, never, not Word negative in meaning only (not negative in form): rarely,

seldom, scarcely, barely, little, few VERBS, ADJECTIVE, PREPOSTIONS with IMPLIED NEGATIVE MEANING:

refuse, deny, fail; reluctant, unaware; without, against; unless


Nuclear negatives (non-verbal explicitly negative items) can be classified into:

NEGATIVE PRONOUNS (e.g. in S or O position): Nobody came. None of the passengers were hurt. I saw nothing.

NEGATIVE MODIFYING ADVERBS: I felt [none the worse] for it. > modifying AP [Not many] people turned up. > modifying DETERMINER [Not even] the president of Pakistan was informed. > modifying

ADVERB NEGATIVE DETERMINERS:

I expected [no reply]. [Neither team manager] was informed. NEGATIVE COORDINATORS:

Neither today nor tomorrow is suitable. NEGATIVE ADJUNCTS:

Elephants never forget. We found nowhere to stay.


Negatives with positive-word form (rarely, seldom, scarcely, hardly, little, few, barely, only, etc.) are treated as NEGATIVE FORMS because:

THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY NON-ASSERTIVE FORMS: I seldom get ANY sleep. I’ve spoken to hardly ANYONE. Few changes in government have EVER taken so many people by

surprise. Only two of us had ANY experience in sailing.

WHEN THEY ARE PLACED IN THE INITIAL POSITION, THEY CAUSE NEGATIVE INVERSION:

Rarely DOES crime PAY so well as Mr Benn seems to think. Little NEED I DWELL upon the hope that she actually loves me.

THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY POSITIVE TAG-QUESTIONS: She scarcely seems to care for you, DOES SHE?

VERBAL NEGATION vs. NON-VERBAL NEGATION

We’ve had some lunch.

He saw one man or the other.

We’ve had some.

We haven’t had any lunch.We had no lunch.He didn’t see either man.He saw neither man. (unusual)We haven’t had any.We’ve had none.

ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE (NON-ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE)

VERBAL NEGATION vs. NON-VERBAL NEGATION

He saw one or other of the men.

I’ve bought something for you.

She sometimes visits me.

He didn’t see either of the men.He saw neither of the men.I haven’t bought anything for you.I’ve bought nothing for you.She doesn’t ever visit me.She never visits me.

ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE (NON-ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE)

• OBVIOUSLY, IN THE VAST MAJORITY OF INSTANCES THE SPEAKER HAS A CHOICE BETWEEN USING THE VERBAL NEGATION (VERB+NOT) OR NON-VERBAL NEGATION (NONE, NOTHING, ETC.).

• HOWEVER, ALTHOUGH THESE TWO FORMS ARE SEMANTICALLY EQUIVALENT, THEY ARE RARELY APPROPRIATE IN THE SAME STYLE OR REGISTER.

• NON-VERBAL NEGATION IS MUCH MORE FREQUENT IN FORMAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE, WHILE VERBAL NEGATION IS MORE INFORMAL.

DIGRESSION: multiple negation Unlike most other languages, standard

national forms of English (BrE, AmE, CaE, AuE, etc.) DO NOT FAVOR MULTIPLE NEGATION. Multiple negation is allowed in SUB-STANDARD

varieties of English, e.g. AAVE: Yo, I’m telling you man, nobody ain’t seen nothing.

The negative item MUST BE FOLLOWED THROUGHOUT THE REST OF THE CLAUSE BY ONE OR MORE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS.\ I haven’t said ANYTHING to ANYBODY YET.

DIGRESSION: multiple negation However, even in standard English it is

occasionally permissible to have two negations if each negative element negates its own part of the sentence. I ca[n’t] [not obey]. [Not many people] have [nowhere to live]. [No one] has [nothing to offer to society]. [Not many Spaniards] have [no knowledge of bull

fighting]. [Nobody here] has [never at any time told a lie]. Neighbours [should not be] [uncooperative].

THE FACT THAT THESE SENTENCES ARE

GRAMMATICAL HAS TO DO WITH SOMETHING CALLED

“SCOPE OF NEGATION”

NEGATION: SCOPE OF NEGATION The SCOPE OF NEGATION is the stretch of

language OVER WHICH THE NEGATIVE MEANING OPERATES AND WHERE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS MUST BE USED.

The SCOPE OF NEGATION EXTENDS FROM THE NEGATIVE ITEM TO: THE END OF THE CLAUSE (NOT NECESSARILY

THE END OF THE SENTENCE), THE END OF THE NEGATED PHRASE (IF ONLY A

SINGLE PHRASE IS NEGATED), OR THE BEGINNING OF THE FINAL ADJUNCT.

WHY IS THIS SUCH A BIG DEAL?

The POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE ITEM may

drastically INFLUENCE THE MEANING OF THE WHOLE

SENTENCE:

SCOPE OF NEGATION Nothing agrees with me more than

oysters.= There is nothing else that I like more

than oysters.

Nothing agrees with me more than oysters.

= I would much rather eat nothing than oysters.

SCOPE OF NEGATION I definitely didn’t speak to him.= It is definite that I did not.

I didn’t definitely speak to him.= It is not definite that I did.

SCOPE OF NEGATION I wasn’t LISTENING all the time.= For the whole time, I wasn’t listening.

I wasn’t listening ALL the time.= It’s not true that I was listening all the time.

SO, WHEN AN ADJUNCT IS FINAL, IT MAY OR MAY NOT LIE OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF NEGATION.

SCOPE OF NEGATION I didn’t listen to some of them.= There were some of the speakers that I didn’t

listen to.

I didn’t listen to any of them.= There were not any speakers that I listened to.

SO, IF AN ASSERTIVE ITEM IS USED IN THE ADJUNCT, THE ADJUNCT MUST LIE OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF NEGATION.

FOCUS OF NEGATION The FOCUS OF NEGATION is the part of

the sentence within the scope of negation that bears special stress. E.g.

I didn’t take the <GRAMMAR> exam last week.

I didn’t take the grammar <EXAM> last week.

I didn’t take the grammar exam <LAST> week.

I didn’t take the grammar exam last <WEEK>.

FOCUS OF NEGATION – add-on

Focus of negation is a SPECIAL/CONTRASTIVE NUCLEAR STRESS which is placed on a particular part of the clause in order to indicate that the contrast of meaning implicit in THE NEGATION IS LOCATED AT THAT SPOT and also that THE REST OF THE CLAUSE CAN BE UNDERSTOOD IN A POSITIVE SENSE.

The focus of negation can split the scope of negation so that the scope becomes DISCONTINUOUS.

FOCUS OF NEGATION I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL

today.= I forgot to do so. (FALLING INTONATION)

I didn’t take JOAN to swim in the pool today.

= I took Mary instead.

FOCUS OF NEGATION I didn’t take Joan to SWIM in the pool

today.= I just took her there to see the pool.

I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL today.

= I took her to the lake instead. (RISING INTONATION)

FOCUS OF NEGATION I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool

TODAY.= I took her there last week.

I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today.

= It was my brother who took her.

SCOPE AND FOCUS Scope and focus of negation are

INTERRELATED, such that the scope must include the focus.

So, one way of signaling the extent of the scope of negation is by the position of the focus.

One example of this is when the scope of negation is atypically extended to include a subordinate clause, with a contrastive fall-rise to emphasize this:

SCOPE AND FOCUS I didn’t leave HOME because I was afraid

of my FATHER.= Because I was afraid of my father, I

didn’t leave home.

I didn’t leave home because I was afraid of my FATHER.

= I left home, but it wasn’t because I was afraid of my father.

SCOPE AND FOCUS She didn’t come to SEE him when he

ASKED.= When he asked, she didn’t come to see

him.

She didn’t come to see him when he ASKED.

= She came to see him, but not at the time he asked her to come to see him.

THE END

THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME!CU NEXT WEEK!

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