Home Infusion Therapy: Current Evidence Implications · Home Infusion Therapy: ... Gorski Model for...

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9/18/2014 1 Home Infusion Therapy: Current Evidence & Implications LISA A. GORSKI MS, HHCNS BC, CRNI, FAAN CLINICAL NURSE SPECIALIST WHEATON FRANCISCAN HOME HEALTH & HOSPICE MILWAUKEE, WI Copyright Lisa A. Gorski 2014 OBJECTIVES y Identify common complications associated with home infusion therapy. y Discuss available research evidence aimed at complication prevention y Evaluate patient cases for appropriateness of home care.

Transcript of Home Infusion Therapy: Current Evidence Implications · Home Infusion Therapy: ... Gorski Model for...

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Home Infusion Therapy: Current Evidence & Implications

LISA  A.  GORSK I  MS,  HHCNS ‐BC,  CRNI ,  FAANCL IN ICAL  NURSE  SPEC IAL I ST

WHEATON  FRANC ISCAN HOME  HEALTH  &  HOSP ICEMILWAUKEE ,  WI

Copyright Lisa A. Gorski 2014

OBJECTIVES

Identify common complications associated with home infusion therapy. 

Discuss available research evidence aimed at complication prevention

Evaluate patient cases for appropriateness of home care.

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Gorski Model for Safe Home Infusion Therapy ©Lisa A. Gorski

Patient Selection

Positive patient outcomes Reduced risk for complicationsPatient satisfaction

Focus of today’s 

t ti

Patient/CGEducation

Patient care & Monitoring

Healthcare provider satisfaction presentation

COMPLICATIONS ADDRESSED DURING THIS PRESENTATION

“Line‐related”Central vascular access devices (CVAD) or “central lines”( )

4 categories of CVADs: nontunneled; tunneled; PICC; implanted port

Complications addressed within this presentation:

Infection • Major focus of this presentation

Catheter associated venous thrombosis

Catheter occlusion

Peripheral IV catheters (PIV)Peripheral IV catheters (PIV)Infiltration/extravasation

Phlebitis

Nerve damage

Infusion‐related: Drug toxicities – focus on renal and vestibular

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SELECTED REVIEW OF PERTINENT HOME CARE 

LITERATURE

Patient Risk Factors for Infection 

Systematic literature review

25 studies met inclusion criteria

Great variation in risk factor identification and infection rates

Infusion therapyPatients receiving PN at greater risk than those receiving other infusion therapies

Shang et al. (2014) The prevalence of infections and patient risk factors in home health care: A systematic review. AJIC 42, 479‐484.

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Adverse Events in Home Care

In another review of home care literature, “line‐related” complications (including catheter‐related BSI d it i f ti ) f 8 t i fand site infections) was one of 8 categories of 

adverse events identifiedFew intervention studies identifiedNeed for improved assessmentNeed for system‐level approach that includes focus on caregivers/home environmenton caregivers/home environmentNeed for required data collection/reporting of adverse eventsMasotti et al. (2010) Adverse events experienced by homecare patients: a scoping review of the literature. International Journal for Quality in Health Care 22 (2), 115‐125.

11 year surveillance from the University of North Carolina Health care system – very low annual rates of central line BSI ranging 

Selected Home Care Data

from 0‐ 0.73 cases/1000 device daysWeber et al. (2010) Device‐related infections in home health care and hospice: Infection rates, 1998‐2008. Infect Control Hosp Epidem 30 (10), 1022‐1024.

Outpatient antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) in Scotland, 0.4 infections per 1000 OPAT days (n=2233 patients); 10 year studyBarr  et al (2012)  Self‐administration of outpatient antibiotic therapy and risk of catheter‐related adverse events: a retrospective cohort study. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 31 (10), 2611‐2619.

Incidence of BSI in children receiving home PN highest in the firstIncidence of BSI in children receiving home PN highest in the first month after discharge from the hospital; need for care strategies immediately after hospital dischargeMohammed, et al. (2011) Characterization of posthospital bloodstream infections in children requiring home parenteral nutrition. JPEN 35 (5), 581‐587.

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Home care Infection Prevention Policies & Procedures

National survey – n= 423 home healthcare clinicians (9.2% response rate)response rate)

Written policies for:MDROs : 26.2%

Dedicated equipment: 62.8%

Teaching patient/family about prevention of spread of MDROs: 78.5%

Takes nursing bag into home of patient with known MDRO: 31%31%

Full time infection prevention/control nurse: 21.4% (but 33% have other job duties)

Kenneley (2012) Infection control in home healthcare: An Exploratory Study of Issues for Patients and ProvidersHome Healthcare Nurse 30(4), 235‐45.

A reduction in PICC infections by 46% in patients receiving home infusions (0.963 to 0.52 infections per 

Example: Quality Improvement‐Home Care

g ( p1000 central line days) 

Problem: Lack of standardized protocols

Interventions: Education:  changes and ongoing education for nurses 

Standardized home health central line orders (NC changingStandardized home health central line orders (NC changing and disinfection, flushing, blood draws, site care)

Standardize home care through development of central line care checklist, flushing checklist

Baumgarten, et al. (2013) Bridging the gap: A collaborative to reduce central catheter infections in the home care environment. The Oschner Journal 13: 352‐358.

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Available Home Care Guideline 

“Standardizing central venous catheter care: hospital to home” from the Nebraska Medical  Center

http //www guideline gov/content aspx?id 38459

These guidelines did not evolve out of a comprehensive or exhaustive literature search.Standardizing Central Catheter Care in the Omaha Region: Care from Hospital to Home (SCORCH) Consensus Group

The Consensus Group:examined their respective current agency policiescompared them with what best practices would indicate appropriate care should look 

http://www.guideline.gov/content.aspx?id=38459

p p pp plike, based on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Infusion Nurses Society (INS), and Oncology Nursing Society (ONS) guidelinesWhen lack of evidence in established guidelines (e.g., using heparin or not), review of  literature to examine complications (e.g. heparin induced thrombocytopenia) 

Home Care Malpractice Case Example

Home care patient receiving parenteral nutritionHome care patient receiving parenteral nutrition develops septicemia with grave consequences

Issues in caseFailure to recognize risk factors

Failure to provide relevant patient education

Failure to recognize signs of infectiong g

Failure to analyze/report laboratory findings

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INFECTION PREVENTION

Well‐educated nurses – essential!!

Infusion Nurses Society (INS)Standards: The nurse shall be responsible and paccountable for attaining and maintaining competence with infusion therapy

Competence goes “beyond psychomotor skills to include application of knowledge, critical thinking skills, decision making” 

The person validating the specificThe person validating the specific skill should be competent with the skill. When no one in the organization has the specific competency, arrangements for a skill validator from outside the organization may be necessary

Infusion Nurses Society. (2011)  J Infus Nurs 34 (1 suppl): S1‐S110.

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Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC)

Home care question: Do you have specific competencies in place related to infusion 

related procedures?

Only trained, competent persons should place and maintain peripheral and central IV devices

Within our home care organizations, we must

O’Grady, et al. Healthcare Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). (2011) Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter related infections, 2011. AJIC 39 (4 supp): S1‐S34. 

related procedures? 

Within our home care organizations, we mustaddress/ensure competence of our staff and “zero tolerance” of infections – we owe this to the patients we serve

American Nurses Association Standards

Hot off the press! Published summer 2014Available at: http://www.nursesbooks.org/Homepage/Hot‐off‐the‐Available at: http://www.nursesbooks.org/Homepage/Hot off thePress/Home‐Health‐Nursing‐Scope‐Standards‐2nd.aspxExample: Standards of Practice

Standard 1: The home health registered nurse collects comprehensive data pertinent to the patient’s health or situation.

Competency example: Synthesizes available data, information, and knowledge relevant to the situation to identify patterns and variances.  (ANA, 2014, p. 45)

Standard 5: The home health registered nurse implements the individualized plan of care.Competency example: Uses evidence‐based interventions, best practices, and treatments specific to the diagnosis or problem. (ANA, 2014, p. 51)

Examples: Standards of Professional Performance:Standard 8: The home health registered nurse attains knowledge and competence that reflect current nursing practice. (ANA, 2014, p. 62)Standard 9: The home health registered nurse  integrates evidence and research findings into practice. (ANA, 2014, p. 64)

American Nurses Association (ANA). (2014). Home health nursing scope and standards of practice (2nd Ed.). Washington, DC: Nursebooks.org.

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Review: How microorganisms gain access to the bloodstream

Extraluminal: Migration of skin organisms at the insertion i i h h d l h h fsite into the catheter tract and along the catheter surface, gaining access to the external catheter surface.

Intraluminal: Direct contamination of the catheter or catheter hub by contact with contaminated hands or fluids or devices; microorganisms gain access through the internal catheter lumen of the catheter

Hematogenously seeded from another infection – less common

Infusate contamination – rare 

O’Grady et al. (2011) AJIC.

CVAD insertion not typical in home care – but we need to understand risk reduction & EBP

Reducing Risk during Catheter Insertion: Central Lines

to understand risk reduction & EBPInserter must follow central line bundle during catheter insertion (hand hygiene, chlorhexidine skin antisepsis, maximal sterile barrier precautions, optimal site selection)

“Bundles that include checklists to prevent central line‐associated bloodstream infections” are: One of the top 10 “Strongly encouraged patient safety practices”encouraged patient safety practices” Agency for Healthcare Policy and Research (AHRQ) (2013) Making Health Care Safer II: An Updated Critical Analysis of the Evidence for Patient Safety Practices – Executive report. Retrieved from http://www.ahrq.gov/research/findings/evidence‐based‐reports/ptsafetysum.html

58% reduction in ICU CLABSIs from  2001‐09Vital signs: Central line‐associated bloodstream infections – United States, 2001, 2008, and 2009. MMWR 60 (8), p. 246.

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Post‐insertion care

The term bundle is often used but there is no well established, well‐tested post‐insertion care bundle yet

More challenging than the central line insertion bundleCentral line bundle mainly focused during time of insertion

Post‐insertion care focused during entire dwell timeInvolves many clinicians and potentially several health care settings

Involves every catheter access/care procedureInvolves every catheter access/care procedure

Challenging to monitor care behaviors

Hand hygieneAttention to aseptic technique with all VAD‐related procedures

Increased focus on and importance of post‐insertion catheter care

Attention to aseptic technique with all VAD related proceduresSpeaker experience/examples

Ongoing assessment of the patient and the catheter siteRegular site care & dressing changesIV administration set changesNeedleless connector accessMaintaining catheter patencyBlood withdrawal from CVADs for laboratory studies – should we do this?Catheter removal as soon as it is no longer neededSafe injection practices

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Poor compliance with dressing changes

N=420 CVADs evaluated in a single hospital

N=130 (31%) of CVAD dressings suboptimal and needed changing (e.g. blood under dressing, exposed insertion site, visible moisture)

No correlation with BSIResearchers believe infections complex and require multi‐modalResearchers believe infections complex and require multi‐modal preventative programs

Efforts must address CVAD maintenance – beyond the central line insertion bundle

Rupp, ME et al. (2013) Hospital‐wide assessment of compliance with central venous catheter dressing recommendations. American Journal of Infection Control 41, 89‐91.

Dressings and Risk for Infection 

Secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial 1636 patients (ICU) in initial trial; 1419 with at least one dressing change included in analysis

Home care question: Do we make the extra visit to change non‐intact dressings; are 

patients educated about risks?

change included in analysis11,036 dressing changes, 67% unplanned due to soiling/undressingMore than 2 dressing changes for disruption were associated with a greater than threefold increase in risk of infection/BSI Risk factors for dressing disruption included femoral/jugular isitesPost‐insertion bundles are insufficiently implemented/ study reinforces need

Timsit, JF et al. (2012) Dressing disruption is a major risk factor for catheter‐related infections. Critical Care Medicine 40 (6), 1707‐1714.

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Needleless Connectors (NC) 

Also called “valves,” “injection caps,” “injection ports,” “luer activated devices”luer‐activated devicesMany different NC products ‐‐ categorized into:Simple: No internal mechanisms;  fluid flows straight through the internal lumen. Includes those with a split septum

Complex: Characterized by an internal mechanism that controls the flow of fluid through the device, allowing both infusion and 

i ti f bl daspiration of blood

Hadaway, L & Richardson, D (2010) Needleless connectors: A primer on terminology. Journal of Infusion Nursing, 33 (1), 22‐31.

Attention to needleless connectors and catheter hubs

Needleless connectors and stopcocks are known sourcesNeedleless connectors and stopcocks are known sources of contamination (O’Grady et al., INS, 2011)

Disinfection of the NC is recognized as a critical prevention strategy

Adequacy of disinfection dependent upon antiseptic agent contact time method of application (friction andagent, contact time, method of application (friction and chemical kill critical)

O’Grady et al. Healthcare Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). (2011) Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter related infections, 2011. Am J Infect Control, 39 (4 supp): S1‐S34.

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Accessing the needleless connector

Simple but …  multiple steps Gathering supplies

Performing hand hygiene

Scrubbing/disinfecting NCWhat solution?

How long?

Dry time?

Home care question: Do your clinical procedures define a disinfection time?

Prior to each access?

Attaching syringe/IV administration set maintaining sterility of syringe/set tip and no touch contamination of disinfected NC

Infusion Nurses Society Standards

“The needleless connector should be consistently and thoroughly disinfected using alcohol, tincture of iodine, or chlorhexidine gluconate/alcohol prior to each access. The optimal technique or disinfection time has not been identified.”

NOTE: INS STANDARDS UNDER CURRENT REVISION (2016)

Infusion Nurses Society (INS). (2011). Infusion Nursing Standards of Practice. Journal of Intravenous Nursing,34(1S), p. S32.

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A 5 second scrub with 70% alcohol 

Inpatient setting/prospective observational studyC lt f d CVAD ith NC ( lit tCultures performed on CVADs with NC (split septum type) and no active infusionPrior to disinfection, and after vigorous scrub with 70% alcohol for 5, 10, 15, 30 seconds 5 second dry time, cultures by pressing NC onto agar plate

In vitro assessmentSterile NC inoc lated ith S epidermidis and allo ed to dr for 3Sterile NC inoculated with S. epidermidis and allowed to dry for 3 hoursVigorous scrub with 70% alcohol for 0, 5, 10, 15, 30 seconds, 5 second dry time and then cultured

Rupp, ME et al. (2012) Adequate disinfection of a split‐septum needleless intravascular connector with a 5‐second alcohol  scrub. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 33 (7), 661‐665. 

Results

363 NCs sampled in clinical phase8/8 C l d i h di i f i h d b i l58/87 NCs cultured without disinfection showed bacterial 

contamination

5 second scrub (n=71) – one (1.4%) yielded microbial growth

Similar results with 10, 15, 30 second scrub times

No significant differences in microbial contamination rates between 5, 10, 15, 30 second disinfection times

Rupp, ME et al. (2012) Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 

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Results

In vitro results100% of NCs sampled after no disinfection showed heavy microbial100% of NCs sampled after no disinfection showed heavy microbial growth

When inoculum size was smaller, all NCs had sterile cultures when scrubbed for 5 or more seconds with 70% alcohol

For larger inoculum, minimal growth after 5 second scrub, sterile culture for 10 second or longer scrub

ImplicationsImplicationsThe 5 second scrub was effective with the type of NC used – cannot be generalized to other types of NCs

Rupp, ME et al. (2012) Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 

About alcohol disinfection caps

Photo by Lisa Gorski 

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Example: Research ‐ Alcohol disinfection caps

Use of an alcohol disinfection cap placed on the needleless connector significantly reduced line contamination, density of organisms, and CLABSIs. 3 phases: phase 1 baseline – standard scrub of needleless connector,phase 2 – disinfection cap placed on all CVADsphase 3 – back to standard scrub. p

Contamination and organism density were measured via an aspirate from the PICC. 

Wright, M. O. et al. (2013) Continuous passive disinfection of catheter hubs prevents contamination and bloodstream infection. American Journal of Infection Control, 41, 33‐38.

2014 SHEA/IDSA Guidelines: Alcohol Disinfection Caps

• NOTE THAT THESE ARE ACUTE CARE GUIDELINES AIMED SPECIFICALLY AT CLABSI PREVENTIONSPECIFICALLY AT CLABSI PREVENTION

• Use an antiseptic‐containing hub/connector cap/port protector to cover connectors (Grade I)

Recommended as a “special approach” i.e. recommended in locations/populations with unacceptably high CLABSI rates despite implementation of basic practice recommendations 

Society for  Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA)/ Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA): Strategies to prevent central‐line associated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 update. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/676533

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When no one is looking, do you and

your colleagues ALWAYS scrub the

hub?

Most of us KNOW that the needleless connector must be scrubbed before

each access but what each access but what affects our decision to

consistently do it?

“Intention” to Disinfect the NC

Cross‐sectional studyy

N = 171 nurses from 4 Magnet hospitals

Survey: Demographic data

Autonomy and self‐efficacy scales

“Smith‐Becker Attitudes towards Disinfection Techniques” scale

Smith, JS et al. (2011) Autonomy and self‐efficacy as influencing factors in nurses’ behavioral intention to disinfect needleless intravenous systems. JIN 34 (3), 193‐200.

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“Intention” to Disinfect the NC

Findings and some implicationsThere was a strong relationship between concern for preventing bacterial migration into bloodstream and propensity to use best practice 

Teaching should focus not only on knowledge and skills but also address the affective domain of learning (caring, patient advocacy)

Experienced nurses have greater autonomy and self‐efficacy But recent graduates were more likely to disinfect every timeTenured staff – do they avail themselves of educational opportunities that newer graduates have received?Easy intervention: ready access to supplies 

“ensure adequate supply of alcohol swabs at bedside”

Smith, JS et al. (2011) JIN.

Research: Maintaining catheter patency

Optimal catheter flushing protocol remains un‐defined by researchRecent home care study

Purpose: Evaluate most effective flushing solution for PICC maintenance in home care patientsMethod: Randomized study – non‐blinded

Group 1: control group; saline only flushing (10 mL) (n=28)Group 2: SASH high [10 mL saline; lock with heparin 3 mL (100 units/mL)] (n=32)Group 3: SASH low [10 mL saline; lock with heparin 5 mL (10 units/mL)](n=30)

Population: 18 or older; PICC placed at university center; anticipated need for PICC > 1 week

Lyons, MG, Phalen, AG (2014) A randomized controlled comparison of flushing protocols in home care patients with peripherally inserted central catheters. JIN 

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Research: Maintaining catheter patency

Data collection: Weekly call to patients (any incidence of PICC sluggishness or occlusion, extra RN visits); review of records to validate patient reportsvalidate patient reportsResults:

Only significant finding: longer catheter dwell time (days), the more complications occurred (p=0.003)Overall inconclusive; no statistically significant differences between groupsClinically important findings

SAS protocol highest % of additional visits to assess sluggishnessSAS protocol – highest % of additional visits to assess sluggishness (32%) and use of alteplase for occlusions (25%)SASH low protocol – lowest % of additional visits to assess sluggishness (27%), additional RN visits (13%)SASH low and high protocols, % of alteplase use 10% and 9.4%

Lyons & Phalen (2014)  JIN 

Research: Maintaining catheter patency

Discussion issuesConfounding issue: 3 mL vs. 5 mL heparin flushesConfounding issue: 3 mL vs. 5 mL heparin flushes

Flushing protocol from hospital stay – no heparin – length of stay issues

Conclusions3 flushing protocols equally effective

SAS group more visits and alteplase use but not statistical significancesignificance

Organization decision – use 5 mL heparin (10 unit/mL) flush

Lyons & Phalen (2014)  JIN 

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An issue of catheter manipulation2011 INS Standards: consider risks vs benefits

CVAD Blood Withdrawal for lab studies

Home care question: If you care for patients on PN, how do you educate the 

nurses about this complex infusion therapy?

2011 INS Standards: consider risks vs. benefitsA.S.P.E.N. guidelines “VADs used for PN administration should not be used to obtain blood samples for laboratory tests unless no peripheral access available”PN is an independent risk factor for BSI which means that long‐term care and home care clinicians be especially vigilant in policies addressing VAD carepolicies addressing VAD care

Retrospective study of patients receiving home PNObtaining blood for lab sampling: significant CLABSI risk factor

Buchman  et al. (2013) Risk factors for the development of catheter‐related bloodstream infections in patients receiving home parenteral nutrition. JPEN 2013; epub ahead of print.

INS Standard 

Catheter Removal

VADs shall be removed upon unresolved complication, therapy discontinuation, or if deemed unnecessary.

Element of the central line bundle

Nurses must be patient advocates in obtaining orders for VAD removal, especially in home care ‐‐case examplescase examples

Infusion Nurses Society (INS). (2011). Infusion Nursing Standards of Practice. Journal of Intravenous Nursing,34(1S), p. S57.

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Infection and PIVs; Lower Risk but important, additional preventative interventions include: 

Appropriate site (avoid lower extremities)Adequate skin preparation – clean skin, hair removal, skinAdequate skin preparation  clean skin, hair removal, skin antisepsis (70% alcohol, tincture of iodine, iodophor, chlorhexidine gluconate)Dressing to protect siteChange PIVs placed in emergent situations as soon as possibleC h bili i d hCatheter stabilization to decrease catheter movement which potentially allows pathogens to migrate into the catheter tractREMOVE PIV WHEN NO LONGER NEEDED

INS, 2011 ; O’Grady et al., 2011

Safe Injection Practices

Aseptic technique during preparation & administrationOne syringe – one patientOne syringe  one patientOne syringe – one useNever administer single‐dose, single use vials, ampules, bags, bottles to > one patientDedicate multi‐dose vials to single patient whenever possibleSafe sharps disposal

Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. Guide to infection prevention for outpatient settings: minimum expectations for safe care. (summary guide) . Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/prevent/prevent_pubs.html

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Catheter‐Associated Venous Thrombosis

A L SO  R E F E RR ED  TO  AS  DE E P  VE IN   THROMBOS I S   ( DV T ) ,  VENOUS   THROMBOEMBOL I SM   ( V T E )

Thrombus Formation

Virchow’s Triad – A time honored pathophysiologic explanationexplanation

ALTERED BLOOD FLOW

BLOOD VESSEL WALL INJURY

HYPERCOAGULABILITY

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Increased Risk with PICCs

PICCs are associated with a higher risk of catheter‐associated venous thrombosis than other types of central linesResearch study:Purpose: Define frequency of PICC‐related VTEMethod: Meta‐analysis  ‐ 64 studies including 29,503 patients met eligibility criteria (18 years or >, PICC placed in arm, reported DVT, PE or both after PICC insertion)Results: PICCs associated with increased risk of DVT

OR 2.55 (95% CI 1,54‐4.23; p<0.0001)Increased risk in critically ill and those patients with cancer

Chopra, V, Anand, S, Hickner, A et al (2013) Risk of venous thromboembolism associated with peripherally inserted central catheters: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. The Lancet 382, 311‐325.

Discussion Points

Why do PICCs increase risk?Take up more space in vein?Take up more space in vein?

Smaller diameter PICCs 

Injury to intimal layer of vein from repeated arm movements?PICCs placed in internal jugular lower incidence of VTE

Study found no increase in risk for pulmonary embolismThrombophlebitis in vein – physiological barrier to clot embolization?embolization?

More clinically apparent s/s, earlier treatment?

Chopra et al (2013) The Lancet.

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INS Standard 52: Catheter‐Associated Venous Thrombosis

…the majority of catheter‐associated venous thromboses are clinically silent and do not produce overt signs and symptoms, although pulmonary emboli have been linkedto catheter‐associated venous thrombosis. 

Clinical signs and symptoms of catheter‐associated venous thrombosis are related to obstruction of venous blood flow and include, but are not limited to:

Pain in the extremity, shoulder, neck, or chest;y

Edema in the extremity, shoulder, neck, or chest;

Engorged peripheral veins on the extremity, shoulder, neck or chest wall;

Difficulty with neck or extremity motion. (II)INS (2011) JIN, S71.

Role of the Home Care Nurse

Monitor for s/s

Report s/s to MDReport s/s to MD

Diagnosed via ultrasound or venography

Recognize/understand consequences:Permanent venous obstruction

Increased risk of sepsis

Pulmonary embolismPulmonary embolism

Anticipate treatment: anticoagulationHeparin/low molecular weight heparin/warfarin

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PERIPHERAL  IV  COMPLICATIONS

Risks of PIVs

Prevention of PIV related Phlebitis(not addressed in this section)Infiltration or extravasationNerve injuryInfection (not dd d i thi

complications requires knowledge and attention to:  appropriate use of PIVs, appropriate site/device selection, skin preparation, catheter stabilization, and assessment.A WORD ABOUT MIDLINE CATHETERS

addressed in this section)

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2013 INS IV Safety Practice Survey: USA

L k f i d i d i i l d PIVLack of consistent education and training related to PIV placement57% of nurses reported not being taught how to place a short PIV

71% reported “on the job” training

11% reported “see one, do one” approach to training

Vizcarra et al, 2014

Home care question: How do you assess the competency of nurses who place PIVs?

When is the PIV an appropriate choice?

Considerations include: Duration of intended infusion therapy

Less than 7 days

Intermittent infusions

Infusate characteristicspH between 5 and 9 – Is this based on evidence?? – Paper submitted to Journal of Infusion Nursing that challenges recommendations related 

H f i i di i dto pH  range for intermittent medications – new evd

Osmolarity < 600 mOsml/L

Patient characteristics

INS, 2011, p.S37; O’Grady et al., 2011

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Site Selection

Adults: dorsal and ventral surfaces of upper extremitiesNew sites always proximal to previous sitesNew sites always proximal to previous sitesAreas to avoid according to INS & CDClower extremitiesareas of flexion; includes antecubital fossaventral surface of wrist; cephalic vein above thumb for 4‐5 incheswhere there is pain upon palpationcompromised veinscompromised veinsnear valvesaffected extremity: axillary node dissection, radiation therapy, presence of lymphedema, stroke affected side

INS, 2011, p.S37; O’Grady et al., 2011

Research: Site Selection

Secondary analysis of randomized controlled trial that addressed PIV dwell timeaddressed PIV dwell time

Findings related to site selectionPIV more likely to accidentally dislodge  and more likely to occlude when placed in the hand or the antecubital fossa as compared to forearm

Researchers recommendations: preferential use of f f PIV lforearm for PIV placement

Wallis, MC, McGrail, M, Webster, J et al (2014) Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology 35 (1), 63‐68.

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Catheter Selection

Avoid steel needles; limit to single dose or short term useAvoid steel needles; limit to single dose or short‐term use

Smallest gauge/length of catheter to accommodate prescribed therapyResearch: Increased risk of phlebitis with larger diameter catheters but increased risk of accidental dislodgement with smaller gauge catheters (22 gauge or smaller compared to 20 gauge) (Wallis et al., 2014)2014)

Safety needles  ‐ passive vs. activeKnow your product!

INS, 2011, p.S37; O’Grady et al., 2011

Catheter Dressing & Stabilization

INS Standardsil d i h ll b li d d i i dA sterile dressing shall be applied and maintained on VADs.

An inadequately secured site allows increased microbial growth and increases risk of accidental dislodgement, phlebitis, & infiltration

Minimize catheter movement at hub, prevent dislodgment and loss of accessEngineered stabilization device preferred alternative to tapeSome dressings may serve to stabilize catheters 

Randomized controlled trial: Use of a peripheral IV catheter with an integrated stabilization feature in combination with an IV securement dressing performed as well as a standard peripheral IV with a stabilization device (Bausone‐Gazsa et al., 2010)

INS, 2011, p. S46‐47

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Site Rotation: Based on Clinical Indications, not time

Major change in 2011 INS SOPTh h ld id l t f th h t i h l th tThe nurse should consider replacement of the short peripheral catheter when clinically indicated… the decision to replace the short peripheral catheter should be based on assessment of the patient’s condition; access site; skin and vein integrity; length and type of prescribed therapy; venue of care; integrity and patency of VAD; dressing; and stabilization device. Recommendation based on randomized controlled trials as cited in the Standards

However ‐‐ If placed in emergency situation, replace as soon p g y , pas possible and no later than 48 hours

INS, 2011, p. S57

Clinically Indicated PIV Replacement: Complication rate compared to routine replacement

2014 study published in the LancetHypothesis: Patients with clinically indicated replacement of PIVs would have equivalent phlebitis rates (and no difference in complications) compared to routine replacementN=3283 patients randomized to either routine (n=1690) or clinically indicated replacement (n=1593)No difference in phlebitis rates between groupsRates of infiltration, occlusion, accidental removal equivalent between groupsg pStudy conclusion – safe to remove PIVs based on clinical indications rather than a routine time frame (i.e. every 72 hours) (Rickard et al., 2014)

Rickard, CM, Webster, J, Wallis, MC et al (2012) Routine versus clinically indicated replacement of peripheral intravenous catheters: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet, 380, 1066‐1074.

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Regular assessment of the PIV site is a critical factor allowing quick intervention in the eventintervention in the event of a complication

2012 INS position paper: Recommendations for frequency of assessment of the short peripheral 

catheter site.GORSK I ,   L ,  HA L LOCK ,  D ,   KUEHN ,   S C ,   E T  A L .   ( 2 0 1 2 )  J OURNA L  OF   I N FU S ION  NURS ING 3 5   ( 5 ) ,   2 9 0 ‐ 2 9 2 .

catheter site.

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When an infusion is running (whether continuous or intermittent) PIV sites should be routinelyor intermittent), PIV sites should be routinely 

assessed:

For redness, tenderness, swelling, drainage, and/or  the presence of paresthesias, numbness, or tingling at the site

Assessment should include visual assessment, palpation, and subjective information from the patientsubjective information from the patient. 

If there is tenderness at the site, the dressing may be removed to more carefully visualize the site

Gorski,  et al (2012), JIN

INS Recommendations for frequency of Assessment

At least every hour for:o Neonatal patientspo Pediatric patients

Every 5‐10 minutesVesicant infusions

With every home care/outpatient visitFor patients receiving peripheral infusions at home as overseen byFor patients receiving peripheral infusions at home as overseen by home care or outpatient nurses

Gorski,  et al (2012), JIN

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What about temperature as an aspect of assessment?

The possibility of catheter‐ associated bloodstream infection should be considered when there is fever in anyinfection should be considered when there is fever in any patient with a PIV even in the absence of site redness, tenderness, swelling, or drainage

Check temperature at a frequency according to organizational policy/procedure AND more often based on nursing judgment 

Gorski,  et al (2012), JIN

PIV  COMPLICATIONS  

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Infiltration/Extravasation

Definition – based on type of infusate, vesicant vs. non‐vesicant

May nurses consider infiltration a routine and almost inevitable complication

BUT… large infiltrations and even small extravasations can result in significant injury – loss of limb, permanent nerve damage, loss of function

Severe extravasation in a one year old child –preventable complication!

Good news  ‐ no loss of limb or function however permanent scarring

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Infiltration/Extravasation Risk Factors

Mechanical: catheter itself irritates or injures the endothelial cells lining the vein wall

Physiologic: blood clot formation and lymphedema. 

Pharmacologic: pH, osmolarity, vasoconstrictors

Doellman, D., Hadaway, L., Bowe‐Geddes, L.A., et al (2009) Infiltration and extravasation: Update on prevention and management. Journal of Infusion Nursing, 32 (4), 203‐211

Infiltration/Extravasation: Signs and Symptoms 

Cool skin temperature at the PIV site

Skin that appears blanched and tautSkin that appears blanched and taut

Patient complaints of skin tightness, pain, or discomfort

Swelling at the PIV site

Decreased mobility of the extremity

Leaking of fluid from the insertion site

Changes in the infusion flow quality

Lack of a blood return

INS, 2011, p.S67

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Infiltration/Extravasation Interventions

Stop infusion immediatelyAttempt to aspirate any residual drug/IV fluidAttempt to aspirate any residual drug/IV fluid NotifyLimb elevationCold vs. warmthDocument – measurement/descriptionMonitor  INS, 2011, p.S67

“An IV infusion should not be painful if the drug is diluted and slowly injected through a catheter that has been properly selected, inserted, and secured. Pain on injection is an immediate indication to stop. Most severe complications occur because the infusion continues while staff consider other explanations for the pain”   (Hadaway, 2007)

Infiltration/Extravasation Prevention

Appropriate infusateA i iAppropriate siteNo more than 2 PIV attempts per nurseSmall catheterNever place new PIV proximal to previous siteCatheter stabilizationNever rely on infusion pump – will not detect this complication after infiltration fluid/drug will continue tocomplication – after infiltration, fluid/drug will continue to infuse and worsen problem!ASSESS PIV site 

INS, 2011

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Nerve Damage

N i j i h l d i iNerve injuries are the most commonly reported insertion‐related complication (direct puncture nerve injury) 

Preventable when appropriate IV sites are selected, when proper IV insertion technique is used, and when PIV sites are assessed and monitored

Nerve Damage

Nerve compression injury may occur as a result of infiltration or extravasation of an infusion. A compartment syndrome may occur when the IV fluid or medication collects in tight spaces bound by the fascia, bone, muscle, and skin. The increased pressure of the fluid decreases perfusion in the area which can lead to irreversible nerve damage and loss of function. Early identification and intervention for infiltration/extravasation reduces riskintervention for infiltration/extravasation reduces risk. 

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Signs and Symptoms: Direct Puncture Nerve Injury

Immediate symptoms sharp acute pain at the venipuncture site.

Sharp shooting pain up or down the arm

Sensation of pain that changes in severity depending on needle position; “pins and needles” sensation or an “electric shock” feeling.

Pain or tingling discomfort in the hand or fingertips

Signs/Symptoms:  compartment syndrome due to a severe infiltration/extravasation

May result in nerve compression injury!May result in nerve compression injury!

Pain, pallor, paresthesia (e.g. numbness, tingling), paralysis, and/or pulselessness

Restricted joint movement and resistance to passive motion

(Talbot & Rogers, 2011)

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Interventions

If the patient complains of paresthesias, numbness, or tingling upon catheter insertion, the catheter should be immediately removed and the physician promptly notified, as rapid attention may prevent permanent injury 

INS, 2011, p.S37

Avoid the lateral surface of the wrist for approximately 4‐

Nerve Damage Prevention

pp y5 inches because of the potential for nerve damage 

Avoid the ventral surface of the wrist due to pain on insertion and possible nerve damage Avoid the antecubital area for routine PIV placement

Avoid excessive probing for the vein 

Infiltration/extravasation prevention

INS, 2011, p.S44

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INFUS ION  MEDICAT ION  RELATED  COMPL ICAT IONS :

DRUG  TOX IC IT I ES

Commonly administered drug groups

PenicillinsAllergic reactions most common adverse reaction; up to 10% of population; can be immediate/delayed

C h l iCephalosporinsAllergic reactions; cross allergy may occur in those allergic to penicillins; use should be avoided in patients with anaphylactic reactions to penicillin

VancomycinCommonly administered in home setting; must administer over at least one

Focus in this section on the following. Case examples.

Commonly administered in home setting; must administer over at least one hour; faster infusion can result in “red man (neck)” syndrome caused by a release of histamine‐ hypotension, flushing macupapular rash of trunk, face, and neck may occurototoxic and nephrotoxic

Aminogycosides (gentamicin, tobramycin, amikacin) ototoxic and nephrotoxic

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Assess and monitor

Signs/symptoms related to improvement in infectiong y p pResponse to the drug therapyDrug‐related side effects Laboratory testsBe alert to adverse reactions specific to the disease state and the antibiotic regimen (e.g. nephrotoxicity/ototoxicity with aminoglycosides)

VAD for signs of complications. 

Renal function

Renal function tests (serum creatinine, BUN, trough levels) should be regularly measured in patients treated with nephrotoxic antimicrobials. Examples:p

Aminoglycosides – twice weeklyVancomycin – once weeklyWhen multiple nephrotoxic agents are used together, increased frequency of monitoring should be considered. (Tice, 2006) 

Be aware that renal toxicity can occur even with appropriate serum concentrations, teach patients about signs and symptoms such as decreased urine output. Generally reversible – managed with hydration, discontinuation of drugCase example

Xie, J, Talaska, AE, Schact, J (2011) New developments in aminoglycoside

therapy and toxocity. Hearing Research 281, 28‐37.

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Renal Function

Be aware that risk of changes in renal function are more likely in older patients, children, and those taking other nephrotoxic drugs

Patient education   adequate hydration

Ensure accuracy of drug levels; trough levels just prior to drug administration; peak levels (less commonly done) generally one hour post infusion

Anticipate adjustments in dosage and frequency with increase p j g q yin creatinine, drug levels Critical Nursing Actions:

•Collaborate/discuss with MD if no labs are ordered•Follow-up to obtain results of labs on the day they were done•Never administer next dose until results verified

Vestibular and hearing dysfunction

Irreversible bilateral sensorineural hearing loss beginning at high frequencies (cochleotoxicity) or as an combination of vertigo, nausea, vomiting, nystagmus, ataxia (vestibulotoxicity)

Due to progressive loss of outer hair cells from base of cochlea to apex; progressive loss of inner ear hair cells in more severe cases

Monitoring for vestibular and hearing dysfunction should be assessed at each visit

Aminoglycosides

Xie et al. (2011) Hearing Research.

Aminoglycosides

Vancomycin

Be aware that ototoxicity can occur even with appropriate serum concentrations

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Vestibular and hearing dysfunction

T h i b i kTeach patients about risk

Maintain timing of antibiotics to ensure consistency of serum levels

Critical Nursing Actions:•Ask about changes in hearing, dizziness, tinnitus, fullness in the earsR t fi di i di t l•Report findings immediately

PATIENT  EDUCATION

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Gorski Model for Safe Home Infusion Therapy ©Lisa A. Gorski

Patient Selection

Positive patient outcomes Reduced risk for complicationsPatient satisfaction

Today’s presentation f d

Patient/CGEducation

Patient care & Monitoring

Healthcare provider satisfaction focused on:

Excellent technical skills & infection prevention actions on the part of the nurse

Infection Prevention in LTC and Home Care: Patient Education

prevention actions on the part of the nurse are not enough!We must teach effectively We must address anxiety, resistance to learning, functional limitations that limit/preclude independenceWe must periodically re‐evaluate technique even in patients who are independent We must re‐evaluate technique after a negative outcomeCASE EXAMPLE – 45 year old patient on home PN who developed a BSI

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Patient/Caregiver Education: Do not underestimate its’ importance!

Hand hygieneHand hygiene 

Rationale for placement 

Insertion process

Expected dwell time

Care and maintenance

Signs and symptoms to report

INS, 2011, S36

Challenges of Implementing Evidence‐based practices

Lack of timeLack of time

Lack of autonomy to change practice

Too much reliance on education and transmission of information as a change strategy

Solomons, NM, Spross, JA (2011) Evidence‐based practice barriers and facilitators from a continuous quality improvement perspective: an integrative review. Journal of Nursing Management 19, 109‐120.Weingart, SN (2014) Implementing practice guidelines: easier said than done. Israel Journal of Health Policy Research 3 (20).

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SHEA/IDSA Implementation Strategies

A helpful framework Engage

I l i i h iInvolve organization championsEducate

Address knowledge, critical thinking, behavior , psychomotor skills, attitudes, beliefsDocumented competency

ExecuteStandardize care processes – implement guidelines, bundles, protocolsprotocols

EvaluateLink process and outcome data to competency assessmentsSurveillance

Society for  Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA)/ Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA): Strategies to prevent central‐line associated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 update. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/676533

The trend for patients who require VADs/infusions beyond the hospital will continue to expandAs with acute care, the emphasis on infection prevention is strong ‐‐

Summary

we live in an era of zero tolerance for infectionsA number of factors put patients at risk for infection 

Patient related characteristics/factors such as receiving PN Organizational factors ‐‐ uneducated staff, failure to address competency, lack of sound policies and procedures that incorporate evidence‐based practices (site care, aseptic technique, blood sampling)Especially, but not only (!) In the home setting, failure to adequately educate patients and families.

P ti t l t i k f th li ti b d i f tiPatients are also at risk for other complications beyond infection including thrombosis, infiltration, nerve damage, and drug‐related toxicities.

Nursing knowledge, skill, and understanding of potential risks is vital in protecting our patients.

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Final Thought

“My view you know is that the ultimate destination is the nursing of the sick in their own homes…I look to the abolition of all hospitals and workhouse infirmaries. But it is no use to talk about the year 2000.”   

Florence Nightingale, 1867 

Thank you for your attention

L I SAGORSK I@HOTMAI L .COM