Hofman-Storytelling in Ethnomusicological Research

8/7/2019 Hofman-Storytelling in Ethnomusicological Research

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Auto)biography as a musicological discourse (Musicological studies, Collection of papers,vol. 3), Tatjana Markovi, Vesna Miki (eds.). Beograd: Fakultet muzike umetnosti:Signature, 2010, 97-107. [COBISS.SI-ID 31253037]

Storytelling in Ethnomusicological Research: A Case Study of Female Singers in

Southeastern Serbia

1.1. Narrative Music Ethnography

The existing methods of conducting ethnomusicological fieldwork very often contain an artificial gap

between a researcher and an informant, often involving the premise of appraisal. The mainstreamscholarly discourses are usually based on a positivistic attitude about an objective researcher who

explores music phenomena and reveals objective facts. The researcher assesses the quality of a

performance and selects authentic or first-rate material from fieldwork. Focused on shared

musical forms, this kind of methodology emphasizes the cultural unity, examining the authentic

representatives of the researched group.1It implies a depersonalized approach when the researcher has

no interest in the lives of their informants and has not explored music-making in connection with

performers personal discourses, their attitudes or backgrounds.

The papers aim is to rethink that researchers position in view of the concepts of the qualitative

research and the oral history (also called biographical, narrative, life writing or life history) method,

shifting the focus from the performer to the person performing (of a certain age, race, gender,

citizenship or having political attitude). The main attempt of this approach is to avoid the concepts of

homogeneous musical cultures or traditions, and their univocal representations. Quoting Seyla

Benhabib, who criticizes the essentialism of a shared comprehensive worldview as a distinguish

feature of groups: Why should members of the same ethnic or other group share a comprehensive

worldwide?2 The biographical method rather disputes the holistic view, supporting reflexiveaccounts and polyvocality, where every representation of the other (the observed) is also the

construction of the self (the observer).3 In opposition to the structuralist approaches that call for

neutrality and objectivity as its primary assets, the researched reality in the biographical approach is

1 Jonathan P. J. Stock, Toward an Ethnomusicology of the Individual, or Biographical WritingEthnomusicology, The World of Music, 43/1 (2001), 5-19, 8.2 Seyla Benhabib, The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the GlobalEra (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 4.3

James Clifford, Introduction: Partial Truths, in: Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography byJames Clifford and George Marcus (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), 1-27, 14-15.

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meant as a subjective and multidimensional.4The scholarly work is seen as a reconstruction of the

data obtained in the field as a so-called socially produced interpretation. 5The researcher does not

assume an objective position, but constructs reality together with the social subjects interlocutors6

involved in the research, who participate actively in the research process, at times even becoming the

coauthors of the project.

1.2. Oral history and music research

Oral history method has been largely employed in humanities and social sciences.7 The oral historians

criticized the homogeneous and hegemonic historical discourse and argued for the so-called the

history of ordinary people. They seek to understand the ways people experience social upheavals and

transformations in their own lives, attempting to reveal the diversity of social experiences within the

community.8 By focusing on the narrative framework, the main idea is to leave the definitions,

articulations, formulations, and representations to peoples interpretations, rather than imposing

categories derived from the theoretical frames.9 Authors such as Paul Thompson, Donald A. Ritchie

and Liz Stanley10argue that the main purpose of this method is not to get information of value itself,

but to make a subjective record of how one man or woman looks back on his or her life as a whole,

or part of it.11 With that respect, the narrative method enables access to the personal attitudes towards

4 The emergence of critical, participatory anthropology in the 1960s and 1970s introduced the qualitativeresearch approaches as the participation in- style fieldwork (the terms used for this method were also

Participant observation or theChicago School of sociology). According to Clifford Geertz, what was necessaryon the fieldwork is a thick description of the network, its dynamic and the interplay of relations between people,things, activities and meanings, Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York:Basic Books, 1973), 5. During the 1970s and 1980s, the qualitative research became a dominant methodologyamong the feminist researchers, even though the relevance of this paradigm produced many debates amongthem. This approach was consistent with feminist values with regards to critics of the essentialist viewassociated with the quantitative method, Toby Epstein Jayaratne and Stewart J. Abigail, Quantitative andQualitative Methods in the Social Sciences: Current Feminist Issues and Practical Strategies, in: BeyondMethodology: Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research, by Mary Margaret Fonow, Judith A. Cook(Bloomington IN: Indiana University Press, 1991), 85-106, 85.5 Liz Stanley, The auto-biographical I(Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1992), 7.6 By employing the qualitative research methodology and the phenomenological approach, I would avoid theterms interviewers or informants. The term narrators which is usually associated with the oral history

method does not seem to me also appropriate since its static meaning. In my opinion, the notion of terminterlocutors describes on the best way the interactive nature of the qualitative research methodology andbiographical method I used in the research.7 See: Ibidem; Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Past Oral History (Oxford, New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1978, [2000]); Trevor Lummis, Listening to History: The Authenticity of Oral History (London:Hutchinson, 1987); Louise Douglas, Alan Roberts, and Ruth Thompson, Oral History: A Handbook(Sydney:Allen & Unwin, 1988); Ruth H. Finnegan, Oral Traditions and the Verbal Arts: A Guide to Research Practices(London: Routledge, 1992); Donald A. Ritchie, Doing oral history (New York: Twayne Publisher, 1995); AnnieBolitho and Mary Hutchison, Out of the Ordinary: Inventive Ways of Bringing Communities, Their Stories andAudiences to Light(Murrumbateman: Canberra Stories Group, 1998).8 Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson, Oral History Reader(London: Routledge, 2006), 30.9 Edward M. Bruner, Experience and Its Expressions, in: The Anthropology of Experience by Victor W.

Turner and Edward M. Bruner (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 3-30, 9.10 Liz Stanley, The auto-biographical; Paul Thompson, Oral History..; Donald Ritchie, Doing oral history11 Paul Thompson, OralHistory...,199;

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music and performing, keeping a record of personal histories of the interlocutors, their points of view,

and their interpretations of the past.

Although the biography has been, to a certain extent, used in ethnomusicological research, this

method together with the life writing is rather new to the discipline of ethnomusicology. Mantle

Hood in The Ethnomusicologist and Bruno Nettl in The Study of Ethnomusicology12 used the

narrative approach, but the emphasis was more on the events in lives of their informants, and not on

the very telling.13 In recent years, several scholars have focused on the musical experiences of

individuals including Veit Erlmann, Timothy Rice, Jeff Titon, Virginia Danielson, and Jonathan

Stock.14 They follow an ethnomusicological epistemology in which fieldwork is defined as knowing

people making music15 and an interactive and dialogic way of researching music. Timothy Rice has

particularly emphasized the importance of a shifting focus of ethnomusicological research toward

more atomized studies of individuals and small groups of individuals `musical experiences, defining

that approach as the subject-centered musical ethnography.16

1.3. Conceptualizing Experience

The category of experience is a key concept in the biographical approach. In anthropology, the

concept of experience came into focus in the second half of the 1970s and the early 1980s. Victor

Turner first introduced the formulation the anthropology of experience as a reaction to the

structural-functional approach and its static model of social systems17 (Bruner 1986:3). The work of

Geertz, Turner, Bruner and other anthropologists was extremely important primarily in employing

the interpretative paradigm by theorizing researchers experience of fieldwork and the interpretation

of data gathered in the field. They have suggested the category of experience not as an authentic

subjective testimony, but as a active, volatile and creative force,18 focusing on the individual

12 Mantle Hood, The Ethnomusicologist(New Edition, Kent: Kent State Universtity Press, 1982); Bruno Nettl,The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and Concepts (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983).13 Jeff T. Titon, Knowing Fieldwork, in: Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives for Fieldwork inEthnomusicology by Gregory F. Barz and Timothy J. Cooley (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press,1997), 87-100, 96.14 Veit Erlmann, African Stars: Studies in Black South African Performance (Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1991); Timothy Rice, May It Fill Your Soul: Experiencing Bulgarian Music (Chicago: ChicagoUniversity Press, 1994); Jeff T. Titon, Knowing Fieldwork; Virginia Danielson, Self Consciousness: AnAlternative Anthropology of Identity (London: Routledge, 1997); Jonathan P. J. Stock, Musical Narrative,Ideology, and the Life of Abing, Ethnomusicology, 40/1 (1996), 49-74; Jonathan P. J. Stock, Toward anEthnomusicology15 Jeff T. Titon, Knowing Fieldwork, 91.16 Timothy Rice, Time, Place, and Metaphor in Musical Experience and Ethnography, Ethnomusicology, 47/2 (2003), 151-179, 152.17 Edward M. Bruner, Experience and Its Expressions, in: The Anthropology of Experience by Victor W.

Turner and Edward M. Bruner (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 3-30, 3.18 Victor W. Turner and Edward M. Bruner, Introduction, in: The Anthropology of Experience by Victor W.Turner and Edward M. Bruner (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 3-32, 17.

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experiences of culture, including not only verbally, but also images and sound impressions. 19 The

main problem of this concept was a critical distinction between experience and its expression, more

precisely reality, experience and expression. Scholars claimed the gap and tension between

experience and its manifestation in expression, seeing it as a key problem in the anthropology of

experience.20 This standpoint can be criticized from the post-structuralist perspective by claiming

that both a reality and its experience are discursively constructed through the very expression.

The feminist standpoint theorists (such as Dorothy Smith, Sandra Harding, Carol Gillegan, and

Particia Hil Collins) claimed that because of their common subordinate position, women have

universal experience.21 They asserted that womens experience could be used as a research

material for writing the history of repressed identities. That approach was founded in Marxist

epistemology and the concept of the proletarian standpoint the experience of the dominated rather

than the dominators.22 The Standpoint theory has its bases in the concepts of separate female and

male spheres, which was characteristic of the so-called Difference feminism that holds that sex

differences do have political and social importance. In her text Experience,Joan Scott has argued

that histories of difference provided alternative values and opposition to the hegemonic construction

of the social world as evidence of otherness. On the other hand, she held an opinion that, although

the main quality of this theory is that it challenged the idea of an essential truth and one-sided

perception of the world, its main insufficiency is the premise of essentialism (the concept of the

unified female subject). Scott problematizes the objective evidence of experience and argues that

the subject is constructed through discourse and only from that position is he/she able to produce

his/her experience. She emphasized the discursive character of experience, identifying it as a

linguistic event that does not go beyond the established meanings. Instead of assuming of individual

subjects who have experiences, she proposes the subjects who are the effect of the discursive

processing of their experiences: There is no individual experience, but subjects who are constituted

through experience.23

In ethnomusicological research, methodology based on the concept of experience and, as Jeff ToddTiton defines it, the narrative musical ethnography,24 is quite new. John Blacking first asserted the

function of music in expression of the human experience, focusing on the role of individual musical

19 Ibidem, 5.20 Edward M. Bruner, Experience and Its Expressions, 7.21 Nancy C.M. Hartsock, The Feminist Standpoint: Developing the Ground for a Specifically FeministHistorical Materialism, in: Feminism & Methodology: Social Science Issues by Sandra Harding (BloomingtonIN: IndianaUniversity Press, 1987), 157-180, 158.22 Particia Ticineto Clough, Feminist thought: Desire, Power, and Academic discourse (Oxfrord UK,Cambridge USA: Blackwell, 1994), 67.23

Joan W. Scott, Experience, in: Feminists Theorize the Politicalby Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott (NewYork: Routledge, 1992), 22-40, 26.24 Jeff T. Titon, Knowing Fieldwork, 96.

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experiences in society and human relations: Thus music, which is a product of the processes which

constitute the realization of self, will reflect all aspects of the self. 25 Jane Sugarman employs the

term lived experience, in her opinion, the crucial one for underlying the importance of individual

agency in the process of formulating musical practices: Only through a detailed appraisal of the

lived experience of gender we can understand the power of musical performance to shape that

experience.26 She expounds on the significance of examination of the individual performers and

their subjective positions.27 Jeff Titons above-mentioned concept of the study of people

experiencing music rises from the phenomenological approaches and hermeneutics, with an attempt

to confine knowledge within the limits of the world of lived experience.28 Timothy Rice in his article

Time, Place, and Metaphor in Musical Experience and Ethnography points out the importance of

differences in the musical experiences shared by a socio-cultural or ethnic group. He stands against

the romanticized usage of the individual experience, claiming that experience is not inner

phenomenon, but begins with interaction with an outside world.29

Drawing on the presented approaches, I have not employed the category of experience as true or self-

evident, as a subjective testimony which is immediate, true, and authentic, 30 but in contrary, I have

interpreted the musical experiences as a polyvocal and multifaceted, performed through the interplay

with performers social realities. In the case study I will present in following paragraphs, the self-

reflexing potential of experience will be employed as a key concept in researching of the dynamics

between the socialist identity politics and its social performances.

1.4. The Storytellers

The case study I will focus on was a part of my PhD projects fieldwork related to the stage

performances of the female vocal amateur groups in Southeastern Serbia during socialism. My

interlocutors were women born prior to and during World War II in the area of Niko Polje, involved

in the amateur culture activities in their villages from the beginning of the 1970s to the end of the

1980s. In using the biographical method during the field research, my intention was to keep a record

of their personal histories, points of view, and interpretations of the past. Autobiographicaltestimonies made it possible to present women as individuals differentiated by age, attitudes and

25 John Blacking, Music, Culture, & Experience: Selected Papers of John Blacking (Chicago and London:University of Chicago Press, 1995), 33.26 Jane C. Sugarman, Engendering Song Singing and Subjectivity at Prespa Albanian Weddings (Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1997), 33.27 Ibidem, 24.28 Jeff T. Titon, Knowing Fieldwork, 90.29 Timothy Rice, Time, Place, and Metaphor., 157.30 Ernst Van Alphen, Symptoms of Discursivity: Experience, Memory and Trauma, in: Narrative Theory-

Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies by Mieke Bal (London and New York: Routledge, 2004),107-122, 107.

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backgrounds, rather than the singular representatives of the Niko Polje rural women. In illuminating

the voices of women and their personal stories, confidentiality was of the utmost importance. Oral

history enabled me to access their personal attitudes towards music and performing, and

polyvocality of their interpretations of the past.31 Since my idea was to illuminate womens

personal discourses through emphasizing their standpoint the way they speak about their activities,

what they highlight or what they miss out I gave them an opportunity to speak freely about their

experiences in amateur vocal groups. I did not have any questionnaires prepared in advance, and

conversation was never particularly directed towards gender issues. The cooperative nature of the

biographical method created an opportunity for them to supply their personal interpretations, as Paul

Thompson states in his book The Voice of the Past Oral History, to help give ordinary people

confidence in their own speech.32

Although the emphasis was on them as individuals, their stories revealed that the female singers

shared common experiences as members of the villages amateur groups, which shaped their

discourses in a similar way. The women I conversed with were all very good singers, well-known in

their villages. As community members emphasized, they had many public performances, mostly at

manifestations organized by various local cultural organizations (Houses of Culture Domovi

kulture, the Culture-Educational Associations Kulturno-prosvetna zajednica, KPZs, KUDs). Some

of them took an active part in the local cultural activities, not only as singers, but also as members of

amateur theatres. That kind of discourse of competency enabled them to be recognized within the

community as a first-rate informants. On the other hand, they often did not perceive themselves as

appropriate informants and usually suggested their husbands or local experts as a better choice.

The phenomenon that especially attracted my attention during the fieldwork was hesitation of the

female singers to talk to me, as music and performing was not an appropriate subject of

conversation. Very often, although they participated actively in conversation, even concerning the

more delicate details, they were not always open to talk about their public performances at the

Village Gatherings, considering them frivolous and retrograde:33

That was a joke, we were just having fun and I went to all that, but

31 The main idea of the so-called womens oral history is to create a particular womens history, based ontheir voices and experiences (Sherna Berger Gluck, Whats So Special about Women? Womens Oral History,in: Womens Oral History: The Frontiers Readerby Susan H. Armitage, Patricia Hart and Karen Weathermon(Linkoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 3-20, 3). Since this concept is built on theessentialist approach regarding female identity and women experiences I did not use it in my researchmethodology.32

Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Past, str. 1933 Many people involved in the research or neighbors who were attracted by the presence of a research team,mainly reacted by laughing when they heard the subject of our interest.

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To je bilo danas zajebancija, ja sam bila na zajebancije sve, ali...(Jevica

Bogdanovi, Prosek village)

With that respect, the female singers narratives about performing showed an implicit dichotomy in

their attitudes. At the beginning, they were ashamed to talk about singing, but as the conversation

became livelier, they gradually abandoned the position of being on the margin and became the main

subjects of their narratives:

That was when we won in Laerak and they showed us on TV. In Baka

Topola, too. Yes, I was young and we were ashamed to go. Four out of five of

the officials from local authorities were coming to ask my husband to allow

me to sing. I wanted to participate, but the household was big and it was

different from now. But ok, go when they are asking you so nicely and every

year. Well, it was ok for me, too, I had good time. Traveling and having fun,

we went to erdap, I was there for three days.

Mlada sam bila, pa napred ali smo se sramuvali nismo ili. Pa sve dojdu pa

me mole optinari, pa dou etri, pet mua da li ou. Ali kua golema, ono

neje tako ko sad. I ajde, dobro, idi kad zna da te ve tako mole. I dok se

uvue tam, jedna godina i druga i trea, ali svaku godinu te gotovo mole. Ja

iskam toj da se manem, ali oni uporni za toj, treba im toj i toj sam ila. Pa

dobro i za mene lepo, isprovodila sam se. I putujemo i provede i ono kako se

kae, na eskurziju na erdap smo bili, tri dana sam tam bila. (Mirka

Jovanovi, Mala village)

Theirs stories confirm that they were very satisfied with their amateur activities and stage

performances. They spoke very proudly about the situations where the authorities came to theirhouses to insist on their participation at the organized culture activities. From the female singers

narratives it is visible that they were delighted by the attention they got from the local culture

workers and authorities, that gave them a specific position of musical authority: Performing at

manifestations, particularly at big ones, the members of the group became important persons, and the

first known experts, artists and tourists from their environments.34 With that respect, the female

singers were particularly proud of their travels. Bearing in mind the restrictions on the womens

mobility, which was characteristic of the rural society, travels with amateur groups marked one big

34 Naila Ceribai, Hrvatsko, seljako, starinsko i domae: Povijest i etnografija javne prakse narodne glazbe uHrvatskoj (Zagreb: Biblioteka Etnografija, 2003), 20.

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step in gaining their social freedom. They were undoubtedly delighted by the achieved geographical

and social mobility, and the important parts of their stories were travels and contacts with people

who were enchanted by their singing.

1.4. Subversive narratives

As mentioned, the amateur activities of the female singers, as a way of expressing their

individualities, appeared to be very important feature of their identification. The extraordinary

experience they shared made these women possible to transgress existent norms of the rural society,

and enabled them to occupy a specific social position. Their memories, which are different from ones

of their female neighbors or other women in their villages, influenced their unique narratives and

interpretation of the past, but also affected changes in their inner realities. Their stories illustrate

that the female singers started changing their attitudes not only about performing, but also about their

own individualities, confirming the significance of the stage performances as a strategy in

construction of their subjectivities.

That kind of double-voiced talk indicates that their experiences were conflicted with the existent

norms seen by the mainstream patriarchal social narrative as inappropriate and dangerous.35For that

reason, they avoided a conversation about stage performances or tried to reclaim their stories in order

to win the acceptance of the social environment. As Gerghens point out, an active negotiation over

narrative is especially invited when the individual is asked to justify his or her behavior, that is, when

one has acted disagreeably with respect to common frames of understanding.36 In that sense, the

female singers stories illustrate the ways the individual narratives were pervaded by the larger

public or cultural narratives, which played important role in the processes of their personal

narrativisation, emphasizing the relation between experience, subjectivity, and discursivity: Behind

community discourses about music, which can be highly formalized, lay all sorts of multiple

discourse and practices.37

Their stories show that the specific musical experience influenced a new self-awareness and self-

recognition of female singers, which caused a shift in their understanding about their socialenvironment. Their accounts indicate that the female singers started to transform their

understandings of the amateur culture activities previously imposed by social expectations and

norms of the patriarchal society, which became mediated by the dominant socialist discourse of

gender equality, which they experienced as empowering. Their accounts asserted the important shift

35 Svetlana Slapak, Identities under Threat on the Eastern Borders, in:Thinking Differently A Reader inEuropean Women Studiesby Gabriele Griffin and Rosi Braidotti (London and New York: Zed Books, 2002),83-96, 153.36 Keneth J. Gergen and Mary M. Gergen, Narratives of the Self, in: Memory, Identity, Community: The Idea

of the Narrative in the Human Sciences by Lewis P. Hinchman and Sandra K. Hinchman (New York: SUNYPress, 1997):, 161-184, 177.37 Jane C. Sugarman, Engendering Song, 26.

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in the social context which enabled new narratives of stage performances became dominant: New

stories arise when there is a new reality to be explained when the social arrangements are so different

that the old narrative no longer seems adequate.38 The case study of the female singers in Niko

Polje shows the ways the individual narratives were pervaded by the larger public or cultural

narratives, which played important role in the processes of their personal narrativisation,

emphasizing the relation between experience, subjectivity, and discursivity.

1.5. Conclusion

Each telling is unique, depends on the context, the audience and the medium,39 and the story cannot

be retold in the identical version. What this paper has suggested is overcoming the tendency to

categorize and produce fixed stories about music-making in ethnomusicology. Employing the

phenomenological approach, based on a self-reflexive and dialogic research methodology, it has

offered a polyvocal and multifaced research strategies of many, complex, and contradictory musical

experiences. In accordance with Liz Stanleys claim that every biography is in fact autobiography,

the researcher on the field is in dialog with him/herself as much as with the storytellers he/she is

focused on. On the same way they are telling their stories, we are telling ours, quoting Edward M.

Bruner: I wish to extend this notion to ethnography as discourse, as a genre of storytelling.40

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Benhabib, Seyla (2002). The Claims of Culture: Equality and Diversity in the GlobalEra, Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Berger Gluck, Sherna (2002): Whats So Special about Women? Womens Oral History. InWomens Oral History: The Frontiers Reader, Susan H. Armitage, Patricia Hart and KarenWeathermon (eds.), Linkoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 3-20.

Blacking, John (1995). Music, Culture, & Experience: Selected Papers of John Blacking, Chicagoand London: University of Chicago Press.

Bolitho, Annie and Mary Hutchison (1998). Out of the Ordinary: Inventive Ways of Bringing

Communities, Their Stories and Audiences to Light, Murrumbateman: Canberra Stories Group.Bruner, M. Edward (1986): Experience and Its Expressions. In The Anthropology of Experience,Victor W. Turner and Edward M. Bruner (eds.), Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 3-30.

Ceribai, Naila, (2003). Hrvatsko, seljako, starinsko i domae: Povijest i etnografija javne praksenarodne glazbe u Hrvatskoj, Zagreb: Biblioteka Etnografija.

Clifford, James, and George Marcus (eds.) 1986. Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics ofEthnography. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

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Edward M. Bruner, Experience and Its Expressions, 152.39 Ibidum, 146.40 Edward M. Bruner, Experience and Its Expressions,139.

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Hartsock, Nancy C.M. (1987). The Feminist Standpoint: Developing the Ground for a SpecificallyFeminist Historical Materialism. In Feminism & Methodology: Social Science Issues, SandraHarding (ed.), Bloomington IN: IndianaUniversity Press, 157-180.

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Jayaratne, Toby Epstein, and Stewart J. Abigail (1991): Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in theSocial Sciences: Current Feminist Issues and Practical Strategies. In Beyond Methodology:Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research, M.M. Fonow and J.A. Cook eds., Bloomington IN: IndianaUniversity Press, 85-106.

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Rice, Timothy (1997): Toward a Mediation of Field Methods and Field Experience inEthnomusicology. In Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives for Fieldwork in Ethnomusicology,Gregory F. Barz and Timothy J. Cooley (eds.), New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 101-120.

Rice, Timothy (2003): Time, Place, and Metaphor in Musical Experience and Ethnography,Ethnomusicology, Vol. 47, No. 2, 151-179.

Ritchie, Donald A. (1995). Doing oral history, New York: Twayne Publisher.

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Scott, Joan W. (1992): Experience. In Feminists Theorize the Political, Judith Butler and Joan W.Scott (eds.), New York: Routledge, 22-40.

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Stock, Jonathan P. J. (2001): Toward an Ethnomusicology of the Individual, or BiographicalWriting Ethnomusicology, The World of Music, Vol. 43, No.1, 5-19.Thompson, Paul (1978, [2000]). The Voice of the PastOral History, Oxford, New York: Oxford

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Sugarman, Jane C. (1997), Engendering Song Singing and Subjectivity at Prespa AlbanianWeddings, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Ticineto Clough, Particia (1994). Feminist thought: Desire, Power, and Academic discourse,Oxfrord UK, Cambridge USA: Blackwell.

Titon, Jeff T. (1997): Knowing Fieldwork, In Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives forFieldwork in Ethnomusicology, Gregory F. Barz and Timothy J. Cooley (eds.), New York andOxford: Oxford University Press, 87-100.

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Van Alphen, Ernst (2004): Symptoms of Discursivity: Experience, Memory and Trauma. InNarrative Theory-Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies, Mieke Bal (ed.), London andNew York: Routledge, 107-122, 107.

APPENDIX 1: List of Villages and Interlocutors

Brenica: Rua Goci, 1929, KamenicaVera orevi, 1937Milica Cvetanovi, 1941

Brzi Brod: ivotka Stankovi, 1926Zorica Stankovic, 1938

ukljenik: Ilinka Mladenovi, 1934Rada Stankovic, 1938

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Donja Vreina: Rusanda Arsi, 1914Vukosava Goci, 1923Kostadin Goci, 1923Javorka Radovanovi, 1934, Jasenovik

Donja Studena: ivadinka Tasi, 1926Vidosava Stojanovi, 1927Olga Markovi, 1934Savka Milenovi, 1938Olga Stankovi, 1939Dragia Stojanovi, 1953Miodrag Tasic, 1946

Donji Komren: Radivoje Petrovi, 1913Jelica Jovanovi, 1936, amurlija

Gornja Studena: Petrija Vukovi, 1937Radica Zlatanovi, 1946

Gornja Vreina: Desanka Petrovi, 1924, Donja VreinaMladenka ivkovi, 1927

Gornji Komren: Velinka Jovanovi, 1943

Gornji Matejevac: Zagorka Igi, 1926Ljiljana Cvetkovi, 1938

Hum: Dobrisavka Jankovic, 1935

Jelanica: Milunka orevi, 1930, RautovoSvetlana Makari, 1950Miodrag Tasi, 1946

Kamenica: Verica Miti, 1920Emilija Goci, 1932

Leskovik: Grozdana oki, 1945

Mala: Miroslava Jovanovi, 1933Jelena Mitrovi, 1948, Knez Selo

Nika Banja: Bata Belevi, 1943, Bijelo Polje (Montenegro)

Novo Selo: Stojan Stoi, 1921Ljubica Andjelkovic, 1939Nikodije Andjelkovic, 1941

Prosek: Verica Miljkovi, 1933, OstrvicaLjiljana Radonji, 1944, ManastirSava Radonji, 1939, KamenicaStankovi D. Velibor, 1939Jevica Bogdanovi, 1924Boidar Bogdanovi, 1923

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Rujnik: Slavka Petkovic, 1922Rua Zdravkovi, 1924, HumJagodinka Mitrovi, 1930, Kravlje

Trupale: Vukain Miti, 1952Ilinka Despotovi, 1939, Jabukovik (Crna Trava)Sevlija Stankovi, 1936, Darkovce (Crna Trava)

Vukmanovo: Dragan Todorovi, 1956Grozdana Zlatkovi, 1934Mladenka Risti, 1945

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Hofman-Storytelling in Ethnomusicological Research

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