5. Imperial Russia, revolutions, emergence of Soviet State 1853 - 1924

ALEXANDER II (1855- 81): EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS; MILITARY, LEGAL, EDUCATIONAL, LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS; LATER REACTION

Background of the Peasantry

2 typeso state peasants – inhabitants of crown estateso landlord’s peasants – serfs

Serfs were bound to land, state peasants had much more freedom Allocation of land was inefficient for produce Serfs were not allowed to earn money so they paid in labour (berschina) State peasants paid rent

Emancipation of the Serfs

Failings of Serfdom

80% of Russian population were serfs Bad for Serfs

o Increase in productivity did not match population growtho Worse poverty

Bad for nobilityo System did not provide enough income for changing economy

Bad for Stateo Did not encourage innovation or experimento Led to Russia falling behind international community economically

Instabilityo Food shortage led to unrest, led to peasant violence outbreaks

Detriments of Change

Nobilityo Loss of land and serviceo Avoid weaknesses they saw in other western countries where the

serfs had been emancipatedo Feared loss of autocracy

Serfso Did not associate their problems with the Tsar or the system, but

with their landlordso The majority of peasants neither understood nor were interested

in their rights

All were scared of the implications of emancipations and change in general

Introducing Emancipation

Alexander II used the defeat of the Crimean War to show the need for change

o Reinforced through Nicholas’ I attitude to serfdom Used growing unrest of serfs to encourage fears of revolution from below Used full weight of autocratic power Serfs believed they would be emancipated after those who had been

drafted had finished their service at war. When this did not happen, there was more unrest

November 1857 – plan of actions was released Each province was to form a committee to address the issue (they did so

reluctantly) ’58 – ’60 – meetings were held with province representatives Feb 1861 – Emancipation decree was published

The Decree

Serfs received land from states of nobility Compensation was paid to the nobility by the state The peasants had to repay the state for this (49 yr mortgage) The ‘mir’ was established for administering the land

Impacts of Emancipation

Peasantso Were not happy with the decree

Did not want to pay for land that their family had been farming for generations

Did not blame Tsar, thought that their landlord’s were lying Couldn’t afford the 49 yr mortgage, they were paying for

revenue lost which was often twice the value of the lando Many aspects stayed the same

The ‘mir’ did not encourage initiative or experiment The strip system continued Peasants were still outside the main body of law, binding

them to their lifestyle Peasants liked the ‘mir’ because it provided collective

securityo Land distribution

Each peasant wanted more land due to the population pressure

There was not enough to go around -> unemployment Land was distributed unfairly in quality and quantity

Nobilityo Unprepared for life without serfso Nobility were forced to sell a lot of land

o Were no longer able to act as a stabilising forceo Their position and power were based on serfdom -> Emancipation

condemned them as a class

Other Reforms

Local Government

Prior to his ascension there was no local govt -> admin inefficiency The zemstva (locally elected councils) were established 1864 Zemstva had responsibility for public education, health, economic

development, public services and infrastructure Alexander II wanted to retain nobility as a bulwark, so the seats were

divided between classes Taxing continued to favour nobility 1870 – similar system was set up in towns (duma)

Legal Reform

Different types of courts and officials were ill trained and illiterate 1864 – major reforms occurred Salaries were set high to avoid bribery, public trials were introduced,

appeal courts were set up This meant the judiciary was mostly independent and fair The education of the officials put them in position to become radicals

Military Reform

Failures of the military outline in the result and impacts of the Crimean war

Comand structure was inflexible and inefficient Punishment was severe and barbaric The parade ground was more important than actual combat in training Service for conscripts was 25 years -> became seen as a sentence and

undesirable 1861 – Miliutin appointed minister for War Decentralised administration and supply Set up army schools Length of service reduced PEASANTS WERE TREATED THE SAME AS NOBLES!! -> nobility rejected

this idea

Education

Primary education was increased Schools were no longer affiliated with the church -> ministry of education Universities were given control over administrative matters Censorship was cut down majorly Scholarships and financial aid were given, foreigners could attain degrees

as well -> more people had access to education

Due to the growth of radical ideas fostered by the encouragement of educations, Golvonin was replaced by Tolstoy (ministers of education)

Women’s education was furthered

Economy

Reutern -> minster for finance 1862 Created unified treasury and centralised administration 1862 – budgets were published Railway network was extended to encourage exports Banks and savings associations set up so money lenders were not relied

upon ‘Pale of Settlement’ limit the areas in which Jews could settle to border

lands 1865 – Pale was abolished to further economy, anti-Semitism was still

strong.

Foreign Policy

Peaceful Europe Complete annexation of Warsaw to guard Western border Austria,

Britain, France were opposed to these demands Threat from Napoleon forced powers to cooperate, and Alexander got

most of his demands Quadruple Alliance – Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia – great powers had

special rights and responsibilities and therefore rights to intervene on other sovereignties

Holy Alliance – Alexander II’s doing, commitment to Christianity in international and domestic relations

Encouraged expansion in Asia Encouraged Franco-austrian rivalry which backfired leading to to Polish

revolt Withdrew from European affairs to focus on internal reforms until 1873

– Dreikaiserbund

Policies of Alexander III (1881- 94) and Nicholas II (1895-1917): backwardness and attempts at modernization; nature of tsardom; growth of opposition movements

The New Conservatism

Counter- reforms Safeguard system ( August 1881) – gave governor generals and police more

powero Arrest and imprison suspects for 3 monthso Close down and fine local presso Close down zemstva and dumao Immediately applied to 10 provinces including St Petersburg and Moscowo Police state – eroded the press, judicial system and compromised the

zemstva’s authority Land captains – centrally appointed delegates of the governor generals who

could interfere with the local government. Wanted to return to autocratic system – rejected liberalism

Russification

Russification = attempting to create a single ‘Russian’ nationality out of the multinational Russian Empire.

Admired Bismarkian Germany which had a single united nationality Successes

o Caucasian and Turkik learned to speak and read Russiano Ukraine were described as ‘little russians’ despite their distinct national

identity Negative consequences

o Eroded power of Georgian and Armenian landowning eliteso Imposed Russian language on Baltic provinceso Abolished Finland’s army, introduced Russia as the official language,

abolishing the Finnish government component in each provinceo Onslaught on Polish culture in terms of language and military as well as

oppression. o Jews also had their rights severly violated. Denied vote, limits on

education, pale of settlement. 2/3 of jews were expelled due to violence and pogroms

Economic Development

Although Alexander had made considerable progress with Russia’s economy, so had Britain and Germany

The type of revolution that worked in Britiain and Germany could not be achieved in Russia because

o Economy had been hindered by serfdom and its abolutiono The country was so large in terms of population and geographyo The autocracy feared the proletariato Russia had to spend beyond its means to maintain a competitive military

establishmento The depression had forced most of Europe into protectionism (tariffs on

imported goods) Finance Ministers: Nikolai Bunge (1881-7) tried to control expenditure Ivan Vyshnegradsky (1887-92) increased taxes, secured French loans

o Put pressure on the peasantryo 1891-91 = worst famine in 19th century. 2 million lives.

Witte (Prime Minister) (1892 – 1900)o 2 phases of industrialisation

unstable first phase, impoverishment, dislocation and social protest

second phase – increased wealth eased tensions and created a more complex and harmonious society

o Saw that Russia could begin its industrialisation with the most modern methods and techniques and therefore achieve industrial efficiency more quickly

o 7 years of rapid industrialisation followedo Compress and accelerate first phaseo Loans from the Frencho Trans-siberian railwayo Gold standard – increased inflow of foreign capitalo Social Policies

Factory inspectorate controlling use of child and female labour Limit hours for workers Permit trades unions

o Russia ran up huge debts as a result of Witte’s policies

Agriculture

Contrast between industrial and agricultural policies after 1881o Ministry of Interior focused on peasantry and agriculture, Witte focused

on industry – 2 confliction directions Shortcomings of emancipation

o Inadequate land provisiono Rural population expansiono When govt most needed to export grain prices were depressed

1891 -2 Famine – poor govt response. Peasants still had to pay tax

1900 Agricultural crisiso consequence of huge population growtho Peasant riotso Govt responded with force and set up Commission on Agriculture –

Stolypino Weaken Mir and give peasants more independence worked!!

Opposition Workers

o World economy slump 2900 wage cuts, strikes, lockouts etc. o Govt forms trade unions and exploits nationalism and anti Semitismo 1881 assassination – Nicholas II makes state more oppressive

Universities – oppressiveness of govt on curriculum causes strikes Populists Marxists

o Marxism = emergence of a new political and economic order, equal and fair with no classes and therefore no class struggle.

o New ideas were needed to accommodate the revolution – Marxismo Appealed to intelligentsia through its scientificness and utopian vision

Social democrats Socialist Revolutionaries

o Wanted to help the peopleo More emotional view of revolution appealed to the peasantso Party was based on political group in areas of rural unresto Party’ s incoherence and lack of long term programme meant that it relied

upon short term economic distres Liberals

o Liberalism: intellectuals, education reforms made it more popularo Union of Liberation

Aimed to end autocracy

Significance of the Russo-Japanese War; 1905 revolution; Stolypin and the Duma; the impact of WWI on Russia

Russo Japanese War

Causes of Russian makingo Russia’s aims

Expansionist policy in the Far East – make up for relative decline in Europe - Witte

Obtain Ice-free port Distract attention from domestic troubles

o Territorial disputes between Russia and Japan over: Korea Manchuria

o 1904 – Russian Govt rejects Japanese proposals for the settlement of Korea

Courseo Russia greatly underestimated the strength of Japano Emporer Meiji (196 – 1914) had made great reformso Japan gained Port Arthur (Korea) and Mukden (Manchuria) in early 1905o Final defeat at sea in May 1905o Predictable commander’s strategy of Russiao Distances over which supplies had to be transported in Russia

Consequenceso Russian govt obliged to make peace – Treaty of Portsmoutho Japanese gain Manchuria and Koreao National humiliationo Incompetence of govt revealedo Excited social unrest that it had aimed to dampeno Build up of tension which led to 1905 revolution

The 1905 Revolution

Causeso Govt responsibility - Witte

Repression Taxation Lack of leadership

o Social unresto Economic recession o Bad harvestso Peasants = anger over mortgage paymentso Workers = anger over unemployment and wageso Russo – Japanese War defeat

Revolution (1905 - 6)

o Bloody Sunday – Gapono Strikes in major citieso Liberals = Milyukov leads the ‘Union of Unions’o Peasant revolts = seizure of lando Workers = Soviets formed

Mutinies in services Resolution

o Liberals = October Manifesto Duma Civil rights

o Peasants = mortgage lowered and eventually abolishedo Workers = crushedo Fundamental laws restate tsar’s absolute power

Significance of 1905 o First broad based challenge to stardom, o Was it a revolution?o Russian govt is not easy to overthrow

Stolypin

President of the Council of Ministers - July 1906 “suppression first and then reform” reform should be introduced as a way of reducing bitterness on which

opposition fed industrial progress couldn’t solve Russia’s problems, rapidly growing population

must be fed Shortages in food had been created by

o Bad harvests in the 1890s o Govts land policies

Peasants were scared that govt would seize their land because they couldn’t pay their mortgages

o Govt announced that outstanding repayments would be cancelled ‘Wager on the strong’

o Aim: create prosperous, productive peasants – supporters of tsarist regime

o Means: Replace strip system with fields similar to those in western Europe Voluntary resettlement of the peasants to populate remoter areas

Standard historian view: he had little real chance of reforming agriculture since the Russian Peasantry was so backward and time constraints

Dumas

Tsar Nicholas II limited power of the Dumao Substantial loan from France meant less hold on the govt’s finances

o 2 houses – 1 elected, 1 state appointed. State apt could veto any decision by elected

o Tsar had Supreme Autocratic Power Vyborg Appeal

o Reformists demanded that Duma had more powero Caused Duma to be dissolvedo Encouraged people to not pay taxes and disobey conscription – resulted

in scattered violenceo Stolypin policy of repression – Martial Law, military courts were used to

quell disturbances

Character Achievements1st Duma (1906) Dominated by reformist

partiesShort lived – little achieved

2nd Duma (1907) Clash between revolutionaries and right wing parties

Dissolved in disorder – little achieved

3rd Duma (1907 – 12) Election rigged by Stolypin to produce more co-operative deputies from moderate parties

Committees did achieve effective work in social reform

4th Duma (1912 – 14) Dominated by right-wing parties again willing to co-operate

Social reform work continued, but prepared to criticise govt

Impact of WWI on Russia

The socialist parties abandoned their policies and committed themselves to the national war effort in all warring countries

Bolsheviks were vilified as traitors The pressure of total war on all countries was immense; of the 6 empires

engaged in WWI, only Britain and France survived.

Inflationo Russia had largest gold reserves of any European countryo Government spending rose from 4m to 39m during the war increased

taxation and foreign loanso Gold standard was abandoned govt printed more money, led to

longterm inflation

Food supplies and transporto Requisitioning of supplies by military made it difficult for peasants to

sustain agricultural output. o Inflation made trading unprofitable so peasants began hoardingo Army had first claim on food and transporto Lack of transport meant that urban areas stopped receiving food from the

country

o There was a growth in railways but it did not meet the demands of waro 1916 – Petrograd and Moscow were receiving only a 1/3 of their food and

fuel needs.

The armyo Russia put less than half the troops into the field per capita than Germany

or France dido Largest army of all countrieso Lack of equipmento Problem was not lack of resources but poor administration.

Role of the Tsaro Strong central leadership was desperately neededo 1915 Nicholas II had taken over direct command of Russia’s armed

services in order to rally the nation around him as Tsaro He was now personally responsible for Russia’s performanceo

Moraleo High at the start but with food shortages and long casualty listso 1916 – pessimism and defeatism

1917 Revolutions: February/March Revolution; Provisional Government and Dual Power (Soviets); October/November Bolshevik Revolution; Lenin and Trotsky

February/March Revolution

Background – opposition to the tsaro 1916 – all sections of population thought Tsar was inept o First moves in February revolution were not made by the revolutionary

parties but by the Tsars strongest supporterso MISTAKE: Tsar refused to cooperate with non-govt organizations. o MISTAKE: dismissed duma’s appeal to replace his cabinet with a ‘ministry

of national confidence’ whose members would come from the Dumao Progressive bloc was formed as a result – Kadets, Octobrists, Nationaliss

Industrialistso AIM: prevent revolution to enable to the govt to end the waro Bloc tried to persuade him to make concessionso Unstable govt – 4 PMs in 15-16o Rasputin: achievement in reorganizing the army’s medical supplies

system.o Rasputin and Alexandra became the focal point of the growing hatred of

Tsardom. They thought that if he had become a part of it, the system wasn’t worth saving

Revolutiono What made February 1917 different was the range of opposition to the

govt and the speed with which it turned into a revolution o 25 February: Petrograd paralyzed by a city-wide strikeo When contingents of police and militia were sent in, they either fought

each other or joined the demonstratorso Alexander Kerensky, leading SR member in the Duma, called for the tsar

to stand down as head of state or be deposed. o Petrograd Soviet: Mensheviks had set up the soviet made up of:

Provisional committee – reformist elements of the old duma Soviet – representing the striking workers and rebellious troops

o Tsar abdicates on 2nd March. o Bolsheviks

Neither in 1905 or February revolution All their leaders were in exile

o Petrograd According to Trotsky “Petrograd achieved the Feb. rev. There was

no struggle anywhere except in Petrograd’ 2000 casualties The high-ranking officers who first told Nicholas to stand down Aristocratic Duma members – refused to disband on tsars orders Army could not control population

o Length of war destroyed Tsardom

Provisional Government and Dual Power

Prince Lvov leader of Provisional Govt – old duma in new form Weaknesses of Prov. Govt.

o Not elected lacked authority judged on how well it dealt with nations problems

o Limited by unofficial partnership with Petrograd Soviet Kerensky – SR leader, chairman of Soviet and minister in Prov. Govt. Soviet Order Number 1 – decrees of Provisional Govt in regard to military affairs

had to be approved by Pet. Sov. Prov. Gov had no control over army Early Co-operation

o Widespread elation in Petrogrado Willingness to maintain state authority by peopleo Allowed Prov. Gov. achievements

Amnesty for political prisoners Trade unions were legal 8 hr working day replace of tsarist police with “people’s milita” full civil and religious freedoms preparations for the election of a constituent assembly

o these changes did not regard issues of war and land. <- lenin exploits this!

The Bolshevikso Led by Stalin and Kaminevo Lenin sent Letters from Afar until his arrival 3rd April 1917

Accused of being a German Agent (Germany had been giving the Bolsheviks financial aid)

April Thesis: WWI should be turned into a class war for Russia Bolsheviks should not co-operate with other parties Overthrow provisional govt Transfer power to workers Demand that authority pass to the soviets Peace bread land ; All power to the soviets

Problems for the provisional Govto War

Govt can’t afford to stop fighting Pet. Sov. Wanted peace Kerensky supports war

o Land Prov. Govt. not genuinely commited to land reform Enabled Bolsheviks to steal a march and gain peasant support

o July Days Prov. Govt was proven strong enough to put down and armed

uprising. o Kornilov Affar

Bolsheviks gain some power

Prov. Govt weakened. October/November Revolution

October 7 Lenin returned to Petrograd10 Bolshevik central committee voted for a rising16 Military Revolutionary Committee was set up by the Petrograd Soviet23 Kerensky closed down Bolshevik newspapers24 The military revolutionary Committee took defensice measures to secure

key positions in Petrograd25 Bolsheviks seized control of Petrograd Congress of Soviets, approved new

government with Lenin as president26 Fall of the Winter Palace

Communist: Inevitable result of class struggle Lenin = good Popular

Liberal: Bolsheviks weren’t popular and exploited govt collaps

Revionist: Popular revolution but Bolsheviks betrayed people by

imposing brutal authoritarian state.

Lenin’s Russia (1917 – 24): Consolidation of new Soviet State; Civil War; War Communism; NEP; Terror and coercion; foreign relations

Consolidation of New Soviet State

Most people did not expect the new govt to last because of the economic crisis, opposition from other political groups and the advancing Germans

December 1917 – Lenin set up the Cheka Bolsheviks attempted to satisfy population Decree on Land

o Estates of the crown, church and aristocracy went to the peasants State Capitalism

o Economic policy before War communismo Nationalize banks and railways

Decree on Peace – Lenin knew a civil war was needed and therefore he wanted a quick peace with Germany.

Brest Litovsk – Russia ost 33% of population and arable land – 6 billion marks November 12th 1917 – Constituent Assembly election won by Right Socialists

Revolutionaries. Lenin shut down the constituent assembly on January 6th

Civil War

By spring 1918 armed opposition was developing in many parts of Russia AIM: to stay in power – Reds (Bolsheviks) – Trotsky, War Commissar Whites: extsarist commanders, Kadets, SRs, Right wing political organisations -

Kolchak Greens: peasant forces Foreign Intervention: (June 1918)

o Britain, France, Italy, USA, Japano Worried about spread of communismo Bolsheviks were in debt to themo Wanted Russia to rejoin the war against Germany

May – Aug 1918 – White gains, Sept = red gains 1919 – Reds faced several fronts, Trotsky prevailed, foreign powers withdraw Whites lacked political unity or leadership, attacks were unco-ordinated Communists were defending a central region with infrastructure Conscription was used (May 1918), rapid building of army

War Communism

The state took control of industry workers committees were abolished. Did not make it more efficient

Trade unions were not allowed and people were prevented from moving between cities

Food was rationed black market. Priority given to army Money became worthless

Cheka to seize food from the peasants – famine – 7m deaths. People opposing the government were shot without trial or sent to labour camps

New Economic Plan

March 1921 – 28 Capitalism was restored in that free strade in grain was reinstated,

requisitioning was ended New currency Larger factories and industrial concerns (steel plants and coal mines) remained

under state control By 1928, Russian industrial output had reached the 1914 level. Scissor Crisis

1923 – food prices fell while tools and manufactured goods remained expensive Electrification “Soviet power + electrification = communism” Lenin. Foreign trade – western countries hoped that this return to capitalism meant

defeat of communism