History of the History of the MongolsMongols

Genghis Khan Genghis Khan   

(1165-1227)(1165-1227)

ConquerorConqueror

Genghis Khan (more properly known Genghis Khan (more properly known as Chinggis Khan), conquered more as Chinggis Khan), conquered more territory than any other conqueror, territory than any other conqueror, and his successors established the and his successors established the largest contiguous empire in history. largest contiguous empire in history.

LeaderLeader

According to the primary source of According to the primary source of information on Temuchin's life, information on Temuchin's life, The The Secret History of the MongolsSecret History of the Mongols, he , he endured many hardships, including endured many hardships, including the kidnapping of his wife Borte, but the kidnapping of his wife Borte, but slowly recruited supporters and slowly recruited supporters and assumed a mantle of leadership assumed a mantle of leadership among the Mongols. among the Mongols.

Universal RulerUniversal Ruler A key to his success was an alliance with his A key to his success was an alliance with his

father's anda or blood brother, Toghril Ong-father's anda or blood brother, Toghril Ong-Khan, Khan or King of the Keraits, which were Khan, Khan or King of the Keraits, which were another tribe. With Toghril's support, another tribe. With Toghril's support, Temuchin regained Borte and slowly became Temuchin regained Borte and slowly became the paramount power in the steppe. the paramount power in the steppe.

Eventually, relations between Temuchin and Eventually, relations between Temuchin and Toghril soured and led to a war that left Toghril soured and led to a war that left Temuchin victorious. Temuchin victorious.

By 1206 Temuchin dominated Mongolia and By 1206 Temuchin dominated Mongolia and received the title Genghis Khan (thought to received the title Genghis Khan (thought to mean Oceanic Ruler or Firm, Resolute Ruler). mean Oceanic Ruler or Firm, Resolute Ruler).

Genghis KhanGenghis Khan

Not even a mighty warrior can brake a Not even a mighty warrior can brake a frail arrow when it is multiplied and frail arrow when it is multiplied and supported by its fellows. As long as supported by its fellows. As long as you brothers support one another and you brothers support one another and render assistance to one another, your render assistance to one another, your enemies can never gain the victory enemies can never gain the victory over you. But if you fall away from over you. But if you fall away from each other your enemy can brake you each other your enemy can brake you like frail arrows, one at a time." like frail arrows, one at a time."

Allies?Allies?

In 1207, the Mongols began operations In 1207, the Mongols began operations against Xi-Xia, which comprised much against Xi-Xia, which comprised much of northwestern China and parts of of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. This campaign lasted until 1210 Tibet. This campaign lasted until 1210 with the Xi-Xia ruler submitting to with the Xi-Xia ruler submitting to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uighurs also submitted peacefully to Uighurs also submitted peacefully to the Mongols and became valued the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire. administrators throughout the empire.

ChinaChina Peace did not last long. In 1211, after a great Peace did not last long. In 1211, after a great

quriltai or meeting, Genghis Khan led his quriltai or meeting, Genghis Khan led his armies against the Chin Dynasty that ruled armies against the Chin Dynasty that ruled northern China. War continued against the northern China. War continued against the Chin until 1234, well after Genghis Khan's Chin until 1234, well after Genghis Khan's death. death.

Perhaps he would have succeeded against Perhaps he would have succeeded against them, but he was pulled away from the them, but he was pulled away from the campaign because of an incident in central campaign because of an incident in central Asia. In 1219 a caravan under the protection Asia. In 1219 a caravan under the protection of Genghis Khan had been massacred in of Genghis Khan had been massacred in Otrar, a city of the Khwarazm Empire.Otrar, a city of the Khwarazm Empire.

Genghis KhanGenghis Khan

"I am master of all the lands of the "I am master of all the lands of the rising sun, while you rule those of the rising sun, while you rule those of the setting sun. Let us confirm a treaty of setting sun. Let us confirm a treaty of freindship and peace." freindship and peace."

Khwarazmian EmpireKhwarazmian Empire

From 1219 to 1222, the Mongols waged a From 1219 to 1222, the Mongols waged a war in central Asia and destroyed the war in central Asia and destroyed the Khwarazmian Empire. Striking from several Khwarazmian Empire. Striking from several directions, Genghis Khan-accompanied by directions, Genghis Khan-accompanied by his four sons: Jochi, Ogodei, Chaghatai, and his four sons: Jochi, Ogodei, Chaghatai, and Tolui-carried out a campaign that remains Tolui-carried out a campaign that remains strategically remarkable. Though a few strategically remarkable. Though a few Khwarazmian princes escaped, the defeat Khwarazmian princes escaped, the defeat was complete; but Genghis Khan still had a was complete; but Genghis Khan still had a matter of revenge to settle. matter of revenge to settle.

Genghis KhanGenghis Khan

  It is not sufficient that I succeed - It is not sufficient that I succeed - all others must fail.”all others must fail.”

Xi Xia RevengeXi Xia Revenge

The ruler of Xi-Xia, who had submitted in The ruler of Xi-Xia, who had submitted in 1210, had not provided troops for the 1210, had not provided troops for the campaign. Although this act of rebellion campaign. Although this act of rebellion gravely insulted Genghis Khan, for the gravely insulted Genghis Khan, for the time being the defeat of Muhammad time being the defeat of Muhammad Khwarazmshah was much more Khwarazmshah was much more important. After the conquest of the important. After the conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire, however, Genghis Khwarazmian Empire, however, Genghis Khan turned his armies once again Khan turned his armies once again against Xi Xia. against Xi Xia.

Genghis KhanGenghis Khan

I am the punishment of God...If you had I am the punishment of God...If you had not committed great sins, God would not not committed great sins, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon have sent a punishment like me upon you.”you.”

The Khan’s DeathThe Khan’s Death In 1226, his armies invaded Xi-Xia. During In 1226, his armies invaded Xi-Xia. During

the campaign, Genghis Khan fell from his the campaign, Genghis Khan fell from his horse when it startled while the emperor horse when it startled while the emperor hunted. Although he eventually died from hunted. Although he eventually died from internal injuries as a result of the fall, he did internal injuries as a result of the fall, he did not allow his followers to halt the campaign. not allow his followers to halt the campaign. They continued the siege of the capital of Xi-They continued the siege of the capital of Xi-Xia even after his death. When the conquest Xia even after his death. When the conquest was complete, Genghis Khan was buried in a was complete, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location that remains a mystery secret location that remains a mystery although several modern expeditions have although several modern expeditions have attempted to find it. attempted to find it.

Genghis Khan's last words?Genghis Khan's last words?

"Let not my end disarm you, and on "Let not my end disarm you, and on no account weep or keen for me, let no account weep or keen for me, let the enemy be warned of my death." the enemy be warned of my death." Following his death, the Mongol army Following his death, the Mongol army defeated the Tanguts, sacked defeated the Tanguts, sacked Ningxia, and, for good measure, Ningxia, and, for good measure, massacred all of its inhabitantsmassacred all of its inhabitants

Genghis KhanGenghis Khan

"My greatest good fortune was to "My greatest good fortune was to chase and defeat my enemies, chase and defeat my enemies, conquer his lands and people, take conquer his lands and people, take his women, and share his riches." his women, and share his riches."

Legacy of the KhanLegacy of the Khan Even today the legacy of Genghis Khan remains Even today the legacy of Genghis Khan remains

impressive. As an organizational and strategic genius, impressive. As an organizational and strategic genius, Genghis Khan created one of the most highly-Genghis Khan created one of the most highly-disciplined and effective armies in history; this same disciplined and effective armies in history; this same genius also gave birth to the core administration that genius also gave birth to the core administration that ruled it. ruled it.

His non-military achievements include the His non-military achievements include the introduction of a writing system based on the Uighur introduction of a writing system based on the Uighur script (still used in Inner Mongolia today), the idea of script (still used in Inner Mongolia today), the idea of religious tolerance throughout the empire, and the religious tolerance throughout the empire, and the achievement of tribal unity among the Mongols. achievement of tribal unity among the Mongols.

Genghis Khan's greatest accomplishments, however, Genghis Khan's greatest accomplishments, however, cannot be counted in terms of territory or victories, cannot be counted in terms of territory or victories, but in the presence of a Mongol nation and culture. but in the presence of a Mongol nation and culture. Mongols today venerate him as the founding father of Mongols today venerate him as the founding father of Mongolia. Mongolia.

Khubilai KhanKhubilai Khan

1215–194 1215–194

The KhanatesThe Khanates

The empire was separated into four The empire was separated into four khanates, each ruled by a separate khanates, each ruled by a separate khan and overseen by the Great Khan. khan and overseen by the Great Khan. The Kipchak Khanate (also called the The Kipchak Khanate (also called the Golden Horde) ruled Russia; the Golden Horde) ruled Russia; the Ilkhanate ruled the Middle East, the Ilkhanate ruled the Middle East, the Chagatai Khanate ruled over western Chagatai Khanate ruled over western Asia, and the Great Khanate controlled Asia, and the Great Khanate controlled Mongolia and eventually China. Mongolia and eventually China.

ChinaChina

The empire reached its greatest The empire reached its greatest extent under Kublai with his extent under Kublai with his conquest of China, completed with conquest of China, completed with the final defeat of the Song Dynasty the final defeat of the Song Dynasty in 1279. in 1279.

AchievementsAchievements

He ruled better than his predecessors, He ruled better than his predecessors, promoting economic growth with the promoting economic growth with the rebuilding of the Grand Canal, repairing rebuilding of the Grand Canal, repairing public buildings, and extending public buildings, and extending highways. He also introduced paper highways. He also introduced paper currency although eventually a lack of currency although eventually a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation made that fiscal discipline and inflation made that an economic disaster. He encouraged an economic disaster. He encouraged Chinese arts and demonstrated Chinese arts and demonstrated religious tolerance, except to Taoism religious tolerance, except to Taoism

KamikazeKamikaze Kublai Khan twice attempted to invade Japan in search of Kublai Khan twice attempted to invade Japan in search of

gold; however, twice the Samurai resisted greatly and the gold; however, twice the Samurai resisted greatly and the weather tore the fleets apart. The first attempted invasion weather tore the fleets apart. The first attempted invasion was in 1274 with a fleet of 900 ships. The second invasion was in 1274 with a fleet of 900 ships. The second invasion was in 1281 with a fleet of over 1,170 large war junks, each was in 1281 with a fleet of over 1,170 large war junks, each about 240 feet long. about 240 feet long.

Dr. Kenzo Hayashida, the marine archaeologist who Dr. Kenzo Hayashida, the marine archaeologist who discovered the wreckage of the second invading fleet off discovered the wreckage of the second invading fleet off the western coast of Takashima, headed the excavation. the western coast of Takashima, headed the excavation. The excavation's findings strongly indicate that Kublai Khan The excavation's findings strongly indicate that Kublai Khan rushed the conquered Chinese to construct a large fleet in a rushed the conquered Chinese to construct a large fleet in a year (a task that should have taken up to 5 years), which year (a task that should have taken up to 5 years), which forced the Chinese — who already hated their conquerors forced the Chinese — who already hated their conquerors — to use any available ships, particularly river boats, as the — to use any available ships, particularly river boats, as the basis for Khan's fleet. Had Kublai used ocean going ships, basis for Khan's fleet. Had Kublai used ocean going ships, which have a curved keel to prevent capsizing, his navy which have a curved keel to prevent capsizing, his navy may have survived the storm and made it to invade Japan may have survived the storm and made it to invade Japan as originally intended.as originally intended.

ResultsResults John Pearson, author of John Pearson, author of Kublai KhanKublai Khan (2005), writes, (2005), writes,

"The cost of these defeats led the Khan to devalue "The cost of these defeats led the Khan to devalue the central currency, further exacerbating growing the central currency, further exacerbating growing inflation. He also increased tax assessments. These inflation. He also increased tax assessments. These economic problems lead to growing resentment of economic problems lead to growing resentment of the Mongols, who paid no taxes, among the Chinese the Mongols, who paid no taxes, among the Chinese populace." populace."

David Nicole writes in David Nicole writes in The Mongol ConquerorsThe Mongol Conquerors that that "these disastrous defeats shattered the myth of "these disastrous defeats shattered the myth of Mongol invincibility throughout Asia." He also wrote Mongol invincibility throughout Asia." He also wrote that Kublai Khan was determined to mount a third that Kublai Khan was determined to mount a third invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy invasion, despite the horrendous cost to the economy and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two and to his and Mongol prestige of the first two defeats, and only his death prevented such a third defeats, and only his death prevented such a third attempt, despite the unanimous agreement of his attempt, despite the unanimous agreement of his advisors against such an attempt."advisors against such an attempt."

Mongol ContributionsMongol Contributions Khubilai patronized painting and the theater, which Khubilai patronized painting and the theater, which

experienced a golden age during the Yuan dynasty experienced a golden age during the Yuan dynasty Khubilai and his successors also recruited and Khubilai and his successors also recruited and

employed Confucian scholars and Tibetan Buddhist employed Confucian scholars and Tibetan Buddhist monks as advisers, a policy that led to many monks as advisers, a policy that led to many innovative ideas and the construction of new innovative ideas and the construction of new temples and monasteries temples and monasteries

The Mongol Khans also funded advances in medicine The Mongol Khans also funded advances in medicine and astronomy throughout their domains. and astronomy throughout their domains.

and the construction of a sizable network of roads and the construction of a sizable network of roads and postal stations throughout their lands) promoted and postal stations throughout their lands) promoted developments in science and engineering developments in science and engineering

Trade & DiplomacyTrade & Diplomacy

Perhaps most importantly, the Mongol Perhaps most importantly, the Mongol empire linked Europe and Asia and ushered empire linked Europe and Asia and ushered in an era of frequent and extended in an era of frequent and extended contacts between East and West. And once contacts between East and West. And once the Mongols had achieved relative stability the Mongols had achieved relative stability and order in their newly acquired domains, and order in their newly acquired domains, they neither discouraged nor impeded they neither discouraged nor impeded relations with foreigners. Though they relations with foreigners. Though they never abandoned their claims of universal never abandoned their claims of universal rule, they were hospitable to foreign rule, they were hospitable to foreign travelers, even those whose monarchs had travelers, even those whose monarchs had not submitted to them.not submitted to them.

Age of ExplorationAge of Exploration The Mongols also expedited and The Mongols also expedited and

encouraged travel in the sizable section of encouraged travel in the sizable section of Asia that was under their rule, permitting Asia that was under their rule, permitting European merchants, craftsmen, and European merchants, craftsmen, and envoys to journey as far as China for the envoys to journey as far as China for the first time. Asian goods reached Europe first time. Asian goods reached Europe along the caravan trails (earlier known as along the caravan trails (earlier known as the "Silk Roads"), and the ensuing the "Silk Roads"), and the ensuing European demand for these products European demand for these products eventually inspired the search for a sea eventually inspired the search for a sea route to Asia. Thus, it could be said that the route to Asia. Thus, it could be said that the Mongol invasions indirectly led to Europe's Mongol invasions indirectly led to Europe's "Age of Exploration" in the 15th century."Age of Exploration" in the 15th century.

Famous TradersFamous Traders The Mongols' receptiveness to foreigners was a The Mongols' receptiveness to foreigners was a

critical factor in promoting cultural exchange and critical factor in promoting cultural exchange and a truly "global" history. Their attitude of relative a truly "global" history. Their attitude of relative openness toward foreigners and foreign influence openness toward foreigners and foreign influence led to an extraordinary interchange of products, led to an extraordinary interchange of products, peoples, technology, and science throughout the peoples, technology, and science throughout the Mongol domains.Mongol domains.

So it is no accident that Marco Polo reached China So it is no accident that Marco Polo reached China during this era And also no accident that during this era And also no accident that Ibn Ibn BattutaBattuta, the great Islamic traveler from Morocco, , the great Islamic traveler from Morocco, also reached China during this time, and that also reached China during this time, and that Rabban SaumaRabban Sauma, a Nestorian Christian from the , a Nestorian Christian from the area around Beijing, reached Europe and had area around Beijing, reached Europe and had audiences with the kings of England and France audiences with the kings of England and France and the Pope.and the Pope.

The Mongol BridgeThe Mongol Bridge From the Mongol period on, then, we can speak From the Mongol period on, then, we can speak

about a Eurasian — if not a global — history, in about a Eurasian — if not a global — history, in which developments in one part of Europe would which developments in one part of Europe would have an impact not only in Europe but also in have an impact not only in Europe but also in Asia, with the same being true for Asia. And if we Asia, with the same being true for Asia. And if we remember that Christopher Columbus was remember that Christopher Columbus was actually looking for a new route to Asia when he actually looking for a new route to Asia when he landed in America — and that one of the few landed in America — and that one of the few books he had with him was Marco Polo's account books he had with him was Marco Polo's account of his travels in Asia — we could even say that of his travels in Asia — we could even say that global history begins with the Mongols and the global history begins with the Mongols and the bridge they built between the East and the West.bridge they built between the East and the West.

Pope & MongolPope & Mongol

The Mongol attacks on Hungary and The Mongol attacks on Hungary and Poland in 1241 had alerted the Poland in 1241 had alerted the Europeans to the power of the Europeans to the power of the Mongols and so frightened them that, Mongols and so frightened them that, in 1245, the Pope in Rome called an in 1245, the Pope in Rome called an Ecumenical Council to deliberate on Ecumenical Council to deliberate on a response to the Mongols. Two a response to the Mongols. Two Franciscan missionaries were Franciscan missionaries were eventually dispatched to the East. eventually dispatched to the East.

Assistance to TradeAssistance to Trade

Under Mongol rule, merchants had a higher Under Mongol rule, merchants had a higher status than they had in traditional China. status than they had in traditional China. During their travels they could rest and During their travels they could rest and secure supplies through a postal-station secure supplies through a postal-station system that the Mongols had established.system that the Mongols had established.

In Persia the Mongols granted higher tax In Persia the Mongols granted higher tax breaks and benefits to traders in an effort to breaks and benefits to traders in an effort to promote commerce. The Mongols even tried promote commerce. The Mongols even tried to introduce paper money into Persia — to introduce paper money into Persia — though this would become merely a failed though this would become merely a failed experiment. experiment.

OrtoghOrtogh The Mongols recognized that the caravan trade across The Mongols recognized that the caravan trade across

Eurasia was extraordinarily expensive for any single Eurasia was extraordinarily expensive for any single merchant. Often there would be as many as 70 to 100 men merchant. Often there would be as many as 70 to 100 men on each mission, and all had to be fed and paid and provided on each mission, and all had to be fed and paid and provided with supplies (including camels, horses, and so on) over a with supplies (including camels, horses, and so on) over a lengthy period of time.lengthy period of time.

Quite a number of the caravans simply did not make it, either Quite a number of the caravans simply did not make it, either because of natural disasters of one sort or another or because of natural disasters of one sort or another or plundering by bandit groups. plundering by bandit groups.

The Mongol solution to these concerns was the establishment The Mongol solution to these concerns was the establishment of of OrtoghOrtogh — through which merchants could pool their — through which merchants could pool their resources to support a single caravan. If a caravan did not resources to support a single caravan. If a caravan did not make it, no single merchant would be put out of business. make it, no single merchant would be put out of business. The losses would be shared, as would any risks, and of The losses would be shared, as would any risks, and of course, profits when the caravans succeeded. The Mongols course, profits when the caravans succeeded. The Mongols also provided loans to merchants at relatively low rates of also provided loans to merchants at relatively low rates of interest, as long as they belonged to an interest, as long as they belonged to an OrtoghOrtogh. .

Pax MongolicaPax Mongolica The Mongols promoted inter-state The Mongols promoted inter-state

relations through the so-called "Pax relations through the so-called "Pax Mongolica" — the Mongolian Peace.Mongolica" — the Mongolian Peace.

Having conquered an enormous territory Having conquered an enormous territory in Asia, the Mongols were able to in Asia, the Mongols were able to guarantee the security and safety of guarantee the security and safety of travelers. There were some conflicts travelers. There were some conflicts among the various Mongol Khanites, but among the various Mongol Khanites, but recognition that trade and travel were recognition that trade and travel were important for all the Mongol domains important for all the Mongol domains meant that traders were generally not in meant that traders were generally not in danger during the 100 years or so of danger during the 100 years or so of Mongol domination and rule over Eurasia. Mongol domination and rule over Eurasia.

ArtisansArtisans The Mongols did not have their own artisan class The Mongols did not have their own artisan class

in traditional times because they migrated from in traditional times because they migrated from place to place and could not carry with them the place to place and could not carry with them the supplies needed by artisans. They were thus supplies needed by artisans. They were thus dependent upon the sedentary world for crafts, dependent upon the sedentary world for crafts, and they prized artisans highly.and they prized artisans highly.

For example, during Chinggis Khan's attack on For example, during Chinggis Khan's attack on Samarkand, he instructed his soldiers not to harm Samarkand, he instructed his soldiers not to harm any artisans or craftsmen. Craftsmen throughout any artisans or craftsmen. Craftsmen throughout the Mongol domains were offered tax benefits the Mongol domains were offered tax benefits and were freed from and were freed from corvéecorvée labor (unpaid labor), labor (unpaid labor), and their products were highly prized by the and their products were highly prized by the Mongol elite.Mongol elite.

Religious TolerationReligious Toleration The Mongols had a benevolent attitude toward The Mongols had a benevolent attitude toward

foreign religions, or at least a policy of benign foreign religions, or at least a policy of benign neglect.neglect.

Their belief in Shamanism notwithstanding, the Their belief in Shamanism notwithstanding, the Mongols determined early on that aggressive Mongols determined early on that aggressive imposition of their native religion on their subjects imposition of their native religion on their subjects would be counter-productive. Instead, they sought would be counter-productive. Instead, they sought to ingratiate themselves with the leading foreign to ingratiate themselves with the leading foreign clerics in order to facilitate governance of the clerics in order to facilitate governance of the newly subjugated territories. They even offered newly subjugated territories. They even offered tax benefits to the clerics of Buddhism, Islam, tax benefits to the clerics of Buddhism, Islam, Daoism, and Nestorian Christianity in order to win Daoism, and Nestorian Christianity in order to win the support of those religions.the support of those religions.

Polo on KhanPolo on Khan A quintessential Mongol view of religion A quintessential Mongol view of religion

may be found in Marco Polo's writings. may be found in Marco Polo's writings. According to Marco Polo, Khubilai Khan said:According to Marco Polo, Khubilai Khan said:

"There are prophets who are worshipped "There are prophets who are worshipped and to whom everybody does reverence. and to whom everybody does reverence. The Christians say their god was Jesus The Christians say their god was Jesus Christ; the Saracens, Mohammed; the Jews, Christ; the Saracens, Mohammed; the Jews, Moses; and the idolaters Sakamuni Borhan Moses; and the idolaters Sakamuni Borhan [that is, Sakiamuni Buddha, who was the [that is, Sakiamuni Buddha, who was the first god to the idolaters]; and I do honor first god to the idolaters]; and I do honor and reverence to all four, that is to him who and reverence to all four, that is to him who is the greatest in heaven and more true, is the greatest in heaven and more true, and him I pray to help me."and him I pray to help me."

Muslim RespectMuslim Respect The Mongol dynasty's relation to Islam, in particular, had The Mongol dynasty's relation to Islam, in particular, had

tremendous impact on China's relations with the outside world. tremendous impact on China's relations with the outside world. The Mongols recruited a number of Muslims to help in the rule The Mongols recruited a number of Muslims to help in the rule

of China, especially in the field of financial administration — of China, especially in the field of financial administration — Muslims often served as tax collectors and administrators.Muslims often served as tax collectors and administrators.

The Mongols in China also recognized that Islamic scholars had The Mongols in China also recognized that Islamic scholars had made great leaps in the studies of astronomy and medicine, made great leaps in the studies of astronomy and medicine, and they invited many specialists in those fields to come to and they invited many specialists in those fields to come to China. Among those to make the trip was the Persian China. Among those to make the trip was the Persian astronomer Jamal Al-din, who helped the Chinese set up an astronomer Jamal Al-din, who helped the Chinese set up an observatory. Bringing with him many diagrams and advanced observatory. Bringing with him many diagrams and advanced astronomical instruments from Persia, Jamal Al-din assisted the astronomical instruments from Persia, Jamal Al-din assisted the Chinese in developing a new, more accurate calendar.Chinese in developing a new, more accurate calendar.

The Mongols were also impressed by the Persians' advances in The Mongols were also impressed by the Persians' advances in medicine. They recruited a number of Persian doctors to China medicine. They recruited a number of Persian doctors to China to establish an Office for Muslim Medicine, and the result was to establish an Office for Muslim Medicine, and the result was even greater contact between West Asia and East Asia. even greater contact between West Asia and East Asia.

Hulagu & the CaliphHulagu & the Caliph

"On January 29, 1258, Hulagu’s forces took "On January 29, 1258, Hulagu’s forces took up a position on the eastern outskirts of up a position on the eastern outskirts of Baghdad and began a bombardment. The Baghdad and began a bombardment. The caliph [the last Abbasid caliph], who had caliph [the last Abbasid caliph], who had been advised against escaping by his vizier, been advised against escaping by his vizier, offered to negotiate. Hulagu, with the city offered to negotiate. Hulagu, with the city practically in his hands, refused. The upshot practically in his hands, refused. The upshot was that the caliph and his retinue came out was that the caliph and his retinue came out of the city, the remainder of his army of the city, the remainder of his army followed, they laid down their arms, and the followed, they laid down their arms, and the Mongols killed almost everybody. Mongols killed almost everybody.

Hulagu & ChristiansHulagu & Christians

Hulagu told Baghdad’s Christians to stay in Hulagu told Baghdad’s Christians to stay in a church, which he put off-limits to his a church, which he put off-limits to his soldiers. Then, for a period of seven days, soldiers. Then, for a period of seven days, the Mongols sacked the city, killing the Mongols sacked the city, killing (depending on the source) two hundred (depending on the source) two hundred thousand, or eight hundred thousand, or thousand, or eight hundred thousand, or more than a million. The Mongols’ more than a million. The Mongols’ Georgian Christian allies were said to have Georgian Christian allies were said to have particularly distinguished themselves in particularly distinguished themselves in slaughter. slaughter.

Plunderers threw away their swords and Plunderers threw away their swords and filled their scabbards with gold. Silver and filled their scabbards with gold. Silver and jewels and gold piled up in great heaps jewels and gold piled up in great heaps around Hulagu’s tent. Fire consumed the around Hulagu’s tent. Fire consumed the caliph’s palace, and the smoke from its caliph’s palace, and the smoke from its beams of aloe wood, sandalwood, and beams of aloe wood, sandalwood, and ebony filled the air with fragrance for a ebony filled the air with fragrance for a distance of a hundred li. (A li equalled five distance of a hundred li. (A li equalled five hundred bow lengths—a hundred li was hundred bow lengths—a hundred li was maybe thirty miles.)maybe thirty miles.)

So many books from Baghdad’s So many books from Baghdad’s libraries were flung into the Tigris libraries were flung into the Tigris that a horse could walk across on that a horse could walk across on them. The river ran black with them. The river ran black with scholars’ ink and red with the blood scholars’ ink and red with the blood of martyrs. of martyrs.

"The stories of what Hulagu did to the caliph vary. "The stories of what Hulagu did to the caliph vary. One says that Hulagu toyed with him a while, One says that Hulagu toyed with him a while, dining with him and discussing theology and dining with him and discussing theology and pretending to be his guest. A famous account pretending to be his guest. A famous account describes how Hulagu imprisoned the caliph in a describes how Hulagu imprisoned the caliph in a roomful of treasure and brought him gold on a tray roomful of treasure and brought him gold on a tray instead of food. The caliph protested that he could instead of food. The caliph protested that he could not eat gold, and Hulagu asked him why he hadn’t not eat gold, and Hulagu asked him why he hadn’t used his money to strengthen his army and defend used his money to strengthen his army and defend against the Mongols. The caliph said, 'That was the against the Mongols. The caliph said, 'That was the will of God.' Hulagu replied, 'What will happen to will of God.' Hulagu replied, 'What will happen to you is the will of God, also,' leaving him among the you is the will of God, also,' leaving him among the treasure to starve."treasure to starve."