History of India

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2013

A Brief History of IndiaHistoryA brief study note of history of India comprising of Ancient, Medieval and ModernHistory.

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Megasthenes was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler Selucus Nicator. Ashoka appointed people known as Dhamma Mahatma Important ruler of Satavahana was Gautamiputra Satakarni Kushanas were the earliest rulers to issue gold coins Kanishka was famous Kushana king. He frequently organized Buddhist council.

Ashwagosha, a poet in his court, composed Budhacharitha. Harshavardhana’s court poet Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita in Sanskrit Best known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin. His poet was Ravikirti Silappadikaram was composed by Ilango around 1800 years ago. Another tamil epic Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar Mahmud Gazni raided Somnath temple of Gujarat Gazni’s scholar was Al-Biruni who wrote Kitab-al-Hind Rajaraja 1 is the most powerful chola ruler. Built Thanjavur temple His son was Rajendra 1 Chola bronze statues are the best in the world. Delhi first become the capital under Tomaras

Rajput DynastyTomaras early 12th centuryAnanga Pala 1130-1145Chauhans 1165-1192

Early Turkish RulersQutubddin AibakShamsuddin IltumishRaziyaGhiyasuddin Balban

Khilji DynastyJalaluddin KhiljiAlauddin Khilji

Tughlak DynastyGhiyasuddin TughlakMuhammad TughlakFiroz Shah Tughlak

Sayyed DynastyLodi Dynasty

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First Battle of Panipat: Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi 1526 Babar-Humayun-Akbar-Jahangir-Shahjahan-Aurangzeb Abu Fazl wrote Akbar Nama and Ain-ikbari Taj Mahal was built in 1643 Battle of Plassey 1757 Robert Clive and Sirajudaulah. After Nawab’s defeat, Mir Jafar

was installed. Then Mir Qasim and again Mir Jafar Battle of Buxar. British and Mir Qasim 1764 Mysore wars 1766, 1780, 1789 and 1799. In the last Battle of Srirangapatnam, Tipu

sultan was killed. Battle of Panipat

1st Battle 1526 Babur and Ibrahim Lodi2nd Battle 1556 Akbar and Hemu3rd Battle 1761 Ahmed Shah Durrani and Maratha Empire

Anglo Maratha war1st Anglo Maratha war 1777 (Treaty of Surat and Salbai)2nd Anglo Maratha war 18033rd Anglo Maratha war 1817. Also called Pindari war

Doctrine of Lapse by Lord Dalhousie Vellore Mutiny 1806 12 Aug 1765 Robert Clive got appointed as the Diwan of Bengal 1917 champaran Bihar, indigo plantation. Abolished Tinkathia system 1918 Kheda Gujarat, People couldn’t pay taxes(Vallabbhai Patel was also involved) 1918 Ahmedabad for cotton mill workers. Rowlatt Act 1919. It gave govt enormous powers to repress political activities and

allow detention. Anyone can be arrested without trial.On April 13 1919 Jalian walabagh due to violence of Rowlat Act

Khilafat movement. After 1st world war, Ottoman Turkey was defeated. To defendthe Khalifa’s temporary power, Khilafat movement and Non cooperation was startedin 1921. Mohd Ali and Shaukat Ali

Chauri chaura 1922. Non cooperation was halted because of a police clash Dec 1929 Lahore congress. Demand for purna swaraj March 1930 Gandhiji begins civil disobedience movement by breaking salt law. March 5 1931 Gandhi Irwin Pact. He consented to participate in the round table

conference. Lord Ripon repealed the Vernacular Press Acts. He also tried to bring Indian Judges at

par with English. Criminal procedure amendment bill or Ilbert Bill

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First Congress President WC Banerjee. Lord Dufferin was the Governor General whenINC was found in 1885.

Servants of Indian Society Gopalkrishna Gokhale

Important Time Lines

1757 Battle of Plassey1764 Battle of Buxar1773 Regulating act1784 Pitt’s India Act1793 Permanent Settlement1773 Supreme court established1878 Vernacular Press Acts1885 Indian National Congress 28th Dec Bombay Gokal Das Tejpal SanskritCollege1859 Indigo riots. Bengal1891 Indian Factory Act1907 Congress splits in Surat Session1905 Swaraj demand G.K Gokhale Banares1906 Swaraj demand Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta1905 Bengal Partition by Lord Curzon1904 University Act. Reduced the number of Indians in the committee. LordCurzon1911 Bengal reunification1915 Gandhi received Kaiser-i-Hindi Gold medal for organising AmbulanceCorps of the Indians in First World War1917-18 Gandhi’s entry into the politics because of formation of Rowlatt Actcommittee under Justice Sydney Rowlatt1909 Morley Minto: The introduction of this act is to be seen in the backgroundof a phase of turmoil and militant activities that followed the council of Act of1892.1919 Montague Chelmsford: Bicameral legislature at the centre1833 Charter act. Law member was added to the Executive council of GovernorGeneral. He was entitled to sit and vote in the council of Governor General onlywhen it met for legislative purposes. For the first time, a separation wasintroduced between Executive and the legislative functions of the CentralGovernment. Another change was that the Presidency Governments weredeprived of their independent legislative power.

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1853 Charter act. Here law member was given the status of full member. At thesame time the distinction between the Council fo the Governor General as anExecutive and as a legislative body became more marked because of the size ofthis council for legislative purpose was increased by 6 additional members. 4represented the 3 presidencies and the Govt of the North Western Province andtwo were judges. The proposal to add non official members was not accepted.

1861 Indian Council Acts: Restored to the Govt of Bombay and Madras thepower of legislation and establishment of Legislative councils in other provinces.

1892 Indian Council Acts: It was an amending act. The basic constitutionalprovisions remained the same as under the act of 1861. Mainly 2 types ofchanges were introduced.

1. Changes in the composition of legislative bodies.2. Enlargement of functions.

24th April National Panchayati Raj day

Amritsar was called Ramdas pur and was founded by Guru RamDas. GoldenTemple was built by 5th Guru Arjun Dev in 1859. 6th guru Hargobind built AkalTakth.

1916 Justice party was formed in Madras. The founders were T.N.Nair,Tyagaraja Chetti and C Natesa Mudaliar.

E V Ramasami Naicker(Periyar) and the Self Respect Movement. He became thehero of Vaikom Satyagraha. He started paper Kudi Arasu.

1920-22 Non Cooperation Movement1922 Swaraj Party by C.R.Das1906 Muslim League1915 All India Hindu Mahasabha founded by Madan Mohan Malaviya1916 Lucknow pact. Attempt made by congress and league to arrive at asettlement. It was arrangement between leaders and not people.1925 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh1940 Lahore: Two nation theory by Jinnah.1925 Kakori conspiracy. Asfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad Bismil , Roshan Singh andRajendra Lahari were hanged.1928 Oct 30 1928 Lala Lajpat Rai died due to beatings in anti Simoncommission march.

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1928 Dec Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad and Rajguru assassinatedSaunders at Lahore1931 23rd March Hanging of Bhagat Singh and team1930 Civil Disobedience movement was started by Dandi March1928 Bardoli Satyagraha. Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat1930 March 12th 1930. Gandhi started Dandhi march1920 First Communist party of India outside India. M.N.Roy in Tashkent1928 Feb. All parties conference to prepare constitution for India

Governor Generals of Fort William in Bengal (Regulating Act of 1773)Warren Hastings 1774-1785Cornwallis 1786-1793Wellesley 1798-1805Lord Minto 1807-1813Lord William Bentick 1828-1833

Governor Generals of India (Charter Act of 1883)Lord Willian Bentick 1833-1835Charles Metcalfe 1835-1836Hardinge 1844-1848Dalhousie 1848-1856Lord Canning 1856-1858

Governor Generals and Viceroys (Act of 1858)Lord Canning 1858-1862Mayo 1869-1872Lytton 1876-1880Ripon 1880-1884Dufferin 1884-1888Lord Curzon 1899-1904Chelmsford 1916-1921Lord Irwin 1926-1931Willingdon 1931-1934Linlinthgrow 1934-1936Mountbatten March 1947-15 Aug 1947

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After IndependenceMountabatten 1947-1948C Rajagopalachari 1948-1950

PREHISTORIC INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE

Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age (before 10,000 BC) in India are1. The Soan valley and the Potwar Plateau on the north west2. The Siwalik hills on the north India3. Bhimbetka in MP4. Adamgarh hill in Narmada Valley5. Kurnool in AP6. Attirampakkam near Chennai

Middle Stone Age (10,000 BC to 6,000 BC)The remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in MP and some places in Rajasthan,UP and Bihar. An important item was Microlith

New Stone Age or Neolithic Age (6000 BC to 4000 BC)The remains are found in Kashmir Valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in UP and Deccan.Famous sites in south are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli inTN and Utnur in AP.

Some Megalithic burial sites in South India are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakondain AP and Adichchanallur in TN.Mehrgarh: Pre Harappan SiteAmri and Kot Diji: Early Harappan SiteKalibangan: Mature Harappan SiteLothal: Late Harappan SiteChief male deity of Harappans was Pasupati. He is surrounded by four animals (Elephant, tiger,rhino and buffalo each facing a different direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The chieffemale deity was the Mother Goddess.Aryans spoke Sanskrit.Veda is derived from the root word ‘vid’ which means to know. The four Vedas are Rig, Yajur,Sama and Atharva. The Rig Veda is the earliest and it consists of 1028 hymns. The Yajur Vedaconsists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set

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to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and theorigins of Indian music are traced in it. The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.There was no caste system in early Vedic period. Gods of early vedic period was Indra and Agni.During the late Vedic period, Prajapathi, Vishnu and Rudra became prominent.Jainism and Buddhism flourished in 6th century BC.Both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya Caste.

Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born in 537 BC atKundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents, Siddhartha and Trisala.He was married to Yasodha. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained “Kevala Gnana”.Thereafter he was called as Mahavira and Jina. He died at Pava near Rajagriha.

Teaching of MahaviraThree principles are known as Triratnas.

1. Right faith2. Right knowledge3. Right conduct

Mahavira organized the Sangha to spread his teachings. Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela ofKalinga and the dynasties of South such as Gangas, Kadambas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutaspatronized Jainism.

4th century BC: famine in the Ganges Valley: Many monks led by Bhadrabagu and ChandraguptaMaurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka. Those who stayed back were led by a monknamed Sthulabahu who changed their code of conduct. This led to division into Svetambarasand Digambaras.

Jain Councils.

First Jain council was convened in Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, leader of Digambaras, in thebeginning of 3rd century BC.2nd council was held in Valabhi in 5th Century AD. The finalcompilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council.

Buddhism

Gautama of Siddhartha was born in 567 BC in Lumbini near Kapilavastu. His father wasSuddhodhana of the Sakya clan and mother Mayadevi. He was married to Yashodhara. Got

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enlightenment under Bodhi Tree in Gaya. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares.He died at Kusinagara.

His most important disciples were Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. Kingslike Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajathashatru of Magadha accepted his doctrine andbecame his disciples.

Teaching of Buddha

1. The world is full of suffering2. The cause of suffering is desire3. If desires are get rid of, suffering can be removed.4. This can be done by eight fold path.

Buddha has two kinds of disciples, monks(Bhikshus) and lay worshippers(Upasikas). Sariputta,Moggallana and Ananda were some of his monks. 200 years after Buddha’s death, Asokaembraced Buddhism. He spread Buddhism to West Asia and Ceylon.

Buddhist Councils.

1st council was held at Rajagraha under the chairmanship of Mahakasapa after the death ofBuddha. 2nd was held in Vaisali.3rd council was held in Pataliputra under Asoka. The finalversion of Tripitakas was completed in this council. 4th council was convened in Kashmir byKanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. Asvagosha participated in this council. Newschool, called Mahayana came into existence during this councila came into existence duringthis council. The Buddhism preached by Buddha and spread by Ashoka was Hinayana.

The Buddhist texts were known as Tripitakas- namely the Sutta, Vinaya and the AbhidhammaPitakas. They were written in Pali. One of the Buddhist Literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a listof sixteen great kingdoms called “Sixteen Mahajanapadas”. Finally in the mid of 6th BC, only fourkingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.

Cause of decline of Buddhism

1. Revival of Brahmanism and Bhagavatism.2. Pali, the language of the masses was given up from 1st AD.3. Buddhist began to adopt Sanskrit, language of elite4. After birth of Mahayana, practice of idol worships and offering started, which led to the

deterioration.5. Attack of Huns in the 5th and 6th Ad and Turkish in 12th AD destroyed monasteries.

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Four major kingdoms in the 6th Century BC

Vatsa:Situated on the banks of Yamuna. Capital was Kausambi near Allahabad. Popular ruler was

Udayana. After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti Kingdom.

Avanti:Capital of Avanti was Ujjain. Most important ruler was Pradyota. He married Vasavadatta,daughter of Udayana. He patronized Buddhism. After his death, kingdom was taken over by therulers of Magadha.

Kosala:Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenjit was famous ruler. Matimonial alliance withMagadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequentlythere was conflict with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenjit married the daughterof Bimbisara. After his death, Kosala became part of Magadha.

MagadhaMagadha was the most powerful and prosperous. Iron ore in the hills near Rajgir and Copperand Iron deposits near Gaya. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign ofBimbisara and Ajatasathru, its prosperity reached zenith.

Bimbisara (546-494 BC)

He belonged to Haryanka dynasty. 1st matrimonial alliance with Kosaladevi, sister of Prasenajit.Got Kasi as dowry. Then he married Chellana, princess of Licchavi family of Vaisali. 3rd wasKhema of Madra in central Punjab. Bimbisara was contemporary of both Mahavira and Buddha.

Ajatasatru(494-462 BC)

His reign was remarkable for his military conquests. He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. Hefortified Pataliputra to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.Initially he was a follower of Jainism and then he embraced Buddhism. He was instrumental inconvening the 1st Buddhist council in Rajagriha.His successor was Udayin. He laid the foundation of Pataliputra situated near the banks ofGanges and Son. His successors were weak and later Magadha was captured by Saisunaga.Thus Haryanka dynasty came to an end.

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Saisunaga

Saisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of Magadhan empire. His successorwas Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his reign 2nd Buddhist council was held at Vaisali. Kalasokawas killed by the founder of Nanda dynasty.

Nandas

The fame of Magadha reached new heights under Nanda dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda was aspowerful ruler. He uprooted Kshatriya dynasties of North and assumed the title ekarat. TheHathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by Nandas.The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. He used oppressive ways to collect the taxes. Takingadvantage, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular movement against him. Itwas during this time that Alexander invaded India.

Persian invasion

Cyrus the great was the greatest conqueror of the Achaemenian Empire. He captured theGandhara region.Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus Valley in 518 BC and annexed Punjab andSindh.Effects of Persian invasion:Kharoshti script became popular in NW India.

Greek Invasion:Alexander’s invasion (327-325 BC)Alexander ascended throne after the death of his father, Philip. He conquered Persia bydefeating Darius III. He came to India through Hindukush Mountains. Famous battle ofHydaspes(Jhelum) with Porus. He died in Babylon in 323 BC.

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THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

Literary Sources:

Kautilya’s Arthashastra: The book was written in Sanskrit. Kautilya was contemporary ofChandragupta Maurya. Also called as “Indian Machiavelli”. Contains 3 parts, 1st deals about theking and his council and the departments of the Govt. The 2nd with civil and criminal law and thefinal one with diplomacy and the war. Most important literary source for Mauryas.

Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa: It is a drama written in Sanskrit. Although written during Guptaperiod, it describes how Chandragupta overthrew the Nandas.

Megasthene’s Indica: He was the Greek Ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.

Archaeological Sources:

Edicts of Asoka: The inscriptions were first deciphered by James Princep in 1838. There weremainly written in Pali and in some places, Prakrit and Brahmi were used. In the NW India, theAsokan Inscriptions were found in Kharoshti Script. There were 14 Major Rock Edicts. The twoKalinga Edicts are found in the newly conquered territory. These edicts of Asoka deal with hisDhamma and also instructions given to his officials. The 13th Rock Edict gives detail about hiswar with Kalinga. The Pillar Edict VII gives summary of his efforts to promote Dhamma withinhis kingdom.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS

Chandragupta Maurya(322-298 BC)

He was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. At the age of 25, he captured Pataliputra from thelast ruler of Nanda dynasty, Dhana Nanda. In 305 BC, he defeated Selukas Niketar, who wasAlexander’s General controlling the north western India. A treaty was signed. By this treaty, heceded the trans Indus territories –namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia – to the Mauryan Empire.He also gave his daughter in marriage to the King. Megasthenes was sent to Mauryan court asGreek Ambassador. He embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from histhrone in favour of his son Bindusara. He starved himself to death in Sravana Belgola.

Bindusara (298-273 BC)

Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of enemies. He is said tohave conquered up to Mysore. Sangam literature also confirms this. He received Deimachus as

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ambassador from the Syrian King Antiochus I. Bindusara supported Ajivikas. He appointed hisson Asoka as the Governor of Ujjian.

Asoka the Great (273-232 BC)

Most important event was winning Kalinga war in 261 BC. It was described in Rock edit XIII.After the war he embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta. He senta mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra who planted therethe branch of the original Bodhi tree. He convened the 3rd Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240BC. It was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa.

Later Mauryas:

Asoka’s death in 232 BC was followed by the division of Mauryan empire into two parts. Thewestern part was ruled by Kunala, his son, and the eastern part by Dasaratha, one of thegrandsons of Asoka. The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated byPushyamitra Sangha.

Mauryan Administration:

Mauryan Empire was a monarchy. But Kautillya also advocated for council of ministers. Itconsisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja. There were civil servants calledAmatyas to look after day to day administration.

Samharta, the chief of revenue department, was in charge of collection of taxes. Taking ofcensus was regular during Mauryan period. Four provinces of the empire were Taxila, Ujjain,Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The district administration was under the control of Rajukas, whosepositions are similar to collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas. Village administration was in thehands of Gramani and his superior officer was Gopa.

POST MAURYAN INDIA

SUNGAS

The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the commander in chiefunder the Mauryas. The Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for some time.However, he succeeded in regaining the lost territories. He was a staunch follower of

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Brahmanism. Buddhist sources refer to him as a persecutor of Buddhism. But he patronisedBuddhist arts.

After his death, his son Agnimitra became the ruler. The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, whowas murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of Kanva dynasty. The Kanvadynasty ruled for 45 years and after their fall, the history of Magadha was blank until theestablishment of Gupta Dynasty.

SATAVAHANAS

In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of theMauryas. They were also known as the Andhras. The puranas and the inscriptions remainimportant sources for the history of Satavahanas. The Nasik and the Nanagarh inscriptionsthrow much light on the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Simuka(Founder)Krishna(extended kingdom to Nashik)Sri Satakarni(Conquered westernMalwa and Berar)

The 17th King was Hala who was famous for his book, Gathasaptasati, also called SattaSaiwritten in Prakrit.

Greatest ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni. His achievements in Nasik inscription by his motherGautami Balasri. He patronized Brahmanism.

Gautamiputra SatakarniVasishtaputra Pulamayi

The last great ruler was Yajna Sri Satakarni.

Economic Conditions:

The silver coins were called Karshapanas. The greatest port was Kalyani on the west Deccan.Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were also important.

FOREIGN INVASION OF NORTH INDIA

Bactrians: Demetrius Greek Ruler of Bactria invaded Punjab and Afghanistan and occupiedthem. His two commanders were Appolodotus and Menander. Appolodotus conquered theSindh and marched up to Ujjain. Menander made attempts to capture Pataliputra, but wasstopped by Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga.

Menander known as Milinda. His capital was Sakala(Sialkot). Buddhist monk, Nagasenacompiled the work Milindapanho(In Pali) called as Questions of Milinda.

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Greek Ambassador Heliodorus became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar.

Sakas:

The Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured them from the Greekrulers.

Founder of the Saka rule in India : Maues(1st BC). His son was Azes I, who was considered to bethe founder of Vikrama Era.

KUSHANAS:

The Kushanas were a branch of Yuchi tribe, whose original home was Central Asia. They madetheir home in Gandhara region. The founder of Kushanas was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I.He occupied Kabul Valley and issued coins in his name. His son Wima Kadphises or Kadphises IIconquered as far as Mathura. He was a devotee of Lord Shiva.

Kanishka (78-120 AD)

Kanishka was the most important ruler of the Kushana dynasty. He was the founder of the Sakaera which starts from 78 AD. His capital was Purushupura or Peshawar. Mathura was animportant city in his empire.

Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. His coins exhibit the image of notonly Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods. In the age of Kanishka, the Mahayana Buddhismcame into vogue.

Asvagosha was the author of Buddhacharitha. The famous physician of ancient India Charakawas also patronized by him.

Gandhara Art: The home of the Gandhara art is the territory in and around Peshawar. The realpatrons of this school of art were Sakas and Kushanas, particularly Kanishka.

Mathura School of Art: It flourished in the 1st century AD.

Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushanas:

KanishkaHuvishka. Last important ruler was Vasudeva.

SANGAM AGE

According to Tamil legends, there existed 3 Sangams (Academy of Tamil Poets) popularly calledMuchchangam. 1st Sangam was held at Madurai. 2nd Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, but all

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the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam. 3rd Sangam at Madurai was founded byMudathirumaran.

The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu,Pathinenkilkannakku and the two epcis- Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.

Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the literatures.

Ettutogai(Eight Anthologies)

Pattuppattu(10 Idylls) Pathinenikilkannakku(18 works dealing with ethics and morals)

The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathikaramwritten by Elango Adikal and Manimegalai written by Sittali Sattanar also provides valuableinformation on Sangam polity and society.

Political History

The Tamil country was ruled by 3 dynasties namely the Cheras, Cholas and the Pandyas.

Cheras

They ruled over modern parts of Kerala. Their capital was Vanji and important seaports wereTondi and Musuri. They had the Palmyra flowers as their garland. The Pugular inscription of the1st century AD refers to the 3 generation of Chera rulers. Padiruppattu also provides informationon Chera kings. Perum Sorry Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan andCheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers.

Senguttuvan belonged to the 2nd century AD. His younger brother was Elango Adikal, the authorof Silappathikaram. His expedition to Himalayas was remarkable. He defeated many northIndian monarchs. He introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife inTamil Nadu. He was contemporary of Gajabhagu II of Srilanka.

Cholas

The Chola kingdom extended from modern Tiruchi district to the south of AP. Their capital wasfirst at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar. Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas.Pattinappalai portrays his early life and military conquest. In the battle of Venni, he defeatedthe mighty confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas and 11 minor chieftains. Vahaipparandalai wasanother important battle.

Pandyas

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They ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Madurai. The earliestkings were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi and Mudathirumaran. They weretwo Neduncheliyans. The 1st one was called Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan. He wasresponsible for execution of Kovalam for which Kannagi burnt Madurai. The other was calledTalaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra(He who won the battle at Talaiyalanganam)

Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes socio-economic conditions of thepandyas. The last famous Pandyan was Uggira Peruvaludhi. They declined due to the invasion ofKalabhras.

Royal emblem of Pandyas: Carp

Royal emblem of Cheras: Bow

Royal emblem of Cholas: Tiger

Sangam Society

Tolkappiyam refers to the 5 fold divisions of the lands

1. Kurinji – Hilly tracks- Chief deity was Murugan – Chief occupation was hunting and honeycollection.

2. Mullai – Pastoral- Chief deity Mayon(Vishnu) –Chief occupation cattle rearing and dairy3. Marudam – Agricultural-Chief deity Indra – Chief occupation agriculture4. Neydal – Coastal – Chief deity Varunan- Fishing and Salt manufacturing5. Palai – Desert – Chief deity Korravi – robbery

Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely Arasar, Anthanar, Vanigar and Vellalar.

Arasar Ruling Class

Anthanars Sangam polity and religion

Vanigars Trade and Commerce

Vellalas Agriculturist.

Position of women

Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished during Sangamperiod. Karpu or chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women. Love marriage wascommon practice. Sati was also prevalent.

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Economy

The port of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trace, as big ships came here. Other portswere Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.

GUPTA EMPIRE

Sources of information: Literary, epigraphical and numismatic sources. Puranas andcontemporary works like Devichandragupta and Mudhrakshasam written by Visakadattaprovides information regarding the rise of Gupta Empire. Chinese traveller Fahien, who visitedduring reign of Chandragupta II also left valuable resources.

Inscriptions : Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription (Chandragupta I) and the Allahabad Pillarinscription (Samudrgupta). Allahabad inscriptions is written in classical Sanskrit, using theNagari script. It consists of 33 lines composed by Harisena. It describes Samudragupta’saccession, his military campaigns, his relationship with other rulers and his poetic side.

Chandragupta I (320-330 AD)

The founder of Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He was succeeded by Ghatotkacha. They werecalled Maharajas. The next ruler was Chandragupta I and he was the first to be calledMaharajadhiraja. He married a Licchavi princess, Kumaradevi. The Mehrauli inscriptionsmentions his conquests. He is considered to be the father of Gupta era.

Samudragupta (330-380 AD)

Allahabad pillar inscriptions mention about him. Dakshinapatha expedition: Against SouthIndian rulers. He issues gold coins with the legend, restorer of the Asvamedha. He was calledIndian Napoleon. He was also called Kaviraja. His poet was Harisena. He was also the patronof the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.

Chandragupta II (380-415 AD)

Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta Vikramaditya. His greatest militaryachievement was his war against the Saka satraps of western Indian. Rudrasimha III the lastruler of Saka satarap was defeated and killed. He assumed the title of Sakari, meaning thedestroyer of Sakas. He also called himself Vikramaditya. Ujjain soon became important to them.

Fahien’s visit

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Fahien visited during the reign of Chandragupta II. His primary interest was religion. Because ofthe high level of cultural progress that happened during this time, it was called golden age.

Successors of Chandragupta II

Chandragupta IIKumaragupta. He laid the foundation of Nalanda University. At the end of hisreign, Pushyamitras defeated the Guptas. A branch of Huns from Central Asia made attempts tocross the Hindukush and invade India. But it was his successor Skandagupta who really facedHun Invasion. He fought successfully against the Huns and saved his empire.

Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavites. The great Jain council of Valabhi was held duringthis period. Both the Nagaras and Dravidian styles of arts evolved during Gupta age. Delhi IronPillar is also from Gupta period. Their paintings can be seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior.

The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by navratnas. Kalidasa is also among them. Sudrakawas also a poet of that time and his book Mricchakatika is rich in humour and pathos.Panchathanthra stories were composed by Vishnu Sharma during Gupta period. The Buddhistauthor Amarasimha compiled Amarakosa.

Aryabhata wrote Aryabhatiya in AD 499. He first declared that earth was spherical in shape.Varahamihira composed Pancha Sidhantika ,the five astronomical systems. He also wroteBrihadsamhita and Brihadjataka in Sanskrit. In the field of medicine, Vagbhata (author ofAshtangasamagraha) lived during this period.

HARSHAVARDHANA (606-647 AD)

The decline of the Gupta empire was followed by a period of political disorder. It was only in the7th century AD that Harshavardhana succeeded in establishing a large kingdom in north India.Harshacharita written by Bana and the travel accounts of Hieun Tsang are great sources.Besides these two, the drams written by Harsha, namely Ratnavali, Nagananda andPriyadarsika also provide good information. Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpatinscriptions are also good sources. The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha.

Early Life of Harsha

The founder of the family was Pushyabhuti. They were the feudatories of the Guptas. Theycalled themselves Vardhanas. After Hun invasions, they became independent. The firstimportant king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was Prabhakaravardhana. His capital was Thaneswar,

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north of Delhi. After his death, his elder son Rajyavardhana came to throne. But he wastreacherously murdered by Sasanka. Harsha now succeeded his brother.

Harsha’s military conquest

In his 1st expedition, he drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. Hismost important military campaign was against Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II. Theinscriptions of Hiuen Tsang and inscriptions of Pulakesin II describe this. The Aihole inscription ofPulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by him, who after this, assumed the title ofParamesvara.

Harsha and Buddhism

In his earlier life, he was a Saiva but later he became Hinayana Buddhist. Hiuen Tsangconverted him to Mahayana sect. He prohibited animal food in his kingdom.

Kanauj Assembly

Harsha organised a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour Hiuen Tsang . Violence broke outthere and there were acts of arson. There was also an attempt on the life of Harsha. Soon, itwas brought under control.

Allahabad Conference aka Prayag conference

The archive of Harsha was known as Nilopitu. The trade and commerce had declined duringHarsha’s period. In short, there was a sharp economic decline as compared to the economy ofthe Gupta period. Bana also wrote Kadambari. Other literary figures were Matanga Divakaraand Barthrihari, who was the poet, philosopher and grammarian.

Hinayana University of Valabhi and the Mahayana University of Nalanda: Nalanda means“giver of knowledge”. Founded by Kumaragupta I.

SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS –I

Pallavas

After the decline of the Sangam Age, the Kalabhra rule lasted for about 250 years. There afterthe Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with it capital at Kanchipuram.

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When Tondaimandalam was conquered by the Satavahanas, the Pallavas became theirfeudatories. After their fall in 3rd century AD, the Pallavas became independent. They issuedtheir early inscriptions in Prakrit and Sanskrit and also patronised Brahmanism.

Political history:

The early Pallava rulers from 250 AD to 350 AD issued their charters in Prakrit. Importantamong them were Sivaskandavarman and Vijayaskandavarman. The second line of rulers from350 AD to 550 AD issued their charters in Sanskrit. The important ruler was Vishnugopa whowas defeated by Samudra gupta during his South India Expedition. The 3rd line rulers from 575AD to their fall in 9th century issued in both Sanskrit and Tamil. Simhavishnu was the first ruler inthis line. He destroyed the Kalabhras and finally established kingdom. Other rulers of this linewere Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I and Narasimhavarman II.

Mahendravarman I (600-630 AD)The long drawn Pallava-Chalukya conflict began during his period. Pulakesin II marched againstPallavas and captured the northern part. Although inscriptions mentions about his victory, hewas not able to recover the lost territory. He was follower of Jainism, converted to Saivism byThirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He was great builder of cave temples. He was the author ofSanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talent in painting.

Narasimhavarman I (630-668AD)

He was known as Mamalla meaning great wrestler. His victory over Pulakesin II in the Battle ofManimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned in Kuram copper plates. His army destroyed thecapital city of Vatapi and he assumed the title Vatapikonda. Another achievement was navalexpedition to Srilanka and he restored the throne to his friend and prince Manavarma. Duringhis reign Hieun Tsang visited the Pallava capital of Kanchipuram. He was the founder ofMamallapuram.

Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha( 695-722 AD)

The Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were built inthis period. The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court. He sentembassies to China. He was succeeded by Parameswaravarman II and Nandivarman II. Thechola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava king Aparajita and seized the Kanchi region.

Administration of PallavasState was divided into Kottams. He provided Land grants to the temple known as Devadhanaand also to Brahmanas called Brahmadeya. A large number of irrigations tanks were built.

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SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS 2

Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas

Chalukyas (543-755 AD)

Pulakesin I was the founder of Chalukya dynasty. The capital was Vatapi or Badami. The mostimportant ruler was Pulakesin II. Aihole inscription provides details. He defeated Harsha on thebanks of Narmada. He got defeated by Narasimhavarman I near Kanchu. Hiuen Tsang visited hiskingdom. His successor was Vikramaditya. He plundered the pallava capital. Kirtivarman II wasthe last rulers of Chalukyas. He was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of Rashtrakutadynasty.

The administration was highly centralized. Strong navy power. Pulakesin II had 100 ships innavy. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II composed the Aihole inscription. Their cave templesexist in Ajanta, Ellore and Nasikt. The best specimens of their paintings in Badami cave templeand in Ajanta Caves.

Rashtrakutas (755-975 AD)

They were of Kannada origin. Dantidurga was the founder. He defeated Gurjaras and capturesMalwa from them. He defeated Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II. Krishna I was his successor. Hebuilt the Kailasa temple at Ellora. Next important king was Govinda III. His successorAmoghavarsha I ruled for 64 years. He was follower of Jainism. Jinasena was his chief preceptor.He also wrote Kavirajamarga. Among his successors, Krishna III was famous for expeditions.After his death, the power of Rashtrakutas declined.

IMPERIAL CHOLASThe founder of Imperial Cholas was Vijayalaya. Their capital was Tanjore.

Rajaraja I(985-1014 AD)

It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that Chola power reached its zenith. His militaryconquests were

1. The defeat of Chera rulers Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai andthe destruction of Chera navy.

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2. The defeat of the Pandyan ruler, Amarabhujanga3. The invasion of Srilanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra I. As SriLankan king

Mahindra V fled away, the country was annexed. The capital was shifted fromAnuradhapura to Polanaruva.

4. Naval expedition against Maldives.

He built the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeswara temple of Tanjare in 1010 AD. Alsoestablished Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.

Rajendra I (1012-1044 AD)

1. Defeated Mahindra V, the king of Srilanka again to gain complete supremacy overLanka.

2. He defeated Jayasimha III, the western Chalukya king3. Defeated many north Indian kings. To commemorate this campaign, he built

Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple in that city.4. He assumed many titles like Mudikondan, Gangaikondan etc.

Rajendra III was the last Chola King who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II. TheChola country was absorbed into the Pandya empire.

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

Arab Conquest of Sindh (712 AD)

Hijra year 622 AD. Migration of Mohammed to Medina. In 712 AD, Muhammad bin Qasminconquered Sind.

Mahmud of Ghazni (997 -1030 AD)

He is supposed to have made 17 raids into India. Firdausi was the poet laureate in the court ofMahmud. He was the author of Shah Namah. Alberuni stayed in his court and wrote the famousKitab-i-Hind.

Muhammad Ghori

He became independent after the death of Mahmud of Ghazni.

The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192)

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Realising their grave situations, the Hindu princes of North India formed a group under PrithvirajChauhan. He rose to the occasion and defeated Ghori in the battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191.In the 2nd battle of Tarain, Prithviraj was defeated and killed. It was a major disaster for Rajputs.The first muslim kingdom was thus firmly established in India at Ajmer. After his victory,Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving behind his favourite General Qutb-ud-din Aibak tomake further conquests. After the battle of Chandawar, Kanauj was occupied by Muslims.

DELHI SULTANATE (1206-1526 AD)

The Muslim invasion had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate. Fivedifferent dynasties ruled under Delhi sultanate- the Slave, Khilji, Tughlq, Sayyids and Lodis.

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 AD)

Also called Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk meaning Quranic term for slave. There were 3 dynastiesduring this period.

1. Qutbi Dynasty founded by Qutubuddin Aibak2. First Ilbari dynasty founded by Iltumish3. Second Ilbari dynasty founded by Balban

Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-1210) was slave of Muhammad Ghori who made him the Governor ofhis Indian possessions. After Ghori’s death, Aibak declared his independence. He was thefounder of slave dynasty. He made Lahore his capital. Muslim writers call him Aibak Lakh Bakshbecause he gave liberal donations to them. He died while playing Polo. He was succeeded by hisson Aram Baksh, who was later replaced by Iltumish.

Iltumish (1211-1236) was a slave to Aibak, but later became his son in law. He defeated AramBaksh(son of AIbak) to become Sultan. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi. In the meantime , Temujin(Chengiz Khan), the leader of the Mongols, started invading Central Asia. Hereceived the Mansur, the letter of recognition, from the Abbasid Caliph in 1229 by which hebecame the legal sovereign ruler of India. Later he nominated his daughter Razia as hissuccessor. Apart from completing Qutub Minar, he also built a mosque at Ajmer. He introducedArabic coinage in India and issued silver tanka. It remained the basis of the modern rupee. Hecreated new class of 40 powerful military leaders called forty.

Raziya (1236-1240)

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She appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakuth as Master of the Royal Horses. Her actions arousedresentment among the Turkish nobles. Turkish nobles put Balban on the throne. He was a son ofIltumish.

THE KHILJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)

The advent of Khilji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim imperialism in India. The founder wasJalaluddin Khilji. He was generous and lenient. He replaced Malik Chajju, the Governor of Karawith his son in law, Alauddin Khilji. But Alauddin treacherously murdered his father in law andusurped the throne of Delhi.

Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316)

He framed regulations to control the nobles. According to him, the general prosperity of thenobles, inter marriage between noble families, inefficient spy systems and drinking of liquorwere the basic reasons for revolt.

Reforms of Alauddin Khilji:

He introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list ofsoldiers). The introduction of paying salaries in cash to the soldiers led to price regulationspopularly called as Market reforms. He established four separate markets in Delhi- grain, cloth,sugar, etc, horses, cattles, slaves and miscellaneous commodities. Each market was under thecontrol of Shahna-i-Mandi. Regulations were issued to fix the price of all commodities.

Apart from market reforms, he took important steps in the land revenue administration. He wasthe first sultan of Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land. His land revenue reformsprovided a basis for the future reforms of Sher shah and Akbar.

Military campaigns

Rajput women committed jauhar against Alauddin’s invasion of Ranthampur. He fought againstMongols, Gujarat, Mewar and the Deccan. Rani Padmini of Chittor also performed Jauharagainst his attack. This episode is graphically mentioned in the book Padmavath by Jayasi.

His greatest achievement was conquest of Deccan. It was ruled by –Yadavas of Devagiri,Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai. He sent MalikKafur for conquest.

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Although he was illiterate, he patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. He alsoconstructed Alai Darwaza.

Mubarak Shah and Khusru Shah were the successors. Ghazi Malik, killed them and ascended thethrone of Delhi under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlak in 1320

THE TUGHLAK DYNASTY (1320-1414)

Founder of the dynasty is Ghiyasuddin Tughlak. He laid the foundation of Tughlakabad.

Muhammad bin Tughlak (1325-1351)

Ulugh Khan killed his father and ascended the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlak in1325. He had many ambitious schemes and performed novel experiments. But they ended inmiserable failures because they were all far ahead of their time. So he was called a “wise fool”.His contemporary writers were Isami, Barani and Ibn Batutah. He was the only sultan who wasreally educated.

Transfer of capital

He wanted to make Devagiri his 2nd capital for better control of South India. The city wasrenamed as Daulatabad. Ulemas and Sufis resisted, but Sultan’s ruthless orders caused greathardships. Many people died and he abandoned his plan.

Token currency

He issued Token currency, which were copper coins issued at par with Silver Tankas. Forgerystarted on a large scale. Finally the circulation was stopped.

Taxation in Doab

The failure of above experiments wasted enormous money. So he increased the revenue offarmers of Doab. There was also a famine. People fled from the villages, but he took harshmeasures and punished them.

Agricultural reforms

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He launched a scheme by which Takkavi loans for cultivation were given to farmers. A separatedept. for agriculture was created. Model farm under the state was created. The experiment wasfurther continued by Firoz Tughlak.

Firoz Tughlak (1351-1388)

He was chosen as the sultan by nobles. He led two expeditions to Bengal but they were notsuccessful.

Administrative reforms

He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties. Thus the iqtasystem was revived. Jiziya was imposed on non Muslims. He was the first sultan to imposeirrigation tax. But he also built canals and wells. 200 Km canal from Sutlej to Hansi was alsobuilt. Many new towns were built in his reign eg Firozabad (Firoz shah Kotla). Since he treatedHindus as 2nd grade citizens, he was precursor of Sikander Lodi and Aurangazeb. He increasedthe number of slaves by capturing defeated soldiers.

After his death in 1388, the struggle for power once again started. During Timur’s invasion in1398, there was no opposition. His invasion delivered a death blow to Tughlak dynasty.

THE SAYYEDS (1414-1451)

Timur appointed Khizr Khan as Governor of Multan. He captured Delhi and founded Sayyeddynasty. He was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah. Alam Shah was the weakest of theprinces. He handed over the throne to Buhlul Lodi and retired to Badaun.

THE LODIS (1451-1526)

The Lodis were Afghans. Buhlul Lodi was the first Afghan rulers while his predecessors were allTurkish. He was succeeded by his son, Sikander Lodi in 1489. He was the greatest of the threeLodi sovereigns. He was a bigot and destroyed many Hindu temples .He was succeeded byIbrahim Lodi who was arrogant. Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab was also insulted.Greatly displeased, he invited Babur to invade India. Babur marched against Delhi and killedIbrahim Lodi in the 1st Battle of Panipat (1526)

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VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMS

Sources:

Four dynasties-Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu- ruled Vijayanagar from AD 1336 to1672. The sources are literary, archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya’sAmukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani Peddanna’s Manucharitham aresome of the literature of this period. The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copperplates of Devaraya II provide much informations.

Political history:

Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of Sangama dynasty. They originallyserved under Kakatiyas of Warangal. They founded the city on the banks of Tungabhadra river.The decline of Hoysalas enabled them to expand their newly found kingom. By 1346 they boughtthe whole Hoysalas under their control. The struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate ofMadurai lasted for 4 decades. Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai is described in theMaduravijayam. He destroyed the Sultans and as a result, Vijayanagar comprised the whole ofSouth India up to Rameswaram.

The greatest ruler of Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II. After his death, Sangama dynastybecame weak. The next dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only fora brief period.

Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1530)

The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. The greatest of the Vijayanagar ruler,Krishna Deva Raya belonged to Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. By the timehe became king, Bahmani was replaced by Deccan Sultanates. They were defeated in the battleof Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya. He also defeated Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah andcaptured Raichur. He also defeated Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the Telengana.He maintained friendly relation with Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to KrishnaDeva Raya. He was also known as Andhra Bhoja. 8 eminent scholars called Ashtadiggajas wereat his royal court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called AndhrakavitaPitamaga. His works includes Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali Suranna and TenaliRamakrishna were other scholars. Krishnadeva Raya authored a Telugu work,Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.

During the reign of Rama Raya, the forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidardefeated him in the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565 also known as Rakasa Thangadi. Rama Raya

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was executed. Vijayanagar kingdom existed another 100 years under Aravidu dynasty. The lastruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.

Foreign traveller: Nicolo Konti . Chief gold coin was Varaha. The chief contributions ofVijayanagara architecture was tall Raya Gopurams. They were found in Hampi.

THE BAHMANI KINGDOM

The founder was Alauddin Bahman Shah also known as Hasan Gangu in 1347. Its capital wasGulbarga. Ahmad Wali Shah shifted capital to Bidar. Muhammad Shah III was the mostimportant rulers. It was because of his minister Mahmud Gawan. After his execution by King,the decline of Bahmani kingdom started. By 1526, the kingdom has disintegrated into –Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar, Golkonda and Bidar- known as Deccan Sultanates.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

Babur (1526-1530)

He was the founder of Mughal Empire in India. His real name was Zahiruddin Muhammad. Hewas related to Timur from his father’s side and Chengiz Khan through his mother. He succeededhis father as ruler of Farghana. He soon got defeated by his relative and lost his kingdom. Helaunched four expeditions against India from 1519 and 1523.

Military conquests

At that time there were 5 prominent Muslim rulers – the Sultans of Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa,Bengal and the Deccan- and the two prominent Hindu rulers- Rana Sangha of Mewar andVijayanagar Empire. He occupied Lahore by defeating its governor, Daulat Khan Lodi. On 21st

April 1526, the 1st Battle of Panipat took place between Ibrahim Lodi and Babur. Lodi waskilled. Babur’s success was due to his cavalry and artillery. He occupied Delhi and sent his sonHumayun to seize Agra. He proclaimed himself Emperor of Hindustan. Rana Sangha of Mewarwas defeated in the Battle of Khanua (near Agra) in 1527. He assumed the title Ghazi. In 1528,he captured Chanderi from Medini Rai. Next year, he defeated Afghans in the Battle of Gogra inBihar.

He was a great scholar in Arabic and Persian languages. Turki was his mother tongue. He wrotehis memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turkish.

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HUMAYUN (1530-1540)

Humayun means fortune, but he remains the most unfortunate of Mughal kings. In the Battle ofKanauj also known as the Battle of Bilgram in 1540, he was defeated by Sher Khan/Sher Shah.After losing his kingdom, he was in exile for 15 years.

In 1555, Humayun recovered the Mughal Throne. He died due to his fall from the staircase oflibrary.

SUR INTERREGNUM (1540-1555)

Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545)

The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original name was Farid. His conquestsinclude Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand.

Administration

He was a brilliant administrator. The king was assisted by four important ministers. The empirewas divided into 47 sarkars. The Sarkars were divided into Parganas. The land revenueadministration was well organized under him. Land survey was done carefully. He introducednew silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835. He laid 4 importanthighways.

1. Sonargaon to Sind2. Agra to Burhampur3. Jodhpur to Chittor4. Lahore to Multan.

He also branded horses like Alauddin Khilji. He was also tolerant to other religions. He built thePurana Qila near Delhi. He also built Mausoleum at Sasaram. Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrotethe famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign. After his death, his successors rule till 1555.

AKBAR (1556-1605)

He succeeded the throne after Humayun’s death. But his position was dangerous because Delhiwas seized by the Afghans, under Hemu. In the 2nd battle of Panipat in 1556, Hemu was almost

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victorious, but an arrow pierced his eye and he become unconscious. His army fled and fortunefavoured Akbar.

During the 1st five years, Bairam Khan acted as his regent. Later he was removed by Akbar andsent to Mecca. On his way, he was killed by an Afghan.

Relations with Rajput

He married Rajput princess, the daughter of Raja Bharamal. It was a turning point for Rajputsand they served the Mughals for four generations. Raja Bhagwan Das and Raja Man Singh weregiven senior positions. But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy. In the Battle of Haldighati in1576, Rana Pratap Singh was severely defeated by the Mughal Army led by Man Singh.

Religious Policy

After marrying Jodh Bai of Amber, he abolished the pilgrim tax and in 1562, he abolished Jiziya.In 1575 he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana at his new capital Fatehpur Sikri. In1579, he issued the Infallibility Decree by which he asserted his religious powers. In 1582, hepromulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith. It fizzled out after his death. Evenduring his life time, it had only 15 followers including Birbal.

Land Revenue Administration

He made some experiments in this field with the help of Todar Mal. The system was called asZabti or Bandobast system. It was known as Dahsala system which was completed in 1580. Theland was divided into four categories –Polaj(cultivated every year), Parauti(once in 2 years),Chachar(once in 3or 4 years) and Banjar(once in 5 or more years).

Mansabdari System

Akbar introduced Mansabdari system. Under this, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).The lowest was 10 and the highest was 5000 for nobles. Princes of royal blood received evenhigher ranks. Ranks were divided into Zat and Sawar. Zat means personal and it fixed onespersonal status. Sawar indicated the number of cavalry men of a person who was required tomaintain. It was not hereditary. All appointments and dismissals were made by the emperor.

JAHANGIR (1605-1627)

After Akbar’s death, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World). Hisrule witnessed many rebellions. His son Khusrau revolted but was defeated and imprisoned. Oneof his supporters, Guru Arjun, the 5th Sikh Guru was beheaded. In 1611, Jahangir married Nur

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Jahan. Her father Itimaduddaula was given the post of Chief Diwan. His brother Asaf Khan wasappointed as Khan-i-Samman. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (MumtazBegum), married Jahangir’s 3rd son, prince Khurram(Shah Jahan)

It was believed that Nur Jahan formed a group of junta and this led to two factions in theMughal court. This led Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since he felt thatJahangir was under control of Nur Jahan. However this view is not supported by historians.

SHAH JAHAN (1627-1658)

Shah Jahan rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to Kandahar. After Jahangir’sdeath in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the support of Nobles. Nur Jahan was given apension and lived a retired life.

He launched a prolonged campaign in the North West frontier to recover Kandahar and otherancestral lands. It went from 1639 to 1647. Finally Shah Jahan realized the futility andabandoned fighting. His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of AhmedNagar and captured it. Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed treaties with him. He carved 4 Mughalprovinces in the Deccan- Khandesh, Berar, Telungana and Daulatabad. They were put under thecontrol of his son Aurangazeb.

War of Succession

His last years were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his four sons – Dara Shikoh(crown prince), Shuja (Governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (Governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh(Governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Aurangazeb emerged victorious in his struggle. Shah Jahanwas put under strict vigil. Shah Jahan died in 1666 and was buried near his wife’s grave.

AURANGAZEB (1658-1707)

He was one of the ablest of the Mughal Kings. He assumed the title Alamgir (World Conqueror).

Deccan Policy

The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar, who conquered Khandeshand Berar. During Shah Jahan’s reign, Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed anaggressive Deccan policy. During the initial years, he concentrated on the North West province,because of which Sivaji was able to carve an independent Maratha kingdom. To contain theirspread, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda. He defeated Sikandar Shah ofBijapur and annexed his kingdom. Then he eliminated Kutb Shahi dynasty of Golkonda. In fact,the destruction of Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder on his part. The barrier between

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Mughals and the Marathas were removed and there ensued a direct confrontation betweenthem. These campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury.

Religious Policy

He was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his life. His idea was to transform India into anIslamic state. Drinking and other drugs were prohibited. He forbade music in the court. Hediscontinued the practice of Jharokhadarshan. He also prohibited the celebration of Dasarahand astronomers and astrologers were dismissed from the service. He banned the constructionof Hindu temples and began destroying Hindu temples. He reimposed Jiziya and pilgrim tax in1679. He was also not tolerant of other Muslim Sects. His invasion against the Deccan Sultanatewas partly due to his hatred of Shia faith. He executed the 9th Sikh guru Teg Bahadur. All of thisresulted in rebellions. Thus Aurangazeb was responsible for the decline of Mughal Empire.

INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS

Art and Architecture

Mughal Gardens: Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and Pinjore Garden inPunjab.

Sher Shah: The Sasaram Mausoleum in Bihar and Purana Qila near Delhi.

Akbar: Agra fort in Red sand stone, Forts in Lahore and Allahabad, Humayun’s tomb (massivedome of marble), Palace cum fort at Fatehpur Sikri. Buland Darwaza was built to commemorateAkbar’s victory over Gujarat. Other buildings are Jodh Bai’s palace and Panch Mahal inFatehpur Sikri

Jahangir: Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra near Agra.

Nur Jahan: Tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra. It was built wholly of white marble with floraldesigns. This type of decoration was called pietra dura.

The fort building reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan: Red Fort, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas, Jama Masjid, Moti Masjid in Agra and TajMahal

Paintings and Music

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The foundation of the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun while he was staying in Persia. Hebrought two painters- Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India. They became famous duringAkbar’s reign.

Language and Literature

By the time of Akbar’s reign, Persian language became wide spread in the country. Abul Fazlwas a great scholar and historian of his period.

Abul Fazl : Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama

His brother Abul Faizi was the leading poet of his time. He translated Mahabharata intoPersian. Jahangir’s autobiography was Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. Shah Jahan also patronized manywriters like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote ShahJahan Nama. His son Dara Shikoh translated Gita and Upanishads into the Persian Language.

THE MARATHAS

Shivaji (1627-1680): His life and conquests

He was born at Shivner in 1627. His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai. He inheritedthe jagir of Poona from his father in 1637. After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev, in1647, he assumed full charge of his jagir. He attacked Bijapur and captured number of hill fortsin the Konkan region. Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of Maratha power underShivaji. He sent the Mughal Governor of Deccan, Shaista Khan against Shivaji. Shivaji wasdefeated and lost Poona. But Shivaji once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s camp atPoona in 1663, killed his son and wounded him. In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat , the chief port ofSurat, and plundered it.

This time Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight against Shivaji. Jai Singh was able toreoccupy the Purander fort where Shivaji was staying. Shivaji negotiated with Jai Singh and thetreaty was called Treaty of Purander(1665). According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23out of 35 forts he held.

He visited Agra in 1666, but he was imprisoned there. He escaped from there and startedmilitary preparations against Mughals. He plundered Surat again in 1670 and regained all thelost forts. In 1674 he crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title Chatrapathi. He died in1680.

Shivaji’s Administration

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He was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan.

1. Peshwa: Finance and General Administration. Later he became PM2. Sar-i-Naubat of Senapati: Military Commander3. Amatya: Accountant General4. Waqenavis: Intelligence, Posts and Household affairs5. Sachiv: Correspondence6. Sumanta: Master of ceremonies7. Nyayadish: Justice8. Panditrao: Charities and religious administration

Revenue system was similar to that of Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar. Lands were measuredusing rods called kathi. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were the taxes collected not in the Marathakingdom but in the neighbouring territories of the Mughal empire of Deccan sultanates.

Chauth: 1/4th of the land revenue paid to the Marathas to avoid Maratha raid

Sardeshmukhi: Additional levy of 10% on those lands which Marathas claimed hereditary rights.

Successors of Shivaji

After death of Shivaji, there was a war of succession between Shambaji and Rajaram. Shambajiwas victorious, but was later executed by the Mughals. Rajaram succeeded, but the Mughalsmade him flee to the Ginjee fort. He died at Satara. He was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji IIwith his mother Tara Bai as regent. The next ruler was Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas roseto power.

THE PESHWAS(1713-1818)

Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720)

He begin his career as a revenue officer and finally became Peshwa in 1713. He finally madeShahu as the Maratha ruler. In 1719, Balaji got certain rights from the then Mughal ruler,Farukh Siyar. 1st he got recognized as Martha King, 2nd he got rights to collect Chauth andSardeshmikhi from the 6 mughal provinces of the Deccan.

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Balaji Rao I (1720-1740)

He was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath. The Maratha power reached its zenith under him. Heinitiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under this each chief wasassigned a territory which he could administer autonomously. As a result, many Marathafamilies established their authority in different parts of India. They were the Gaekwad ofBaroda, The Bhonsle of Nagpur, The Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior and the Peshwasat Poona.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)

The Maratha King Shahu died in 1749 without an issue. His successor Ramraja was imprisonedby Balaji Baji Rao at Satara. So the full control came under the Peshwas. In 1752, Peshwasentered into an agreement with Mughals , in which they gave assurance that they would protectMughal empire from enemies for which the Chauth of the NW provinces and the total revenueof Agra and Ajmer would be collected by the Marathas.

Thus when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the responsibility of the Marathas toprotect India. They fought bravely but were defeated in the 3rd battle of Panipat in 1761. BalajiBaji Rao also died on hearing the sad news of defeat. The confederacy weakened due to internalconflicts. The important causes of the downfall of Marathas were lack of unity among them andthe superiority of the British army.

THE COMING OF EUROPEANS

The commercial contacts between India and Europe were very old via the land route throughOxus valley or Syria or Egypt. But the new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope was discoveredby Vasco Da Gama in 1498. They entered India as traders but indulged in the politics of Indiaand finally established their colonies.

The Portuguese

On 17 May 1498, Vasco Da Gama reached the port of Calicut and he was received by Zamorinof Calicut. He returned next year. Pedro Alvarez Cabral arrived in 1500 and Gama made asecond trip in 1502. They established trading stations Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin.

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Francis de Almeida was the 1st governor of Portuguese in India. In 1509, Albuquerque wasmade the governor of Portuguese territories in India. In 1501 he captured Goa from Bijapur.Thereafter Goa became the capital of Portuguese in India. Albuquerque also captured Malaccaand Ceylon. He also built a fort at Calicut. He died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as thestrongest naval power in India. His successors established Portuguese settlements at Daman,Salsette and Bombay on the west coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal onthe east coast. However their power declined by the end of 16th century. They lost all theirpossessions in India except Goa and Daman and Diu in the next century.

The Dutch

The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. They established their settlements atMasulipattinam, Pulicat, Surat, Karaikal, Nagapattinam, Chinsura and Kasimbazar. In the 17th

century, they won over the Portuguese and emerged the most dominant power in Europeantrade in the east. Pulicat was their main centre and later it was replaced by Nagapattinam. Inthe middle of the 17th century, the English began to emerge as a big colonial power. The AngloDutch rivalry lasted for about 7 decades during which the Dutch lost their settlements to Britishone by one.

The English

The English East India Company was established in 1600 and the charter was issued by QueenElizabeth of England. Captain Hawkins arrived at the royal court of Jahangir in 1609 to seekpermission to establish English trading centre at Surat. But it was refused by the MughalEmperor due to Portuguese pressure. Later in 1612, Jahangir issued a farman to the English andthey established a trading factory at Surat in 1613.

Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I, the King of England to the Mughalcourt in 1615. By 1619, they had the factories at Agra, Ahmadabad, Baroda and Broach. TheEnglish East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II, the then King of England. In 1639,Francis Day founded the city of Madras, where the Fort St. George was built. In 1690, anEnglish factory was established at a place called Sutanuti by Job Charnock. Later it developed inthe city of Calcutta where Fort William was built. Thus Bombay, Madras and Calcutta becamethe tree presidency towns of the English settlements.

The French

The French East India Company was formed in 1664 by Colbert, a Minister under Louis XIV. The1st factory was established in Surat by Francis Caron. Later, Maracara set up factory at

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Masulipattinam. Francois Martin founded Pondicherry in 1673. Other French factories were atChandranagore, Mahe and Karaikal. Francois Martin was the 1st governor of Pondicherry, thehead quarters of French possessions in India.

The Danes

Denmark also established trade settlements in India. Their settlement at Tranquebar wasfounded in 1620. Another one was Serampore in Bengal. Serampore was their HQ. They sold alltheir settlements in India to British in 1845.

Anglo French Rivalry

In the beginning of 18th century, the English and the French were competing with each other toestablish their supremacy in India. The Anglo-French rivalry in India was manifest in the Carnaticregion and in Bengal.

The Carnatic Wars

The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence of Deccan under Nizam-ul-Mulk. In1740, the Austrian War of Succession broke out in Europe in which France and England were inthe opposite camps. They came into conflict in India also. The French Governor of Pondicherry,Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746 and thus began the 1st Carnatic War (1746-1748).The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar Uddin. But the French concluded atreaty with his rival Chanda Sahib. The English crushed French in the Battle of Adyar, nearMadras. In the mean time, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle was concluded in 1748 to end Austrianwar. Thus the 1st Carnatic war came to an end.

1st Carnatic War 1746-1748. English defeats French in Battle of Adyar.

Dupleix supported the cause of Muzafar Jang, who wanted to become the Nizam of Hyderabadand Chanda Sahib, an aspirant for the throne of Arcot. The troops of these three defeated,Anwar Uddin, who was with the British side in the 1st war, and killed him in the Battle of Amburin 1749. After this, Muzafar Jung became Nizam and Chanda Sahib, the Nawab of Arcot.Muhammad Ali, the son of Anwar Uddin, escaped to Tiruchirappali. The English sent troops tosupport him. In the mean time, British Commander Robert Clive captured Arcot and ChandaSahib was beheaded in Tanjore. He also defeated French in Kaveripakkam. Mean while Dupleixwas replaced by Godeheu was the French Governor. The war came to an end by the Treaty ofPondicherry in 1754.

The outbreak of Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe led to the Third Carnatic War (1758-1763. Count de Lally was the commander of the French troops. The British General Sir EyreCoote defeated him at Wandiwash in 1760. In the next year, Pondicherry was captured and

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destroyed by British troops. The Seven Years War came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in 1763.Thus the Third Carnatic war also ended. The French agreed to confine its activities inPondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam.

Establishment of British power in India

The English ascendancy in Bengal proved to be the basis for expansion of English rule in India.The conflict between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula and the English led to the Battle ofPlassey on 23rd June 1757. Robert Clive, the Commander of the British troops emergedvictorious. The easy English victory was due to the treachery of Mir Jafar, the commander ofNawab’s army. The victory of the British in the Battle of Plassey marked the foundation ofBritish rule in India.

In 1764, the English once again defeated the combined forces of Nawab of Oudh, the MughalEmperor, and the Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Buxar. In 1765, Robert Clive was appointedas the Governor of Bengal. In the same year, Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by whichMughal Emperor granted the Diwani rights to the East India Company. Thus the English rule wasthoroughly established.

INDIA UNDER THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY

Warren Hastings (1772-1785)

English East India Company established in 1600 as per the Royal Charter issued by QueenElizabeth I. Captain Hawkins was sent to Jahangir’s court to secure permission for a factory. SirThomas Roe also obtained trading rights. English established business centres at Agra,Ahmedabad and Broach.

In 1639 Francis Day established the city of Madras and constructed Fort St.George

In 1668, Company obtainded Bombay on lease from King Charles II.

In 1690, Job Charnock, purchased three villages named Sutanuti, Govindpur and Kalikatta whichbecame Calcutta. The fort was named Fort Williams. Thus Bombay, Madras and Calcutta wasestablished.

Reforms of Warren Hastings

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When he assumed the office, the administration was in utter chaos. The financial position hasalso become worse. So he introduced various reforms

1. Abolition of the Dual System

The dual system introduced by Robert Clive was abolished. He also reduced allowancesgiven to Nawab and Mughal emperor.

2. Revenue Reforms

After the abolition of Dual system, the responsibility of collecting revenue fell on Companyshoulders. For that, a Board of Revenue was established at Calcutta. Collectors wereappointed. The treasury was removed from Murshidabad to Calcutta and AccountantGeneral was appointed. Calcutta thus became the capital of Bengal in 1772.

3. Reorganisation of the Judicial System

The judicial system at his time was a store house of abuses. The Nawab, who was theadministrator of justice, misused his powers. Often, his judgements were careless. Thezamindars who were judges at lower levels were also corrupt.

Under Warren Hastings, each district was provided with a civil court under the Collector anda criminal court under the Indian Judge. To hear appeals from the civil courts, two appellatecourts, one for civil and another for criminal was established in Calcutta. The highest civilcourt of appeal was called Sadar Diwani Adalat, which was to be presided over by Governorand two judges. The highest appellate criminal court was called Sadar Nizamat Adalat,which was to function under an Indian Judge appointed by Governor in council.

4. Trade regulations and other reforms

He abolished the system of dastaks, or free passes and regulated the internal trade. Hereduced the number of custom houses and enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5 % for Indian andnon Indian goods. Private trade by company servants was within strict limits. He alsointroduced a system of pre-paid postage system in India. A bank was started in Calcutta. Heimproved the police and dacoits were severely dealt with.

The Regulating Act of 1773

It was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain intended to overhaul the management ofEast India Company’s rule in India. It did not prove to be a long term solution. Pitt’s India Actwas there subsequently enacted in 1784.

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Provisions of the Act

1. The term of office of the members of Court of Directors was extended from 1 year to 4years. 1/4th of them were to retire every year and the retiring Directors were not eligiblefor re-elections.

2. A council of 4 members was appointed to assist the Governor General. The govt. Was tobe conducted in accordance with the decision of majority.

3. The Regulating act made the presidencies of Bombay and Madras as subordinate to thePresidency of Calcutta.

4. The Governor of Bengal was designated as the Governor of the Presidency of FortWilliam and he was to serve as Governor General of India

5. Provision for establishing Supreme Court at Calcutta consisting of Chief Justice and 3judges. In 1774, the Supreme Court was established in Calcutta

6. The Act prevented the servants of the company from receiving any gifts in cash or kind

Expansionist policy of Warren Hastings

His administration witnessed the Rohilla war, the 1st Anglo-Maratha war and the 2nd AngloMysore war

The Rohilla War (1774)

Rohilkand was a small kingdom situated between Oudh and the Marathas. Nawab of Oudh withthe help of British troops to invade Rohilkand. Warren Hastings was severely criticized for hispolicy.

First Anglo Maratha War (1775-1782)

After the death of Madhavrao Peshwa, his brother Narayanrao became the Peshwa. HoweverRagunathrao, his uncle, assassinated him and assumed the title of Peshwa. Some Marathachiefs, led by Nana Phadnavis wanted to make infant son of Madhavrao, the Peshwa.Ragunathrao sought help from British at Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat on March1775. According to the treaty, he ceded the territories of Salsette and Bassein to the British,along with parts of revenues from Surat and Bharuch. In return, British promised to help him.Ragunath, later fall back from his promise. In 1776, Hastings sent Colonel Upton to settle theissue. He cancelled the Treaty of Surat and conceded the Treaty of Purander with Nana Phadvis.According to the new treaty, Madhavrao II was accepted as the new Peshwa and Britishretained Salsette along with heavy war indemnity.

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Hastings scrapped the Treaty of Purander and sanctioned operations against Marathas. In 1781,Hastings sent Captain Popham who defeated the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia and capturedGwalior. In 1782, the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and MahadajiScindia. Accordingly, Salsette and Bassein was given to the British. Ragunathrao was pensionedoff and Madhav Rao II was accepted as the Peshwa.

Treaty of Salbai provided the British 20 years of peace with the Marathas. It also enabled theBritish to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of Marathas in recovering their territories fromHaider Ali.

The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)

In the First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-1769), Haider Ali was victorious and a defensive treaty wassigned between him and the British. The main causes of the 2nd Mysore war were

1. The British failed to fulfil the terms of the defensive treaty with Haider when he wasattacked by the Marathas in 1771.

2. There was hostility between English and the French (an ally of Haider) during theAmerican War of Independence.

3. British captured Mahe, a French settlement within Haider’s territories4. Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with Nizam of Hyderabad and Marathas against

British

The war began when British led their forces through Haider’s territories without his permissionto capture Guntur. Haider defeated Colonel Baillie and captured Arcot in 1870. Hastings, by aclever stroke of diplomacy, made peace with Nizam, won the friend ship of Bhonsle and came tounderstanding with Scindia. Thus Haider was left with no alliance. He was defeated by Sir EyreCoote at Porto Novo in March 1781. The 2nd Mysore war came to an end by the Treaty ofMangalore in 1783. Accordingly all conquests were mutually restored and prisoners wereliberated.

Pitt’s India Act, 1784

The Regulating Act failed in its objective. In 1784, Pitt the Younger (PM of England) introducedthe India Bill in the British Parliament.

1. A Board of Control consisting of 6 members were created. They were appointed by theCrown.

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2. The Court of Directors was retained without any alteration.3. The Act reduced the number of the members of the Governor-General’s council from 4 to

3 including the Commander-in-Chief.

It introduced a contradiction in the functions of the Company. The Court of Directors controlledits commercial functions, whereas the Board of Control maintained its political affairs. In fact,the Board represented the King, and the Directors symbolised the Company.

Impeachment of Warren Hastings in 1787 by Edmund Burke

Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

He was a close friend of Prime Minister Pitt and of Dundas, the most influential member of theBoard of control. He was also a remarkable soldier in the American war of Independence. TheParliament amended Pitt’s India Act in 1786 so as to enable him to overrule the decision of themajority of his council, if necessary. His appointment was significant. A new tradition ofchoosing a person from an aristocratic family for the post of Governor-General was initiated.

Tipu Sultan and the 3rd Mysore War (1790-1792)

The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore and increased Tipu’sstrength. He also wanted to wreak vengeance on the Nizam and the Marathas for theirbetrayal. The chief causes for the 3rd Mysore War were

1. Tipu strengthened his position by undertaking various internal reforms. This worriedBritish, Marathas and the Nizams.

2. Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France and Turkey by sending envoys there.3. He also expanded his territories at the cost of his neighbour, particularly the Raja of

Travancore, who was an ally of the British.4. In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the Nizams and Marathas against

Tipu.

War broke out in May 1790 between English and Tipu. It was fought in 3 phases. The 1st phasecommenced when Medows, the Governor of Madras, initially directed the campaign to invadeMysore but Tipu halted their movement. In the 2nd phase Cornwallis himself assumed commandin December 1790. Marching from Vellore, he captured Bangalore in March 1791, butCornwallis was forced to retreat. The 3rd phase began when timely aid from Marathas helpedCornwallis to resume the campaign. This time the English forces occupied Srirangapattinam inFeb 1792. Tipu Sultan concluded the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the British.

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Treaty of Srirangapattinam 1792

1. Tipu had to give up half of his dominions.2. He had to pay war indemnity of 3 Crore rupees and surrender two of his sons as hostage.3. Both sides agreed to release POW.

Administrative reforms of Cornwallis

1. His greatest initiative was the purification of the civil service by employing honest andcapable persons.

2. Cornwallis abolished the vicious system of paying small salaries to servants ofCompanies and allowing them to earn enormous perquisites.

3. He inaugurated the policy of making appointments mainly on merit thereby laying thefoundation of the Indian Civil Services.

4. He abolished number of surplus posts.5. He separated three branches of service, namely commercial, judicial and revenue.

Judicial Reforms

1. Both Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were presided by the Governor-General and his council.

2. There were 4 provincial courts of appeal at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna,each under 3 European judges assisted by Indian advisers.

3. Every district was provided with a court. Cornwallis had taken away the judicial powersfrom Collectors. As a result, District Judges were appointed.

4. Indian judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts at the bottom level.5. He hated barbarous punishments and abolished mutilation and trial by ordeal.

Police Reforms

1. The District Judge controlled the police.2. Each district was divided into thanas or police circles. It was placed under daroga.

Other Reforms

1. He reformed the Board of Trade which managed the commercial investments of thecompany.

2. He eradicated numerous abused and corrupt practices. Fair treatment was given toIndian workers and weavers.

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Permanent Settlement 1793

It was an agreement between East India Company and Bengali landlords. Under this act, thelandholders and Zamindars were admitted as the absolute owners of the land. They wereallowed to hold their proprietary right at a rate that never changed. Earlier zamindars hadofficials for collecting revenue on behalf of the Mughal emperor and his represenatative ofDiwan in Bengal. The Diwan would supervise them so that there is no less or excessive pressurefor earning revenue. East India Company was able to win over Diwani or the right to rule Bengalfollowing the victory of Battle of Buxar in 1764. Thus they had the responsibility but lacked thetrained administrator having local knowledge. As a result the Landlords and Zamindar had todeposit the revenue to the corrupt officials of the company.

The Permanent Settlement Act brought the improvement of the lands by the landowners as theytook care of drainage and irrigation. As the land revenue of the Zamindars got fixed, they couldsecurely invest the rest of the money to increase their income without the fear of tax. Theearning of the Company was also assured.

Objectives

1. Earning revenue could be made certain2. Ensuring a minimum amount of revenue.3. The system needs less supervision, so officials could be engaged in other spheres.4. Forging and alliance between Zamindar class and British rulers

Cons

1. The Govt. Tax demand was inflexible and the East India Company refused to make anyadjustment during drought, flood or other calamity.

2. The Zamindars who fell into arrears, had their land auctioned. Many of such lands werepurchased by Company officials. This led to two possibilities- one to manipulate thesystem to bring the sale of land they wanted specifically and the other was that theofficials could be bribed in order to get possession of particular land.

3. Thus this Act led to commercialization of the land, which did not exist before.

The Marquess of Wellesley (1798-1805)

The appointment of Richard Colley Wellesley as Governor-General marks an epoch in the historyof British India. He was a great imperialist and called himself Bengal Tiger. He came to launch a

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policy to make the “British Empire in India” to “British empire of India”. The system that headopted to achieve his object is known as Subsidiary Alliance.

The Subsidiary System

The predecessors of Wellesley concluded alliances with Indian Princes like Nawab of Oudh andthe Nizam of Hyderabad. They received subsidies from the Indian rulers for the maintenance ofBritish troops. Wellesley enlarged and consolidated the already existing system. However, hisoriginality was revealed in its application.

Main features

1. Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British had to maintainBritish troops in his territory. In turn, the British troop would protect the state againstany invasion.

2. The protected state should cut of its connection with other European powers and evenother Indian states.

3. The ruler of the state should keep a British Resident in his court and disband his ownarmy.

4. The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the protected state.

Benefits to the British

Wellesley’s Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the master pieces of British imperialism. Itincreased the military strength of the Company in India at the expense of the protected state.Thus Wellesley’s diplomacy made the British the paramount power in India.

Defects of the Subsidiary System

1. It led to the introduction of anarchy because of the unemployment of thousands ofsoldiers sent away by the Indian princes. They formed band like pindaris.

2. It had a demoralizing effect on the princes of protected states. They started to neglecttheir administrative responsibilities because they were protected against externaldanger and internal revolt.

3. Because of the heavy cost, it adversely affected their economy.

Enforcement of the Subsidiary System

1. Hyderabad was the 1st state which was brought under Wellesley’s Subsidiary System in1798.

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2. Oudh: The threat of invasion by Zaman Shah of Afghanistan was the pretext of Wellesleyto force the Nawab of Oudh to enter into a subsidiary treaty. So Nawab gave rich landsof Rohilkhand, the lower Doab and Gorakhpur for the maintenance of the army.

3. Tanjore, Surat and the Karnatak:

The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

Tipu Sultan wanted to avenge his defeat and the terms imposed on him by the British. He alsoaimed at making Mysore a strong state. He took efforts to seek the help of the France, Arabia,Kabul and Turkey. He also received a friendly letter from Napoleon. Wellesley prepared for awar against Mysore. As a part of his strategy, he tried to revive the Triple Alliance of 1790 withthe Marathas. Marathas didn’t agree, however they promised to remain neutral. Britishconcluded a Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad, thereby disbanding the Frenchforce.

Wellesley set out to persuade Tip to accept the subsidiary alliance. Tipu ignored the same andthus the Fourth Anglo-Mysore war was started.

The war was short and decisive. As planned, the Bombay army under General Stuart invadedMysore from the west. The Madras army forced Tipu to retreat to his capital Srirangapattinam.He was captured and shot dead.

After the fall of Tipu, Wellesley restored Hindu rule at the central part of the kingdom. A boyKrishnaraja III, a decendant of the dethroned Raja was made the king. Purnaiya, the previousminister became the Diwan. The remaining parts of the kingdom were divided between Britishand the Nizam.

Wellesley and the Marathas

After the death of Nana Phadvis, Peshwa Baji Rao II came into power, but he lacked politicalwisdom. The infighting among the Marathas proved to be self destructive. The Holkars defeatedthe combined forces of the Scindia and the Peshwa. Peshwa Baji Rao II fled to Bassein where hesigned the Treaty of Bassein with the British in 1802. It was a subsidiary treat and the Peshwawas recognized as the head of the Marathas.

The Second Maratha War (1803-1805)

Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghoji Bhonsle took the Treaty of Bassein as an insult to the nationalhonour of the Marathas. Soon the forces of both the chieftains were united and they crossed theNarmada. Wellesley seized this opportunity and declared war in August 1803. Arthur Wellesley

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captured Ahmadnagar in Aug 1803 and defeated the combined forces of Scindia and Bhonsle atAssaye near Aurangabad. Arthur Wellesley carried the war into Bhonsle’s territory andcompletely defeated them on the plains of Argaon. As a result, the Treaty of Deogan was signedbetween Bhonsle and Wellesley, according to which the province of Cuttack was ceded toBritish. Similarly the Scindia signed a subsidiary treaty with the British known as the Treaty ofSurji-Arjungaon.

Estimate of Wellesley

He was an unscrupulous annexationist and an advocate of forward policy. He was one of thegreatest empire builders of British. By the annexation of Karnatak and Tanjore, he paved theway for the formation of the Madras Presidency. He turned the East India Company from atrading corporation into an imperial power.

The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 took place under Sir George Barlow’s administration. He wassucceded by Lord Minto who concluded the Treaty of Amristar with Ranjit Singh of Punjab in1809. The Charter Act of 1813 was passed during this period.

Lord Hastings (1813-1823)

He adopted a vigorous forward policy and waged wars extensively. The conditions when heassumed power posed a serious threat to the British administration. There was anarchy in thecentral India. The Pindaris plundered the whole region and the Marathas couldn’t control them.The Peshwa was secretly plotting against the British. Hastings was also troubled by theexpansion of the Gurkha power. He determined to restore order by suppressing the Pindaris andto eliminate the threats to British power by waging wars against Marathas and the Gurkhas.

War against the Gurkhas (1814-1816)

Nepal emerged as a powerful Gurkha state in 1768. The aggressions of the Gurkhas into theBritish territories culminated in a war. In May 1814, the Gurkhas attacked the British police postand killed 18 policemen and their officers. Hastings declared a war on Nepal. Amar Singh Thapathe General of Nepal Army was forced to surrender.

In 1816, The Treaty of Sagauli was concluded, according to which Gurkhas gave up their claimover the Tarai region and ceded the areas of Kumaon and Garhwal to the British. The British

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also obtained various hill stations like Simla, Mussorie, Nainital etc. After the war, Hastings washonoured with English peerage and he became the Marquis of Hastings.

Suppression of the Pindaris

The first reference of them is during the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra. They did not belongto any particular caste or creed. They used to serve the army without any payment but insteadwere allowed to plunder. They never helped the British and were mostly active in the areas ofRajputana and the Central Provinces and subsisted on plunder. Chief among their leaders wereWasil Muhammad, Chitu and Karim Khan.

Lord Hastings decided to suppress the Pindaris. By 1818, they were completely suppressed andall their bands disintegrated. Karim Khan was given a small estate in Gorakhpur district. Wasilcommitted suicide in captivity and Chitu was killed by a tiger. Thus by 1824, the menace of thePindaris came to an end.

Downfall of the Maratha confederacy

The third major achievement of Lord Hastings was against the Marathas. In reality, the Marathapower had weakened considerably after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 and the twosubsequent wars against the British. The relationships of powerful Maratha chiefs like theBhonsle, Gaekwar, Scindia, Holkar and the Peshwa were ridden with mutual jealousies.Peshwa Baji Rao II wanted to become the head of the Marathas and his chief minister Tirimbakjiencouraged him. On the advice of the company, the Gaekwar sent his PM Gangadhar Shastri tonegotiate with Peshwas, but he was murdered at the instance of Triambakji.

The British asked Peshwa to handover the minister to them. But he escaped from Thana jail.Consequently on June 1817, the British resident Elphinstone forced the Peshwa to sign theTreaty of Poona.

Third Maratha War (1817-1819)

Peshwa undid the Treaty of Poona with the British and in 1817 attacked the British Residency.He was defeated at Kirkee. Similarly, the Bhonsle chief, Appa Sahib also refused to abide by theTreaty of Nagpur, which he had signed with the British in 1816. He fought with the British in theBattle of Sitabaldi in 1817, but was defeated. The Peshwa turned to Holkar, but he too wasdefeated at Baroda. The year 1818 was a significant year on account of major politicalachievements for the British. The Maratha dream of establishing themselves as paramountpower in India was shattered.

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Reforms of Hastings

Lord Hastings approved the Ryotwari system of Land revenue introduced in the MadrasPresidency by Sir Thomas Munroe. In the sphere of judiciary, the Cornwallis Code wasimproved. The Police System of Bengal was extended to othe regions. The separation of judicialand revenue departments was not rigidly followed. Instead, the District Collector acted asMagistrate.

He encouraged the foundation of vernacular schools by missionaries and others. In 1817, theHindu College was established at Calcutta. He encouraged the freedom of the press andabolished the censorship introduced in 1799. The Bengali weekly, Samachar Darpan was startedin 1818 by Marshman.

Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)

1. He was appointed as the Governor of Madras in 1803.2. He supported Sir Thomas Munroe on revenue administration.3. The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 had resulted in his recall.4. As Governor General, he had initiated an era or progress and reforms.5. He was undoubtedly, the 1st Governor General of India who acted on the dictum that

“welfare of the subject people was the main duty of British in India”.

Policy towards Indian States

William Bentinck adopted a policy of non-intervention and non-aggression with Indian states.

Mysore

British authorities took the control of Mysore and placed it under a commissioner when theyoung Krishnaraja III (who was restored by Wellesley) proved incompetent. Cubbon park inBangalore was named after Sir Mark Cubbon who was the commissioner from 1834 to 1861.

Coorg

Lord William Bentinck annexed this state when the ruthless and barbarian ruler treated hispeople with savage barbarity and killed his male relatives.

Relations with Ranjit Singh

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Lord Bentinck was the first Governor-General to visualise a Russian threat to India. Hence hewas eager to negotiate friendly relations both with the ruler of Punjab, Maharaja Ranjit Singhand also with the Amirs of Sind. The Governor-General was successful in winning the friendshipof Ranjit Singh and the Indus Navigation Treaty was concluded between them in 1831.

Charter Act of 1833

The Regulating Act of 1773 made it compulsory to renew the Company’s Charter after twentyyears. Hence the Charter Act of 1793 was passed by the Parliament. It extended the life ofCharter Act for another 20 years and introduced minor changes. The Charter Act of 1813provided one lakh of rupees annually for the promotion of Indian education.

The Charter Act of 1833 was a significant constitutional instrument defining the scopeand the authority of the East India Company. The liberal and utilitarian philosophy of Benthamwas made popular by the provisions of this Act.

1. The English East India Company ceased to be a commercial agency in India. In otherwords, it would function hereafter as the political agent of the Crown.

2. The Governor-General of Fort William was hereafter called the Governor-General ofIndia. Thus Lord Bentick was the first Governor General of India.

3. A Law Member was appointed to the Governor-General’s council. Macaulay was the firstLaw Member of the Governor-General’s council.

4. The Act categorically stated that ‘no native of India, nor any natural born subject of HisMajesty, should be disabled from holding any place, office or employment, by reason ofhis religion, place of birth, descent or colour’. It was this enactment which laid thefoundation for the Indianisation of public service.

After 20 years, the Charter Act of 1853 was passed and it was the last in the series of CharterActs.

Reforms of Lord William Bentinck

The advent of Lord William Bentinck ushered in a new era in the annals of India in many ways.Although his tenure was short span of 7 years, it saw a period of enduring reforms.

Financial Reforms

When he assumed office, the financial position of the Company was very poor. To improve thefinancial condition, he reduced the salaries and allowance of all officers and additional staffswere removed. In the military, he abolished the system of double batta. By these reforms at thetime of his departure, he left the treasury with a surplus of Rs 1.5 millions.

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Administrative Reforms

In the judicial department he abolished the provincial courts of appeal established by Cornwallis.They were largely responsible for huge arrears of cases. This was readily accepted by theDirectors since it cut down their expenditure. Another reform was the introduction of locallanguages in the lower courts and English in the higher courts in the place of Persian. Helaunched the revenue settlements of the North West Province under the control of R.M Bird. Thissettlement was for a period of 30 years and it was made either with the tillers of the soil or theland owners.

Social Reforms

The main social reforms were

1. Abolition of Sati- He was greatly distressed when he received a report of 800 cases ofsati in a single year and that from Bengal. He became a crusader against it andpromulgated his Regulation XVII on 4 December 1829 prohibiting the practice of Sati.The Regulation was extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.

2. Suppression of Thugs- The Thugs were hereditary robbers. They went about in smallgroups posing as commercial gangs or pilgrims, strangling and robbing peacefultravellers. A campaign was organised by Colonel Sleeman from 1830 against the thugs.

3. Female Infanticide- This practice was very much prevalent in places like Rajputana,Punjab, Malwa and Kutch. He not only prohibited female infanticide but declared themas punishable crimes

4. Introduction of English Education – He appointed a committee headed by LordMacaulay to make recommendations for the promotion of education. In his report,Macaulay emphasized on the promotion of European literature and science throughEnglish medium to Indians. The Government Resolution in 1835 made English theofficial and literary language of India. In the same year, William Bentinck laid thefoundation of Calcutta Medical College.

After Bentinck, Lord Auckland (1836-1842) became Governor-General. The First Afghan Warwas fought during his tenure. Due to his failure in Afghan, he was recalled. His successor LordEllenborough succeeded him and ended the Afghan war. He also annexed the Sindh. Hissuccessor, Lord Hardinge fought the Anglo-Sikh war and concluded the Treaty of Lahore.

Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)

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He was the youngest Governor-General of India when he assumed the charge at the age of 36.

Policy of Annexation

The most important aspect of Dalhousie’s administration is related to the “great drama ofannexation”. Although he used different reasons for annexation, his main objective was to endthe misrule in the annexed states.

Annexation of Punjab

At the end of the second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Punjab was annexed by Dalhousie. Heorganized the administration of Punjab very efficiently. The province was divided into smalldistricts under the control of District Officers who were called Deputy Commissioners. In 1859,Sir John Lawrence became the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab.

2nd Burmese War and the Annexation of Lower Burma

After the end of 2nd Burmese War in 1852, Dalhousie annexed Lower Burma with its capital atPegu. Major Arthur Phayre was appointed as the Commissioner. Its annexation provedbeneficial to British. Rangoon, Britain’s most valuable acquisition from the war became one ofthe biggest ports of Asia.

Doctrine of Lapse

The East India Company was rapidly becoming the predominant power in India. It had concludedalliances with Indian rulers. It promised to support them and their heirs in return for variousconcessions. Although this type of agreement favoured the British, Dalhousie sought to acquireeven more power. It was customary for a ruler without a natural heir to ask the BritishGovernment whether he could adopt a son to succeed him. According to Dalhousie, if suchpermission was refused by the British, the state would lapse and thereby become part of theBritish India. Dalhousie maintained that there was a difference between the right to inheritproperty and the right to govern. This principle was called the Doctrine of Lapse.

1. Satara was annexed in 1848.2. Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed in 1854.

After the Mutiny of 1857, the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn.

Annexation of Oudh

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The British relations with the state of Oudh go back to the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765. Rightfrom Warren Hastings, many Governor-Generals advised the Nawab of Oudh to improveadministration. But Nawab assumed that since he was loyal to British, his state won’t beannexed. Dalhousie annexed Oudh in 1856 and the Nawab Wajid Ali was retired with a statepension. The annexation offended Muslim elite. More dangerous was the effect on the Britisharmy’s Indian troops, many of whom came from Oudh. In these ways, the annexation of theOudh contributed to the Mutiny of 1857.

Domestic Reforms of Dalhousie

He was not only a conqueror, but also a great administrator. The appointment of Lieutenant-Governor to Bengal enabled Dalhousie to concentrate on administration. His greatestachievement was moulding of new provinces into a modern centralized state. For newlyacquired territories, he introduced the centralized control called Non-Regulation System. Underthis system a Commissioner was appointed for a newly acquired territory. He also shifted theheadquarters of Bengal Artillery from Calcutta to Meerut. Simla was made the permanentheadquarters of the Army.

Railways

There were three major reasons for the British to take interest in its quick development. The firstreason was commercial. The second reason was administrative and the third one was defence.At the time of revolt and disturbance, movement of the forces was much easier throughrailways. In 1853 he penned his Railway Minute formulating the future policy of railway in India.The first railway line connecting Bombay with Thane was opened in 1853. Railway linesconnecting Calcutta to Raniganj coal fields were opened in 1854 annd Madras to Arakkonam in1856. 1st railway line in world was opened in 1825 in London.

Telegraph

In 1852, O’Shaughnessy was appointed the Superintendent of Telegraph Department. Maincities of the country viz, Calcutta, Peshawar, Bombay and Madras were telegraphicallyconnected. During the 1857 revolt, the telegraphs proved a boon for the English.

Postal Reform

The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by Lord Dalhousie. A new Post Office Actwas passed in 1854. Consequently, irrespective of the distance over which letter was sent, auniform rate of half an anna per post card was charged throught India. Postage stamps wereused for the first time.

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Education

The educational Despatch of Sir Charles Wood (1854) was considered the “Intellectual Charterof India”. It provided an outline for the comprehensive scheme of education at primary,secondary and collegiate levels. Accordingly the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madraswere founded in 1857.

Public Works Department

Before the period of Dalhousie, the job of the PWD was done by the Military Board. Dalhousiecreated a separated department for Public Works and allotted more funds for cutting canalsand roads. The Upper Ganges Canal was completed in 1854 and many bridges wereconstructed. He laid the foundation of the engineering service in India.

Estimate of Dalhousie

He left India in 1856. The outbreak of Mutiny in the following year led to severe criticism of hispolicy of annexation. He died in 1860 due to years of overwork in India. He is hailed as themaker of modern India.

REVENUE ADMINISTRATION AND THE ECONOMIC POLICY OF THE BRITISH

After their advent, the British principally adopted three types of land tenures. Roughly 19% ofthe total area under the British rule ie Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division of the NW province andnorthern Karnatak, were brought under the Zamindari System of the Permanent Settlement.The second system, called the Mahalwari Settlement, was introduced in about 30% of the totalarea under British rule i.e. in major parts of NW Provinces, Central Provinces and the Punjabwith some variations. The Ryotwari System covered about 51% of the aread comprising part ofthe Bombay and Madras Presidencies, Assam and certain other parts of British India

The Permanent Settlement

Lord Cornwallis’ most conspicuous administrative measure was the Permanent Land RevenueSettlement of Bengal, which was extended to Bihar and Orissa. It is appropriate to recall thatWarren Hastings introduces the annual lease system of auctioning the land to the highest

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bidder, which created chaos. Cornwallis was instructed by the Directors to find a satisfactoryand permanent solution which will protect the interests of both Company and the cultivators. Hedecided to abolish the annual lease system and introduce a ten years settlement which wassubsequently declared to be continuous. The main features were

1. The Zamindars of Bengal were recognized as land owners as long as they paid to theCompany regularly.

2. The amount of revenue that the Zamindars had to pay was firmly fixed and would not beraised under any circumstances. In other words, the Government got 89% leaving therest to Zamindars.

3. The ryots became tenants since they were considered as the tillers of the soil.4. This settlement took away the administrative and judicial functions of the zamindar.

The disadvantages of the settlement were

1. It was bitterly criticised on the point that it was adopted with undue haste.2. No attempt was ever made either to survey the land or to assess their value.3. The assessment was made roughly on the basis of accounts of previous collections and it

was done in an irregular manner.4. As the revenue fixed by the system was too high, many Zamindars defaulted on the

payments. Their property was seized and distressed sales were conducted leading totheir ruin.

Ryotwari Settlement

The Ryotwari settlement was introduced mainly in Madras, Berar, Bombay and Assam. SirThomas Munro introduced this in the Madras Presidency. Under this settlement, the peasantwas recognized as the proprietor of the land. There was no intermediary like a Zamindarbetween the peasant and the government. So as long as the revenue was paid on time, thepeasant was not evicted. The land revenue was fixed for a period from 20 to 40 years. Everypeasant was held personally responsible for direct payment of land revenue to the government.Ultimately this system also failed. Under this settlement, it was certainly not possible to collectrevenue in a systematic manner.

Mahalwari Settlement

In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in the Punjab, the Central and NW Provinces.Under this system the basic unit of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal. As thevillage land belonged jointly to the village community, the responsibility of paying the revenuerested with the entire Mahal or the village community. So the entire land of the village was

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measured at the time of fixing the revenue. Though the system eliminated middlemen inrevenue collection, yet its benefit was largely enjoyed by the government.

EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS

Language and Education policy

In 1781, Warren Hastings established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of Muslimlaws along with Arabic and Persian languages.

In 1791, Jonathan Duncan established a Sanskrit College in Banaras.

The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the sphere of education. It gaveimportance to western education while discouraging the prevalent system. The Charter Act of1813 provided one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of education in India. For the nextyears, not even a single penny out of the allocated funds could be spent on education.

In 1829, after becoming Governor-General, Lord Bentinck emphasized on the medium of Englishlanguage in Indian education. In 1835, the 10 members of the General Committee of PublicInstructions were clearly divided into two groups. 5 members including the Chairman of theCommittee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting English as medium of public instructionswhereas the other five were in favour of oriental languages.

Lord Bentinck passed the famous Minute of Lord Macaulay in 1835 despite fierce opposition. In1854 Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as a grand plan on education. Theestablishment of departments of public instructions were recommended. Besides it also laidemphasis on the establishment of schools for technical education, teacher and womeneducation. Over and all the dispatch recommended for establishment of one University each inCalcutta, Bombay and Madras on the model of London University.

Widow Remarriage

In 1856, J.P. Grant, a member of the Governor-General’s council tabled a bill in support of thewidow remarriage. It came to be known as the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.

Child Marriage

In 1870, the Indian Reforms Association was started with the efforts of Keshav Chandra Sen. Ajournal called Mahapap Bal Vivah was also launched by B.M Malabari to fight against childmarriage. In 1846, the minimum age of marriage for a girl was only 10 years. In 1891, throughthe enactment of the Age of Consent Act, this was raised to 12 years. In 1930, through the

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Sharda Act, the minimum age was raised to 14 years. After Independence, it was raised to 18years in 1978.

Struggle against Caste System

Mahatma Gandhi brought out a paper called, The Harijan and also organised Harijan SewaSangh.

Ambedkar: Bahiskrit Hitkarni Sabha (1924) and Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg Sabha

Jyotirao Phule: Satya Shodak Samaj

E.V.R Periyar: Self Respect Movement of Periyar

THE GREAT REVOLT OF 1857

Revolt of 1857 was hailed by Vir Savarkar as the First War of Indian Independence. The leadership at Delhi was nominally in the hands of Bahadur Shah, but the real control was exhibited byGeneral Bakht Khan. At Kanpur, the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Baji RaoII, the last Peshwa. He was supported by his two lieutenants, Tantiya Tope and Azimullah.

The principal person responsible for the revolt in Lucknow was the Begum of Oudh. RaniLakshmi Bai, the widowed queen of Gangadhar Rao, played a heroic role in this revolt. KunwarSingh, a ruined zamindar was the chief organiser of the revolt in Bihar.

Cause for the failure of the revolt

1. The foremost cause was that the revolt failed to embrace the whole of India.2. Different sections of the society such as money lenders, merchants and educated Indians

were actually against the revolt.3. The resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels.4. In addition, the British were aided by new scientific inventions such as the telegraph and

the postal communications.

Significance and Effects of the Mutiny

1. One significant aspect of the 1857 revolt was the Hindu-Muslim unity.2. The Indian Administration was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown by

the Queen’s proclamation of 1st November 1858.3. At the same time the Governor-General received the new title of Viceroy.

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4. Canning had the unique opportunity to become the Governor-General as well as the firstViceroy according to act of 1858.

5. Canning proclaimed the new Government at Allahabad in November 1858. It has beencalled the Magna Carta of the Indian people.

BRITISH INDIA AFTER 1858: LYTTON, RIPON AND CURZON

After the 1857 revolt, the responsibility of ruling India was directly assumed by the BritishCrown. Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India in 1858. The Government of India Act of1858 and the Queen’s Proclamation in the same year signify this change in IndianAdministration. The administrations of Lord Lytton, Lord Ripon and Lord Curzon were importantduring this period.

Lord Lytton (1876-1880)

Lord Lytton was an experience diplomat and a man of striking ability and brilliance. Theprevailing famine and the political disturbances in the NW Frontier caused a great worry to theBritish at that time.

Famine Policy

The famine of 1876-78 had resulted from the failure of two monsoons. The worst affected areaswere Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, Bombay, Central India and the Punjab. Lytton’s Governmentfailed miserably to tackle the situation. The Famine code came into existence in 1883.

The Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act 1878

The Vernacular Press Act empowered a Magistrate to secure an undertaking from the editor,publisher and printer of a vernacular newspaper that nothing would be published against theEnglish Government. The equipment of the press can be seized if offence was committed. In thesame year, Arms Act was passed. It prevented the Indians to keep arms without appropriatelicense. The Europeans and Anglo-Indians were exempted from the legislation.

Other Reforms

Lord Lytton improved uniform salt tax throughout British India. He also abolished many importduties and supported the Free Trade Policy. This seriously affected the Indian economic interest.

Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

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Ripon was instructed to reverse the Afghan Policy of Lytton. As soon as he came to India, peacewas made with Afghanistan without affecting British prestige. He was also responsible for therendition of Mysore to its Hindu Ruler. He repealed the Vernacular Press Act and earned muchpopularity among Indians.

Introduction of Local Self-Government (1882)

Ripon believed that self government is the highest and noblest principles of politics. Therefore,he helped the growth of local bodies like the Municipal Committees in towns and the localboards in taluks and villages.

Educational Reforms

Like Lord William Bentinck, Lord Ripon was a champion of education of the Indians. Riponwanted to review the working of the educational system on the basis of the recommendationsof the Wood’s despatch. For further improvement, he appointed a Commission in 1882 underthe chairmanship of Sir William Hunter. The Commission came to be known as HunterCommission. It recommended for the expansion and improvement of the elementary education.

First Factory Act (1881)

Lord Ripon introduced the Factory Act of 1881 to improve the service conditions of the factoryworkers in India. The Act banned the employment of children below seven in factories. Itreduced the working hours of children and made compulsory for all dangerous machines to haveproper enclosure.

Ilbert Bill Agitation (1884)

Lord Ripon wanted to remove two kinds of law that had been prevalent in India. According tothe system of law, a European could be tried only by a European Judge. The disqualification wasunjust and it was sought to cast a needless discredit and dishonour upon the Indian-bornmembers of the judiciary.

C.P.Ilbert, Law Member, introduced a bill in 1883 to abolish this discrimination. It was opposedby Europeans strongly. They even formed an organisation called the Defence Assocation. Theyalso suggested that it was better to end the English rule in India than to allow the English to besubjected to Indian Judges. The press in England also joined the issue. Hence, Ripon amendedthe bill to satisfy the English in India and England.

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Because of the Ilbert Bill controversy, Ripon was totally disillusioned and heartbroken. Hetendered his resignation and left for England. The immediate result was the birth of the IndianNational Congress.

Estimate of Lord Ripon

He was the most popular Viceroy that England ever sent to India. His attempt to remove racialdiscrimination in the judiciary, the repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, the rendition of Mysoreand the introduction of the Local Self Government increased his popularity among Indians.

Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

He was a thorough imperialist. In order to make the administration efficient, he overhauled theentire administrative machinery.

Educational Reforms

To set the educational system in order, he instituted in 1902, a Universities Commission to gointo the entire question of university education in India. On the basis of the findings, he broughtin the Indian Universities Act of 1904, which brought all the universities in India under thecontrol of government.

Police and Military Reforms

Curzon believed in efficiency and discipline. He instituted a Police Commission in 1902 under SirAndrew Frazer. He accepted all the recommendations and implemented them. He setup trainingschools for both the officers and the constables and introduced provincial police service. As forthe remodelling of the army, it was done by Lord Kitchener, the Commander-in-Chief at thattime.

Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)

The Viceroy brought in a new legislative measure namely the Calcutta Corporation Act in 1899by which the strength of the elected members was reduced and that of the official membersincreased. He gave more representation to the English people and there was a strongresentment by the Indian members.

Preservation of the Archaeological objects

Curzon had a passion for preserving the ancient monuments of historical importance in India.No Viceroy before or after him took such a keen interest in archaeological objects. He passed a

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law called the Ancient Monuments Act, 1904 which made it obligatory on the party ofGovernment and Local Authorities to preserve the monuments of archaeological importanceand their destruction an offence.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

The partition of Bengal into two provinces was effected on 4th July 1905. The new province ofEastern Bengal consisted of whole of Assam and Dacca, Rajshahi and Chittagong divisions.Though Curzon justified his action on administrative lines, partition divided the Hindus andMuslims in Bengal.

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMS MOVEMENTS

Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj

Raja Rammohan Roy established the Brahmo Samaj in Calcutta in 1828 in order to purifyHinduism and to preach monotheism. He is considered as the first modern man of India. In1815, he established the Atmiya Sabha. The work of Atmiya Sabha was carried on by MaharishiDebendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore), who renamed it as Brahmo Samaj.

He is most remembered for helping Lord Bentinck to declare Sati as punishable offence in 1829.He also protested against child marriage and female infanticide. In 1817, he founded the HinduCollege (now Presidency College, Calcutta) along with David Hare, a missionary.

He started the first Bengal weekly Samvad Kaumudi and edited a Persian weekly Mirat-ul-akhbar.

Henry Vivian Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement

Henry Derozio was the founder of Young Bengal Movement. They attacked old traditions anddecadent customs. They also advocated women’s right and their education.

Swami Dayanand Saraswathi and the Arya Samaj

The Arya Samaj was founded by Dayanand Saraswathi at Bombay in 1875. Born in Kathiawar inGujarat, he was a scholar, patriot, social reformer and revivalist. He believed the Vedas werethe source of true knowledge. His motto was “Back to the Vedas”. He was against idol worship,child marriage and caste systems based on birth. He started the Suddhi movement to bringback those Hindus who had converted to other religions to its fold. He wrote the book SatyarthaPrakash. The first Dayanad Anglo Vedic School was founded in 1886 at Lahore.

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Prarthana Samaj

The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang. It was onoff shoot of Brahmo Samaj. It was a reform movement within Hinduism and concentrated onsocial reforms like inter-dining, inter-marriage, widow marriage and uplift of women. JusticeM.G.Ranade and R.G.Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused new strength to it. Ranadepromoted the Deccan Education Society.

Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission

The original name of Swami Vivekananda was Narendranath Dutta and he became the mostfamous disciple of Shri Ramakrishna Paramahansa. In 1886 he took the vow of Sanyasa andwas given the name, Vivekananda. He preached Vedantic Philosophy. He participated at theParliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893.

Theosophical Society

The Theosophical Society was founded in New York in 1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky, aRussian lady, and Henry Steel Olcott, an Americal Colonel. Their main objectives were to form auniversal brotherhood of man without any distinction of race, colour or creed and to promotethe study of ancient religions and philosophies. They stabled their head quarters in India atAdayar in Madras in 1882. Annie Besant arrived in India and took over the leadership of thesociety after the death of Olcott. Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu School along withMadan Mohan Malaviya which later developed into Banaras Hindu University.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

He was a great educator, humanist and social reformer. He firmly believed that reform in Indiansociety could only come through education. Vidyasagar founded many schools for girls. Hehelped J.D.Bethune to establish the Bethune School. He also founded the MetropolitanInstitution in Calcutta. It was due to his great support for the spread of education that he wasgiven the title of Vidyasagar.

Jyotiba Phule

He belonged to a low caste family in Maharashtra. Phule waged a life-long struggle againstupper caste domination and Brahmanical supremacy. In 1873 he founded the SatyashodakSamaj. He and his wife established the first girls’ school at Poona in 1851.

Muslim Reform Movements

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The Muslim reform movements started a little late because they had avoided westerneducation in the beginning. The first effort was in 1863 when the Muhammad Literary Societywas set up in Calcutta. Its aim was to setup the study of English and western sciences.

Aligarh Movement

The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan for the social and educationaladvancement of the Muslims in India. In 1866, he started the Mohammedan EducationalConference as a general forum for spreading liberal ideas among the Muslims. In 1875, hefounded a modern school at Aligarh to promote English education among the Muslims. This hadlater grown into the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental college and then into the Aligarh MuslimUniversity.

The Deoband School

The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband Movement. It was arevivalist movement whose twin objectives were 1) to propagate among the Muslims the pureteachings of the Koran and Hadis and 2) to keep alive the spirit of Jihad against the foreignrulers.

Sikh Reform Movement

Baba Dayal Das founded the Nirankari Movement. He insisted the worship of God as nirankar(formless). The Namdhari Movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh. His followers worewhite clothes and gave up meat eating. The Singh Sabhas started in Lahore and Amristar in1870 were aimed at reforming the Sikh Society. They helped to set up the Khalsa College atAmristar in 1892.

Parsi Reform Movement

The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S.Bengalee in 1851. They advocated the spread of women’s education. They also wanted toreform their marriage customs. Naoroji published a monthly journal, Jagat Mithra.

Saint Ramalinga

He was one of the foremost saints of Tamilnadu in the 19th century. He was born in Marudhurnear Chidambaram. In 1865 he founded the Samarasa Suddha Sanmargha Sangha for thepromotion of his ideals of establishing a caste less society. He composed Tiru Arutpa, ManuMurai Kanda Vasagm and Jeeva Karunyam. He introduce the principle that God could beworshipped in the form of light.

Sri Vaikunda Swamigal

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He was born in the Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. He preached against the caste systemand untouchability. His teachings came to be known as Ayyavazhi.

Self Respect Movement and Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy

Periyar E.V.R was a great social reformer. In 1921, during the anti liquor campaign he cut down1000 coconut trees in his own farm. In 1924, he took an active part in Vaikom Satyagraha. Theobjective was to secure for untouchables the right to use a road near a temple at Vaikom inKerala. E.V.R opposed the Varnashrama policy followed in the V.V.S. Iyer’s SeranmdadeviGurukulam. In 1925 he started the Self Respect Movement. Its aim was to uplift the Dravidiansand to expose the Brahmanical tyranny and deceptive methods by which they controlled allspheres of Hindu life. He denounced caste system, child marriage and enforced widowhood. Hehimself conducted many marriages without any rituals, which were called as Self RespectMarriages. He attacked the laws of Manu. He founded the Tamil journals Kudiarasu, Puratchiand Viduthalai to propagate his ideals.

In 1938 at Tamil Nadu Women’s conference, he was given the tile “Periyar”. In June 1970, theUNESCO praised and adorned him with the title of Socrates of South Asia.

INDIAN NATIONALIST MOVEMENT (1885-1905)

Factors promoting the growth of Nationalism in India

1. Political Unity- For the first time, most of the regions in India was united politically andadministratively under a single power. It introduced a uniform system of law andgovernment.

2. Development of Communication and Transport3. English language and western education4. The role of the Press5. Social and Religious movements of the 19th century6. Economic exploitation by the British7. Racial Discrimination8. Administration of Lytton9. The Ilbert Bill controversy

Early Political Associations

The British India Association- 1851 Bengal

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The Bombay Association- 1852 Dadabhai Naoroji

East India Association- 1856 London

Madras Native Association- 1852

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha- 1870

The Madras Mahajana Sabha- 1884

The Indian National Congress 1885

Allan Octavian Hume, a retired civil servant in the British Government founded the IndianNational Congress and its first session was held at Bombay in 1885. W.C. Banerjee was its firstpresident. It was attended by 72 delegates from all over India.

1885 Bombay

1886 Calcutta

1887 Madras

The history of the INC can be studied in three important phases.

1. The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) when the Congress continued to beloyal to the British Crown.

2. The years 1906-1916 witnessed Swadeshi Movement, rise of militant nationalism andthe Home Rule Movement.

3. The period from 1917 to 1947 is known as the Gandhian era.

Moderate Nationalism

The leading figures during the 1st phase of the Nationalist Movement were A.O. Hume, W.C.Banerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Feroze Shah Mehta, GopalakrishnaGokhale, Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya, Badruddin Tyabji, Justice Ranade and G.SubramanyaAiyyar.

Surendranath Banerjee was called the Indian Burke. He firmly opposed the Partition of Bengal.He founded the Indian Association (1876) to agitate for political reforms. He had convened theIndian National Conference (1883) which merged with the Indian National Congress in 1886.

G.Subramanya Aiyyar preached nationalism through the Madras Mahajana Sabha. He alsofounded The Hindu and Swadesamitram. Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the Grand Old Man

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of India. He is regarded as India’s unofficial Ambassador in England. He was the first Indian tobecome a Member of the British House of Commons. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was regarded asthe political guru of Gandhi. In 1905, he founded the Servants of India Society to train Indians todedicate their lives to the cause of the country.

For a few years Congress enjoyed the patronage of British administrators. Between 1885 and1905, the Congress leaders were moderates. They had faith in the British Justice and good will.They adopted peaceful and constitutional means to achieve their demands.

Main demands of Moderates

1. Expansion and reform of legislative councils.2. Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding the ICS examination in

England and in India.3. Separation of the judiciary from the executive.4. More power for the local bodies.5. Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from unjust landlords.6. Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty.7. Reduction of spending on army.8. Freedom of speech and expression and freedom to form associations.

Methods of Moderates

They had total faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They were loyal to the British.They looked to England for inspiration and guidance. The Moderates used petitions, resolutions,meetings, leaflets, memorandum and delegations to present their demands. They confined theiractivities to the political classes only. Their aim was to attain political rights and selfgovernment stage by stage.

In the beginning, the British Government welcomed the birth of the Indian National Congress. In1886, the Governor General Lord Dufferin gave a tea garden party for the Congress members inCalcutta. With the increase in Congress demands, the government became unfriendly. Itencouraged the Muslims to stay away from the Congress. Thy only demand of the Congressgranted by the British was the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of1892.

Achievements of Moderates

1. They were able to create a wide national awakening among the people.2. They popularized the ideas of democracy, civil liberties and representative institutions.

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3. They explained how the British were exploiting Indians. Dadabhai Naoroji in his famousbook, Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India wrote his Drain Theory. He showed howIndia’s wealth was going to England in the form of a) salaries b) savings c) pension d)payments to British troops and e) profits of the British companies. In fact, the BritishGovernment was forced to appoint the Welby Commission, which Dadabhai was the firstIndian as its member, to enquire in to the matter.

4. Some Moderates like Ranade and Gokhale favoured social reforms.5. The Moderates succeeded in the getting the expansion of legislative councils by the

Indian Council Act of 1892.

INDIAN NATIONALIST MOVEMENT (1905-1916)

The period from 1905 was known as the era of extremism in the Indian National Movement. Theextremists believed that the success could be achieved through bold means. The main leaderswere Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh.

Cause of the Rise of Extremism

1. The failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other than the expansion of thelegislative councils by the Indian Council Acts of 1892.

2. The famine and plague of 1896-97 which affected the whole country and the suffering ofthe masses.

3. The economic conditions of the people became worse.4. The ill treatment of Indians in South Africa on the basis of colour of skin.5. The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of Lord Curzon.

He passed the Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) reducing the Indian control of thisbody.

The Universities Act (1904) reduced the elected members in the University Body.It also reduced their autonomies.

The Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act reduced the freedom of all people. His worst measure was the partition of Bengal (1905)

Main objective of Extremists was to attain Swaraj or complete independence and not just self-government.

The methods used by the Extremists were

1. Not cooperating with the British Government by boycotting government courts, schoolsand colleges.

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2. Promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods.3. Introduction and promotion of national education.

Leaders of the Extremists

Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the real founder of the popular anti-British movement inIndia. He was known as Lokmanya. He attacked the British through his weeklies The Mahrattaand The Kesari. He was jailed twice by British for his activities and in 1908 deported toMandalay for six years. He setup the Home Rule League in Poona and declared “Swaraj is mybirth right and I will have it”.

Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as the Lion of Punjab. He founded the Home Rule League inthe US in 1916. He was also deported to Mandalay on the ground of Sedition. He received fatalinjuries while protesting against the Simon Commission and died in 1928.

Partition of Bengal and the Rise of Extremism

Lord Curzon’s real motive for the partition were

1. To break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal was the base ofIndian Nationalism.

2. To divide the Hindus and the Muslims in Bengal.

On the day of partition 16th October 1905, the people of Bengal organised protest meetings andobserved a day of mourning. Gandhi wrote that the real awakening in India took place onlyafter the Partition of Bengal.

The aggressive nationalists forced Dadabhai Naoroji to speak of Swaraj (which was not amoderate demand) in the Calcutta session of Congress in 1906. They adopted the resolution ofBoycott and Swadeshi. The Moderates were unhappy. They wanted Swaraj to be achievedthrough constitutional methods. These differences led to a split in the Congress at the SuratSession in 1907. This is known as the Surat Split of 1907. The extremists led by Tilak came out ofthe Congress.

Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi Movement included programmes like the boycott of government services, schoolsand colleges, promotion of Swadeshi goods and promotion of National Education throughestablishment of national schools and colleges. It was both a political and economic movement.The government adopted several tough measures. It passed several Acts to crush themovement. The Swadeshi volunteers were beaten badly. The cry of Vande Mataram wasforbidden. Schools and colleges were warned not to allow their students to take part in the

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movement or else their aid would be stopped. Some Indian government employees lost theirjobs. Extremist leaders Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and AurobindoGhosh were imprisoned and deported.

Achievement of Extremists

1. They were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth right.2. They involved the masses in the freedom struggle and broadened the social base of the

National Movement.3. They were the first to organize an all India political movement viz. The Swadeshi

movement.

Formation of the Muslim League (1906)

In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for the MuslimEducational Conference. Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting up of an organizationto look after Muslim interests. The proposal was accepted and The All India Muslim League wasfinally set up on December 30 1906. Like the INC, they also conducted their annual sessions andput their demands to the British government. Their first achievement was the separateelectorates for the Muslims in the Morley-Minto Reforms.

The Lucknow Pact (1916)

During the 1916 Congress session at Lucknow two major events occurred. The divided Congressbecame united. An understanding for joint action against the British was reached betweenCongress and the Muslim League and it was called the Lucknow Pact. The signing of the pactmarked an important step in the Hindu Muslim Unity.

The Home Rule Movement (1916)

Two Home Rule Leagues were established, one by B.G. Tilak at Poona in April 1916 and theother by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. The aim of the movement was to get self-government for India within the British Empire. It believed that freedom was the natural right ofall nations. On 20th Aug 1917, Montague, The Secretary of State in England, made a declarationin the Parliament of England on British Government’s policy towards future political reforms inIndia. He promised the gradual development of self-governing institutions in India. This AugustDeclaration led to the end of Home Rule Movement.

Revolutionary Movements

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In Maharashtra Savarkar brothers had setup Abhinava Bharat. In Madras, BharatmathaAssociation was started by Nilakanta Brahmachari. Ghadar Party was set up in US by ShyamjiKrishna Verma and Lala Hardayal.

THE INDIAN NATIONALIST MOVEMENT (1917-1947)

The third and the final phase of the Nationalist movement is known as the Gandhian era. Duringthis period Mahatma Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the Nationalist Movement. In1893 he went to South Africa and involved himself in the struggle against apartheid. Finally hecame to India in 1915. Thereafter he fully involved himself in the Indian National Movement.

He began his experiments with Satyagraha against the oppressive European indigo planters atChamparan in Bihar in 1917. In 1918, he launched another Satyagraha at Kheda in Gujarat insupport of the peasants who were not able to pay land tax due to failure of crops. During thisstruggle, Sardar Vallabhai Patel emerged as one of the trusted followers of Gandhi. In 1918, heundertook a fast unto death for the cause of Ahmedabad Mill Workers.

Rowlatt Act (1919)

In 1917, a committee was set up under the president ship of Sir Sydney Rowlatt to look into themilitant Nationalist activities. On the basis of its report, the Rowlatt Act was passed in March1919 by the Central Legislative Council. As per this Act, any person could be arrested on thebasis of suspicion. No appeal or petition could be filed against such arrests. This Act was calledthe Black Act and it was widely opposed. Meetings were held all over India. Gandhi wasarrested near Delhi. Dr Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested in Amristar.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919)

In Punjab, there was an unprecedented support to the Rowlatt Satyagraha. On 13th April, apublic meeting was organised at the Jallianwala Bagh. General Dyer marched in and withoutany warning opened fire on the crowd. There was a nationwide protest against this massacreand Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood as a protest.

Khilafat Movement

The Khilafat movement (1919–1924) was a pan-Islamic, political protest campaign launched byMuslims in British India to influence the British government and to protect the OttomanEmpire during the aftermath of World War I. The chief cause of the Khilafat movement was thedefeat of Turkey in the 1st World War. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) was felt

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by the Muslims as a great insult to them. The whole movement was based on the Muslim beliefthat Caliph (Sultan of Turkey) was the religious head of the Muslims all over the world. TheMuslims were upset over the British attitude against Turkey and launched Khilafat movement.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A.Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchew and the Ali brothers were theprominent leaders of this movement. A Khilafat Committee had been formed and on 19th

October 1919, the whole country had observed the Khilafat day. Subsequently the KhilafatMovement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in1920.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

Gandhi announced his plan to begin the Non-Cooperation movement with the Government as asequel to the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Khilafat movement. It wasapproved by the Congress at Nagpur session in Dec 1920.

The objectives were

1. Surrender of titles and honorary positions.2. Resignation of membership from local bodies.3. Boycott of elections held under the provisions of 1919 Act.4. Boycott of courts, government schools and colleges.5. Boycott of foreign goods and popularizing Swadeshi goods and khadi.

National schools like Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Bihar Vidyapeeth and the Jamia Milia Islamia weresetup during this period. The whole movement was called off in 1922 by Gandhi following theChauri Chaura incident in Gorakhpur when an angry mob set fire to a police station and 22policemen were burnt to death.

Significance of the Non-Cooperation movement

1. It was the real mass movement with the participation of different sections of society.2. It witnessed the spread of nationalism to the remote corners of India.3. It also marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of the merger of Khilafat

movement.4. It demonstrated the willingness and ability of the masses to endure hardships and make

sacrifices.

Swaraj Party

The suspension of the Non-Cooperation movement led to a split within Congress in the Gayasession of the Congress in December 1922. Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das

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formed a separate group within the Congress known as the Swaraj Party on 1st January 1923.The Swarajists wanted to contest the council elections and wreck the government from within.In the elections to Legislative Councils held in November 1923, Swaraj Party gained impressivesuccess. In the Central Legislative Council Motilal Nehru became the leader of the party whereasin Bengal the party was headed by C.R. Das.

Swaraj party did significant things in the Legislative Council. It demanded the setting up ofresponsible government in India with the necessary changes in the Government of India Act of1919. The party could pass important resolutions against the repressive laws of the government.The party weakened after the passing away of C.R. Das in June 1925.

Simon Commission (1927)

The Act of 1919 included a provision for its review after a lapse of 10 years. However the reviewcommission was appointed by the British Government two years earlier of its schedule in 1927.It came to be known as Simon Commission after the name of its chairman, Sir John Simon. All itsseven members were English men. As there was no Indian member in it, the Commission faced alot of criticism even before its landing in India. Almost all the parties including Congress decidedto oppose the Commission.

On the day of 3rd February 1928, when the Commission reached Bombay, a general hartal wasobserved all over the country. It was greeted everywhere with black flags and the cries of“Simon go back”. In a demonstration at Lahore in October 1928, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriouslyinjured in the police lathi charge and he passed away soon.

The report of the Simon Commission was published in May 1930. It was stated that theconstitutional experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful and in its place the reportrecommended the establishment of autonomous government. There is no doubt that the SimonCommission’s report became the basis for enacting the Government of India Act 1935.

Nehru Report (1928)

In the mean while, the Secretary of the State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians toproduce a constitution that would be acceptable to all. The challenge was accepted by theCongress, which convened an all party meeting on 28th February 1928. A committee consistingof 8 was constituted to draw the blue print for the future constitution. It was headed by MotilalNehru. The report came to be known as Nehru Report.

The Report favoured

1. Dominion status as the next immediate step.2. Full responsible government at the centre.

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3. Autonomy to the provinces.4. Clear cut division of power between the centre and the provinces.5. A bicameral legislature at the centre.

However Mohammad Ali Jinnah regarded it as detrimental to the interests of Muslims. Jinnahconvened an All India Conference of the Muslims where he drew up a list of Fourteen points asMuslim league demands.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

In the annual session of Congress held at Lahore in December 1929, presided by JawaharlalNehru, the Congress passed the Poorna Swaraj resolution. Moreover, as the government failedto accept the Nehru report, the Congress gave a call to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.The Congress had also observed January 26, 1930 as the Day of Independence. The same datelater became the Republic Day when the Indian Constitution was enforced in 1950.

The Dandi March

On 12th March 1930, Gandhi began his famous march to Dandi with his chosen 79 followers. Hereached the coast of Dandi on 5th April 1930 after marching a distance of 200 miles and on 6th

April formally launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking all the salt laws.

Round Table Conference

The British government adopted the strategy of talking to different political parties byconvening the Round Table Conferences. The 1st Round Table Conference was held in November1930 at London and it was boycotted by the Congress.

In January 1931, in order to create a conducive atmosphere for talks, the government lifted theban on the Congress party and released its leaders from prison. On 8th March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. As per this pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil-Disobedience Movement and participate in the 2nd Round Table Conference.

The 2nd Round Table Conference was held in January 1931. Gandhi participated, but he returnedto India disappointed as no agreement could be reached on demand of complete independenceand on communal questions.

In January 1932, the Civil-Disobedience Movement was resumed. The Government responded toit by arresting Gandhi and Patel and by re-imposing the ban on Congress.

Poona Pact (1932)

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In the 1st Round Table Conference, Ambedkar had demanded special electorates for thedepressed people of the country. In 1932, the then Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald made anannouncement which came to be known as Communal Award. According to this award, thedepressed classes were considered as a special community and as such provisions were madefor separate electorates for them. Gandhi protested against this and went on a fast unto deathin Yeravada jail in September 1932.

Finally an agreement was reached between Ambedkar and Gandhi which was called as PoonaPact. Accordingly 148 seats in different Provincial Legislatures were reserved for the depressedclass in place of 71 as provided in the Communal Award.

The 3rd Round Table Conference came to an end in 1932. Congress did not attend this. In March1933, the British Government issued a White Paper, which became the basis for the enactmentof the Government of India Act, 1935.

The Second World War and the National Movement

In 1937 elections were held under the provisions of Government of India Act 1935. Congressministries were formed in seven states of India. On 1st September 1939, the 2nd World War brokeout. The British Government without consulting the people of India involved the country in thewar. The Congress vehemently opposed it and as a mark of protest, they resigned. The Muslimleague celebrated that day as the Deliverance Day. In March 1940, the Muslim Leaguedemanded the creation of Pakistan.

Individual Satyagraha

During the course of the 2nd World War in order to secure the cooperation of Indians, the BritishGovernment made an announcement on 8th August 1940, which came to be known as theAugust Offer. The August Offer envisaged that after the War a representative body of Indianswould be set up to frame the new constitution. Gandhi was not satisfied with this offer anddecided to launch Individual Satyagraha.

Cripps Mission (1942)

The British Government in its continued effort to secure Indian cooperation sent Sir StaffordCripps to India on 23rd March 1942. This is known as Cripps Mission. The mainrecommendations of Cripps were

1. The promise of Dominion status to India.2. Protection of minorities.3. Setting up of a constituent assembly in which there would be representatives from the

Princely states along with those of the British provinces.

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4. There would be a provision for any province of British India not prepared to accept thisConstitution, either to retain its present constitutional position or frame a constitution ofits own.

The major political parties of the country rejected the Cripps proposal. Gandhi called it a “Postdated cheque”. They did not like the rights of Princely States either to send their representativesto the Constituent Assembly or to stay out of the Indian union. The Muslim League was also notsatisfied as its demand for Pakistan had not been conceded in the proposal.

Quit India Movement (1942-1944)

The failure of the Cripps mission and the fear of an impending Japanese invasion of India ledMahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit India. He believed that an interimgovernment could be formed only after British left India and the Hindu-Muslim problem sortedout. The Congress met at Bombay on 8th August 1942 and passed the famous ‘Quit IndiaResolution’. One the same die, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’.

Indian National Army

On 2nd July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose reached Singapore and gave the rousing war cry of“Dilli Chalo”. He was made the president of Indian Independence League and soon became thesupreme commander of the Indian National Army. He also gave the slogan of Jai Hind. Thethree Brigades of INA were Subhas Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and Nehru Brigade. The women’swing was named after Rani Laxmibai. Rash Behari Bose and Capt. Mohan Singh were the initialfounders.

Cabinet Mission

After the 2nd World War, Clement Atlee became the Prime Minister of England. On 15th March1946, Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination and theframing of a Constitution for India were conceded. Consequently three members of the Britishcabinet, Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander were sent to India. This isknown as Cabinet Mission.

Provision was made for three groups of provinces to possess their separate constitutions. TheCabinet Mission also proposed the formation of Union of India, comprising both the British Indiaand the Princely States. The Union would remain in charge of only foreign affairs, defence andcommunications leaving the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces. A proposal wasenvisaged for setting up an interim government which would remain in office till a new

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government was elected on the basis of the new Constitution framed by the ConstituentAssembly. Both Congress and the League accepted the plan.

Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a Constituent Assembly. TheCongress secured 205 out of 214 general seats. The League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats. Aninterim government was formed under Jawaharlal Nehru on 2nd September 1946.

Mountbatten Plan

On 20th February 1947, Atlee announced in the House of Commons, the definite intention of theBritish Government to transfer power to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than June1948. Thus, to effect the transference of that power Atlee decided to send Lord Mountbatten asViceroy to India.

The partition of India and the creation of Pakistan appeared inevitable to him. He put forth theplan of partition of India on 3rd June 1947. The Congress and the League finally approved theMountbatten Plan.

Indian Independence Act 1947

The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten plan by enacting theIndian Independence Act on 18th July 1947. The salient features of this Act were

1. The partition would come into effect from 15th August 1947.2. The British Government would transfer all powers into two Dominions.3. A Boundary commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab

and the Bengal.4. The two dominions will have full authority to frame their respective Constitutions.

The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating India and Pakistan. LordMountbatten was made the 1st Governor General of Independent India, whereas Jinnah becamethe first Governor General of Pakistan.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1858-1947)

The history of constitutional development in India begins from the passing of Regulating Act in1773. The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 and the successive Charter Acts from 1793 to 1853 form partof the constitutional changes under the East India Company’s rule. The revolt of 1857 broughtan end to the Company rule in India. These changes were announced in the Government ofIndia Act 1858.

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Government of India Act of 1858

The main provisions of this Act are

1. Company’s rule came to an end and the Indian administration directly came under thecrown.

2. In England, the Court of Directors and Board of Control were abolished. In their placecame the Secretary of State for India and India Council were established. Sir CharlesWood was the first Secretary of State for India.

3. The Governor-General of India was also made the Viceroy of India. The first Viceroy ofIndia was Lord Canning.

4. All the previous treaties were accepted and honoured by the Act.

Indian Councils Act of 1861

The Indian Act of 1861 increased the number of members in the Governor-General’s executiveCouncil from 4 to 5. Further the Governor-General’s Executive Council was enlarged into aCentral Legislative Council. 6 to 12 additional members were to be nominated by the Governor-General. Not less than half of these members were to be non-officials. Thus a provision wasmade for the inclusion of Indians in the Legislative Council. The functions of these memberswere strictly limited to making legislation and they were forbidden from interfering in thematters of the Executive Council. They did not possess powers of administration and finance.

Councils were also established in the province. The number of additional members in theprovince was fixed between 4 and 8.

Indian Councils Act of 1892

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was the first achievement of Indian National Congress. It hadincreased the additional members in the Central Legislative Council. They were to be not lessthan 10 and not more than 16. It had also increased the proportion of non-officials - 6 officialsand 10 non-officials. The members were allowed to discuss the budget and criticize the financialpolicy of the government.

Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909

The Indian Council Acts of 1909 was also known as Morley-Minto reforms in the name of LordMorley, the Secretary of State for India and Lord Minto, the Governor-General of India. Bothwere responsible for the passing of this Act. It was passed to win the support of the Moderatesin the Congress. The important provisions were

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1. The number of additional members of the Central Legislative Council was increased tomaximum of 60. Elected members were to be 27 and among the 33 nominated membersnot more than 28 were to be officials.

2. The principle of elections to the councils was legally recognized. But communalrepresentation was for the first time introduced in the interest of Muslims. Separateelectorates were provided for Muslims.

3. The number of members in provincial legislative councils of major provinces was raisedto 60.

4. The Councils were given right to discuss and pass resolutions on the Budget and on allmatters of public interest. However the Governor General had the power to disallowdiscussion on the budget.

5. An Indian member was appointed for the first time to the Governor-General’s ExecutiveCouncil. Sir S.P. Sinha was the first Indian to be appointed thus.

6. In Bombay and Madras, the number of members of the Executive Councils was raisedfrom 2 to 4.

7. Two Indians were also appointed to the India Council in England.

The Morley-Minto reforms never desired to set up a parliamentary form of government in India.However, the Moderates welcomed the reforms as fairly liberal measures. The principle ofseparate electorates had ultimately led to the partition of Indian in 1947.

Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919

On 20th August 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State for Indian made a momentousdeclaration in the House of Commons. His declaration assured the introduction of responsiblegovernment in India. As a first measure the Government of India Act of 1919 was passed by theParliament of England. This Act is popularly known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. The mainfeatures of this act were

1. Dyarchy was introduced in the provinces. Provincial subjects were divided into “ReservedSubjects” such as police, jails, land revenue, irrigation and forests and “TransferredSubjects” such as education, local self government, public health, sanitation, agricultureand Industries. The Reserved subjects were to be administered by Governor and hisExecutive Council. The transferred subject by the Governor and his ministers.

2. A bicameral legislature was setup at the Centre. It consisted of the Council of States andthe Legislative Assembly.

3. The salaries of the Secretary of State for India and his assistants were to be paid out ofthe British revenues. So far they were paid out of the Indian revenues.

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4. A High Commissioner for India at London was appointed.

The Government of India Act of 1935

The Government of India Act of 1935 was passed on the basis of the report of the SimonCommission, the outcome of the Round Table Conferences and the White paper issued by theBritish Government in 1933. The Act contained many important changes over the previous Actof 1919.

1. Provision for the establishment of an All India Federation at the Centre, consisting of theProvinces of British India and the Princely States. It did not come into existence since thePrincely states refused to give their consent for the union.

2. Division of powers into three lists: Federal, Provincial and Concurrent.3. Introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre. The Governor-General and his councillors

administered the Reserved Subjects and the Council of Ministers were responsible for theTransferred Subjects.

4. Abolition of Dyarchy and the introduction of Provincial Autonomy in the provinces. TheGovernor was head of the Provincial Executive but he was expected to run theadministration on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

5. Provincial Legislature of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar and Assamwere made bicameral.

6. Extension of the principle of Separate Electorates to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian Christiansand Anglo Indians.

7. Establishment of a Federal Court at Delhi with a Chief Justice and 6 judges.

An overview of various Acts

1773 The Regulating Act 1784 The Pitts India Act 1793 The Charter Act 1813 The Charter Act 1833 The Charter Act 1853 The Charter Act 1858 The Government of India Act 1861 The Indian Councils Act 1892 The Indian Councils Act 1909 Morley Minto Reforms

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1919 Montague Chelmsford Reforms 1935 The Government of India Act

INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

Constitution of India

The Constituent Assembly began its work on 9th December 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad waselected as its Chairman. Ambedkar was appointed as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee.After a detailed discussion, the Constitution of India was finally adopted on 26th November1949. The Constitution came into effect on 26th January 1950 and since then the day iscelebrated as Republic Day.

The salient features of the Indian Constitution are the adult suffrage, Parliamentary system,Fundamental Rights and Directives. It provides a combination of federal and unitary forms ofthe governance at the centre and the powers of the government have been clearly stated in thethree lists: Central, State and Concurrent.

Integration of Princely States

At the time of Independence there were 11 British Provinces and nearly 566 princely states.After the departure of the British from India the princes of Indian states began to dream ofindependence. With great skill and masterful diplomacy, Sardar Vallabhai Patel succeeded inintegrating the princely states with the Indian union by 15 August 1947. Only three of them-Junagarh, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad refused to join.

The ruler of Junagadh expressed his willingness to join Pakistan against the wishes of the peopleof that state. Patel sent Indian troops and after a plebiscite Junagarh joined Indian union. In thebeginning, Raja Hari Singh of J&K also claimed independent status. When the Pathan tribes ledby Pakistan army invaded Kashmir, he sought the help of India. Nehru pointed out that underinternational law India could send its troop only after the state’s accession to India. So on 26th

October 1947, Raja Hari Singh signed the instrument of accession and Jammu and Kashmirbecame part of India. Hyderabad also acceded after Indian troops moved into Hyderabad.

The Linguistic Reorganisation of the States

In 1948, the first Linguistic Provinces Commission headed by S.K Dar was appointed by theConstituent Assembly to enquire into the possibility of linguistic provinces. The commissionadvised against such a step. In the same year another committee known as JVP committeeconsisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramaih was appointed by

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the Congress party. They also did not favour for linguistic provinces. But there were popularmovements for states reorganization all over the country and it was intensive in Andhra.Therefore in 1953, Andhra was created as a separate state.

The success of Andhra struggle encouraged other linguistic groups to agitate for their own state.In 1953, Nehru appointed the States Reorganization Commission headed by Justice Fazal Ali asits Chairman and Pandit Hridayanath Kunzru and Sardar K.M. Panikkar as its members. Thecommission submitted its report in 1955 and based on this report, the States ReorganizationAct was passed by the Parliament in 1956. It provided for 16 states and 6 union territories.

Economic Planning

The National Planning Commission was established on 15th March 1950 with the PrimeMinister as its chairperson. Its main objectives were

1. To achieve higher level of national and per capita income.2. To achieve full employment3. To reduce inequalities of income and wealth4. To setup a society based on equality and justice.

The First Five Year Plan (1951-1956) tried to complete the projects at hand including therehabilitation of refugees.

It was only during the 2nd Five Year Plan (1956-1961), the noted economist Prof. P.C.Mahalanobis played a leading role. This plan aimed at developing the industrial sector inthe country.

Rapid industrialization with particular emphasis in the development of basic and heavyindustries continued during the 3rd Five Year Plan (1961-1966). During this period manyiron and steel, chemical, fertilizers and heavy engineering industries were setup indifferent parts of India.

The objective of the 4th Five Year Plan (1969-1974) was “growth with stability” and“progressive achievement of self reliance”. The original draft outline of the plan wasprepared in 1966 under the stewardship of Ashok Mehta. Popular economic sloganduring this period was Garibi Hatao.

The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979) was introduced at a time when the country wasunder severe economic crisis arising out of inflation. But the plan was dropped at theend of the fourth year of the plan in March 1978 by the Janata Government.

The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985) aimed at strengthening the infrastructure for bothagriculture and industry and meet the minimum basic needs of the people.

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The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) emphasized on accelerating the growth of foodgrains production, increasing employment opportunities and raising productivity.

The Eight Five Year Plan (1992-1997) aimed to achieve the goals, namely, improvementin the levels of living, health and education of the people, full employment andelimination of poverty and planned growth of population.

The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) aimed to give priority to agricultural sector, toremove poverty, to control prices, to provide food to the weaker sections, populationcontrol, to develop Panchayat administration and to uplift the depressed classes.

The Green Revolution

Despite creditable growth of agricultural output in the 1950s, India faced food shortage in themid sixties. The increase in population and the huge outlay to the plan of industrialization putpressures on agricultural growth. India was forced to import millions of tons of food grains. Thewars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965) and two successive drought years (1965-1966)brought enormous pressures to food production. In this background, Green Revolution waslaunched in India with the aim of achieving self-sufficiency in food production.

The then PM Shastri, Food Minister C Subramanian and Indira Gandhi, who succeeded Shastriput their efforts to the development of agriculture. The term Green Revolution was coined by DrWilliam Gadd of USA in 1968, when Indian farmers brought a great advancement in wheatproduction. India attained food sufficiency by the 1980s.

Growth of Science and Technology

India’s first national laboratory, the National Physical Laboratory was established in 1947. Itwas followed by 17 such national laboratories. Nehru himself assumed the Chairmanship of theCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research.

In 1952, the first IIT, on the model of MIT, was setup at Kharagpur. The Department of Scienceand Technology was setup in 1971.

Atomic Energy

The Atomic Energy Commission was setup in August 1948 under the Chairmanship of Homi J.Baba. The Department of Atomic Energy was setup in 1954 as an executive agency forimplementing the atomic energy programme. In 1956, India’s first nuclear reactor in Trombay(first in Asia also) began to function.

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Space Research

The Indian National Committee for Space Research was set up in 1962. Side by side, a rocketlaunching facility at Thumba came up. The INSAT -1A and INSAT -1B served country’s need in thefield of telecommunications and metrological earth observations. The ISRO Trivandrum isprimarily responsible for indigenous launch vehicle technology. The ISRO Satellite Centre,Bangalore is the satellite technology base of the space programme.

India’s Foreign Policy

After 1947, India began to follow an independent foreign policy designed by Nehru. He was thearchitect of the Non-Aligned Movement during the cold war era. Also he extended support tothe colonial countries in their struggle for independence. Nehru outlined the five principles ofcoexistence or Panch Sheel for conducting relations among countries. They are

1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.2. Non-aggression.3. Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.4. Equality and mutual benefit and5. Peaceful coexistence.

The members of South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) are India, Pakistan,Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives.

UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION

The 2nd World War proved to be more destructive than the 1st World War. The people of thewhole world were afraid of the consequence of such wars in future. In order to bring thequarrelling countries to talks and negotiate for peace, countries like USA, USSR and the UKwanted a world forum. The result of their tireless effort was the birth of the United NationsOrganisation.

Foundation of the UNO

After a series of conferences such as the Atlantic Charter, Yalta Conference and PotsdamConference, finally in 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks in USA, the creation of UNO was finalized. TheCharter of the UN was signed by the representatives of fifty one nations at San Francisco on26th June 1945.

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Delegates of 51 countries after a long discussion accepted the scheme and they published a U.NCharter. On 24th October 1945, the UN came into being. The UN Headquarters is in New York.There are currently 193 nation members in UN.

Aims of the UNO

1. To maintain and preserve international peace and security.2. To develop friendly relations and harmony among the countries.3. To grant equal rights and self-determination to all countries.4. To solve economic, social and cultural and humanitarian problems through international

cooperation.5. To promote respect for human rights, dignity and freedom.6. Not to intervene in the matters which are directly related with the domestic jurisdiction

of any country

Organization of the UNO

The UNO consists of 6 main bodies which are

1. The General Assembly2. The Security Council3. The Economic and Social Council4. The Trusteeship Council5. The International Court of Justice6. The Secretariat

The General Assembly

It is one of the six principal organs of the UN and the only one in which all member nations hasequal representation. Its powers are to oversee the budget of the UN, appoint the non-permanent members to the Security Council and make recommendations in the form of GeneralAssembly Resolutions. Its official languages are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Spanish andRussian. FRESCA (mnemonic)

The Security Council

It is the chief executive body of the UN. Its main function is to preserve peace and security in theworld. It can take diplomatic and economic steps against those nations who violate theconstitution of U.N.O. There are total 15 members including 10 temporary members. Each ofthe five permanent members (China, France, Russia, UK and US) has veto power. Its headquarters are in New York.

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The Economic and Social Council

The fundamental principle of this body is to create a spirit of universal respect for human rightsand to promote a higher cultural educational standard. Its function is to raise the standard ofliving of the people, to assure them employment. The Council works through the cooperation ofseveral special committees and commissions such as, UNESCO, United Nations Relief andRehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), FAO, WHO, ILO etc.

The Trusteeship Council

Its main function is to preserve the interests of the territories handed over to it and to help theGeneral Assembly in the administration of those countries. With the independence of Palau in1994, there presently are no trust territories. Its mission fulfilled, the Trusteeship Councilsuspended its operation on 1st November 1994.

The International Court of Justice

It is the judicial organ of the UNO and has its headquarters at The Hague (Netherlands). It iscomposed of 15 judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council for nine years.Dalveer Bhandari from India is one of the judges at the Court.

The Secretariat

It consists of the working staff of the UNO. The chief of the Secretariat is called the SecretaryGeneral who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the SecurityCouncil. Ban Ki-moon is the present Secretary General. His first term expired on 31st December2011. He was re-elected, unopposed to the second term.

The Secretary-General was envisioned by US President Franklin D Roosevelt as a “worldmoderator”. The 1st Secretary-General was Trygvie Lie of Norway. Dag Hammarskjold(Sweden) the 2nd Secretary died in a plane crash. Next was U Thant from Burma.

History of India

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Transcript of History of India