1 AN OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT

PRE-LITERATE PERIOD (ca. 12,000 3,500 BC)

I. Upper Palaeolithic I Period (before ca. 12,000 BC): nomadic food-gatherers

A. Upper Nile

B. Fayum

C. Southern Delta

II. Upper Paleolithic II Period (ca. 12,000 8,000 BC)

A. Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt - fine flints, fishing industry

B. Helwan (near Cairo) - fine flints

III. Mesolithic Period (ca. 8,000 4,500 BC) very sparse remains

A. Second Cataract (ca. 7,500 BC)

B. Kom Ombo

C. Helwan

IV. Neolithic Period (ca. 4,500 3,500 BC) very few sites

A. Climate, drier and drier, forced men to the river valley to shores of Fayum

B. Agriculture and stock-raising wheat, barley, buckwheat, flax

C. Pottery making and weaving; cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs

D. Nile flood control projects

E. Sites

1. Fayum A (ca. 4400 180 BC) - agriculture, stock-raising2. Merimde-Beni-Salameh (W. Delta) - (ca. 4000 BC)3. El Omari (S. Delta) (ca. 3300 BC 230)4. Deir Tasa (Tasian), Wadi-es-Sheikh, Tukh, Armant-Gebelein (S. Egypt) (3200 BC)5. Shaheinab (near Khartoum) (ca. 3490 BC 380)6. Fayum B (ca. 3200 BC)

F. Housing - mud huts partly sunk in ground

G. Burial - in villages with food and other materials for afterlife but by Tasianperiod (ca. 3200 BC) at necropolises at edge of desert

H. Technology

1. Northern superior (El Omari-Helwan) - tools, vessels, houses

2. South superior in ceramics

2PRE-DYNASTIC PERIOD (ca. 3500-3100 BC)

I. First Phase (ca. 3500-3300 BC): distinctive north and south cultures

A. Tasian culture (South) succeeded by Badarian and Amratian

B. El-Omari-Helwan culture (North) succeeded in turn by Fayum B, Gerzean,Meadian

II. Second Phase (ca. 3300-3200 BC): north and south merged to formunited culture

A. South

1. Badarian (= Primitive Predynastic) (ca. 3500 BC)

a. Crude mud hutsb. Woven mats, leather cushions, wooden bedsc. Wooden coffins including implements and foodd. Copper used, but raree. Pottery same as Tasianf. Refined glaze - faience (really, glass)g. Ivory carvings and molded clay statuettes

2. Amratian (= Early Predynastic) (ca. 3400 BC)

a. From El Amrah, near Abydosb. Formerly Nagada Ic. First examples of decorated potteryd. Pots in shape of animals, etc.e. First primitive hieroglyphics - e.g., a mace typical of the period survived

as a phonetic sign in later scriptf. Continued use of flints over metal

B. North

1. Gerzean (= Middle Predynastic) - ca. 3400 BC; followed Fayum B by alittle

a. Formerly Nagada IIb. Found at Gerzeh near Fayumc. Tombs rectangular and of many chambersd. Dead in N-S orientation facing east (new religious ideas?)

3e. Highly stylized animal forms painted on pottery (perhaps origin oflater E. tendency to picture deities as animals?)

f. Common use of gold and other precious mineralsg. Material contacts with Palestine and other lands

2. Late Gerzean or Semainian (Late Predynastic) (ca. 3300 BC)

a. Common to N. and S. - mixture of Gerzean and Amratianb. Some later documentation of the periodc. Most important town in S. was Ambos (Egyptian, Nubet) - god Sethd. Seth was in struggle with falcon-god Horus of Gehedet in the Deltae. N. prevailed at first and then South - capital of former Buto in N.

Delta and of latter at El Kabf. From then on and into the Kingdom era the rulers bore the double

name of the cobra-goddess of Buto (Wadjyt) and vulture-goddess ofEl Kab (Nekhabit)

g. Palermo Stone (ca. 2500) recalls, in fragmentary form, thepredynastic kings of North and South

h. Great development in glyptic art and relief carving

III. Third Phase: so-called Medial Age (ca. 3200-3100 BC?): Unification ofEgypt

A. Cultural regression

B. Rise and dominance of South - capital at Hieraconpolis (Nekhen) - Gr.hierakon = falcon

C. At Nekhen was found a pear-shaped mace head with carvings of a kingwearing Upper Egypt crown and victorious over various enemies - his nameis represented by a Scorpion

D. Another find, a palette, names Nar-mer and shows him wearing the doublecrown

E. A third find (mace-head) shows Scorpion wearing Lower Egypt crown

F. Conclusion - the unification was not by one man at one time

4PROTO-DYNASTIC PERIOD: DYNASTIES 1-2 (ca. 3100-2700 BC)

I. Name: The so-called Thinite Period, named after Thinis, the capital, near Abydos

II. Sources

A. Palermo Stone - annals

B. King Lists

1. Karnak Table 62 kings from Dyn. I to Thut. II (ca. 1500 B.C.)2. Abydos Table 76 kings from Dyn. I to XIX (1300)3. Sakkara Table 47 kings from I Dyn. King 6 to Ram. II (1250)

C. Turin Papyrus

1. Divine dynasties prior to human kings2. Length of reigns of kings in years, months, days3. Originally intact list from Dyn. I - XIX

III. Extent

1. We know all the kings of Thinite Era in chronological order2. It is difficult to match their names with the monuments and later documents

because the names change and each king had many names3. Dates are: Dyn. I (3100 - 2890), Dyn. II (2890 - 2686) according to CAH I/2

(3rd ed.)

IV. Kings of Dynasties 1-2 (ca. 3100-2700 BC)

A. Dynasty 1

1. Menes ( = Nar-mer ?)

a. Menes was the founder of Dynasty 1 (so Manetho, Turin Pap., andTable of Abydos)

b. No contemporary record of the name; cf. Ruth Amiran, An EgyptianJar Fragment with the Name of Normer from Arad, IEJ 24(1974):4-12

c. May be identical to Narmer, the latter being his Horus name; N. wasfirst to wear the double crown according to Narmer Palette

d. Scorpion also wore double crown, so he may be Menes - this involves9 kings rather than Manethos 8, however

5e. Capital was at Thinis, Abydos, Sakkara (king Ahas tomb), Memphis?Royal tombs seem to be at Sakkara (near Memphis) and capital atMemphis, though dynasties sprang from Thinis

f. Menes founded Memphis (if he is Nar-mer)

g. Reigned 62 years (Manetho)

2. Aha

a. Many inscriptions recording victories over Nubians, Libyansb. Thought to be a physician and authorc. Reigned 47 years

3. Djer

a. Known from tomb artifacts from Abydosb. Reigned 31 years

4. Djet (Serpent king)

a. Led foreign expeditionsb. Great famine in his timec. Built pyramids near Sakkarad. 23 or 42 years

5. Den

a. Known from Abydos tomb objectsb. Shown smiting eastern foesc. Shown celebrating Sed Festival (reenactment of enthronement rites to

magically renew his powers and that of the land)d. 20 years (Vercoutter), 55-60 years (CAH)

6. Anedjib

a. Name often erased, showing political troubles after his reignb. Campaign against nomads, founding of cities (Palermo Stone)c. 26 years or 7 years

7. Semerkhet

a. Perhaps a usurper who caused turmoil under Anedjib; Manetho: In hisreign, there were many prodigies and a great calamity befell Egypt.

b. 18 years (or 8 CAH)

8. Ka - tried to expunge Semerkhets name

6B. Kings of Dynasty 2

Manetho says nine (9) kings, but contemporary records reveal only seven (7)or perhaps eight (8); capital now at Memphis and no more tombs at Abydos

1. Hotepsekhemui

a. Brought peace between N. & S.?b. 38 years

2. Nebre (or Reneb)

a. Gods Apis at Memphis and Mnevis (also a bull) at Heliopolisb. 39 years

3. Nineter

a. Women given royal powerb. 47 years

4. Uneg (Weneg) - 17 years5. Senedj - 41 years6. Peribsen

a. Dropped Horus name for that of Seth (god of South)b. Moved capital to Abydos? (buried there)

7. Khasekhem - reunited Egypt8. Khasekhemui - same as #7?

V. Egyptian life in Thinite Era

A. Political unity - dominance of South

1. Through force2. Through marriage

B. Foreign expansion, both military and economic

1. Resistance to bedouin2. Goods in and from Syria, Palestine, Sudan

C. Government

1. King central - enthronement (Sed) festivals and divinization2. Vizier3. Supervisors of public works - later became nomarchs

74. Chancellor - charge of biennial census of cattle, etc.5. Water administration

D. Language and script

1. Developed rapidly2. Deficient in abstracts so development of homophony and ideography

and syllabary3. Later development of 24 phonetic complements, each a

monoconsonantal sign (= an alphabet)4. Determinatives also developed to show kind or class

E. Aesthetics

1. Stone vessels2. Stone sculpture3. Copper statues, jewelry4. Wood and stone coffins and tombs

F. Religion

1. Gods known are Horus (falcon), Re (sun), Osiris (king of death), Isis(wife of Osiris, mother of Horus revived Osiris in Hades), Min(Ithypharlic man generative force), Anubis (jackal; god ofcemeteries), Neith, (goddess of Sais warrior and home-maker), Sokaris(mortuary god)

2. Tombs conceived as permanent homes of the dead

8OLD KINGDOM PERIOD: DYNASTIES 3-5 (2686 2345 BC)

I. Dynasty 3 (2686 2613 BC)

A. Djoser - most important (Horus name Neterykhet)

1. Apparently a son of Khasekhemi through a secondary wife2. Seems also to have been preceded by Sanakht, perhaps his brother3. Constructed Step Pyramid near Sakkara, S. of the Great Pyramids,

under Imhotep, his vizier, who was later deified (known to Greeks asAesclepius, god of medicine)

a. Six levelsb. Complex of chambers and courtyards with 11 tombsc. Complex is 650 yards x 325 yardsd. Rich carving and vast collection of plates and other vessels of semi-

precious stones (ca. 30,000)

4. Records lengthy famine (ANET2, 31-32)

B. Sekhemkhet

1. Built on unfinished pyramid at Sakkara2. 6 years

C. Khaba - few months - another unfinished pyramid

D. Nebkare

E. Huni - perhaps last king

II. Dynasty 4 (2613 2498 BC) - number, order, and accomplishments(except for sculpture and architecture) of kings very confused

A. Snefru - best known, thanks to Palermo Stone; Breasted, ARE 1:169

1. Probably son of Huni - married his half-sister Hetepheres, Hunis heiress2. Led campaigns against Sudan and Libya3. Led expeditions into Sinai (ARE #169)4. Built all over Egypt - imported timber from Lebanon5. Built Bent Pyramid and a square pyramid 305 feet high - 1st true

pyramid in Egypt

96. Royal tombs now consist of valley chapel, causeway to funerary chapel,the pyramid, and a surrounding wall - kings buried beneath pyramid(except for Cheops)

B. Cheops (Eg. Khufu); ARE 180

1. Son of Snefru and Hetepheres2. Built largest man-made structure, his pyramid

a. Orig. 471' high, 745 x 745, 13 acresb. 2,300,000 blocks of limestone 2 3/4 tons eachc. Sides perfected oriented to points of compassd. Perfectly plumb to center of basee. 100,000 men over 20 years

3. Also built widely all over Egypt4. Prince was Hor-dedef

C. Dedefre - 8 years, little known (Turin Papyrus)

D. Chephren (Eg. Khafre)

1. Pyramid beside that of Cheops2. Valley chapel a masterpiece of architecture - here was found diorite

statue of the king3. Created Great Sphinx with his face, lion body4. Successor unclear - may have been son(s) of Cheops also

E. Mycerinus (Eg. Menkaure)

1. Son of Chephren; married his own sister2. Built 3rd great pyramid partially faced with red granite (ARE, 95-96)

F. Shepseskant

1. Decline set in - fathers pyramid completed in brick2. Built tomb in form of giant sarcophagus at Sakkara

G. End of dynasty unclear, but power passed to new dynasty

H. Two major contributions

1. Development and perfection of royal administration2. Great progress in arts - private tombs, statues, paintings, tomb

furnishings

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III. Dynasty 5 (2494 2345 BC) nine rulers whose names, order, andyears are known; Manetho says 248 years in all, Turin Pap. 116

A. Userkaf

1. Grandson of Dedefre; married daughter of Mycerinus2. Promoted sun-god Re and his daughter Hathor of Heliopolis3. Built inferior pyramid at Sakkara, near Step Pyramid4. First in dynasty to build temple to Re - contains an obelisk in an open

court, paved causeway to river, walls richly decorated with reliefs ofhymns to Re

5. Nomarchs began to gain more power

B. Sahure

1. Founded a royal necropolis at Abusir, N. of Sakkara - decorated tombwalls with reliefs

2. Attacked Libyans and NE bedouins3. Reliefs show Semitic sailors

C. Kakai

1. Sahures brother2. Palermo Stone inscribed - little else known

D. Shepseskare-Isi - little known

E. Neferefre - little known

F. Niuserre-Ini - foreign campaigns, especially to Sinai

G. Menkauhor - nothing known

H. Djedkare-Isesi

1. Longest reign (ca. 40 years)2. Many expeditions and imports3. Famous vizier Ptah-Hotep; cf. The Instruction of the Vizier Ptah-Hotep,

ANET, 412-414.

I. Unas

1. First to carve extensive religious texts on pyramid chamber walls -Pyramid Texts; AEL, 29ff.; ANET, 32-33.

2. Notable reliefs on a funerary causeway

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J. Most important observation - diminution of royal power and increase of thatof the nobility

IV. Old Kingdom Civilization

A. Political and administrative

1. Water manager became the nomarch in each province2. Held absolute power in his own district3. Many other royal officials such as doctors, chief craftsmen, priests4. Kings regarded as divine because of union of Re and a human queen5. Vizier (by this name) first in Dyn. IV - usually related to the royal family

a. Administered justiceb. Priest of Maat, goddess of truth, justice, and the order of the

universe

6. Treasurer - responsible for taxes of grain, etc., and payment of wages(land grants to major officials, in kind to lesser)

7. Scribe

a. Necessary to keep complicated tax records and treasurydisbursements

b. Used papyrus, most of which has decayedc. Received rigorous training in the Per Ankh (House of Life)

8. No standing army, but levies raised for emergencies

B. Economic

1. Based on agriculture2. Lands owned mainly by the crown, but small parcels (up to 250 acres)

by private citizens; royal land often leased3. Seasons regulated by Nile4. Main crops wheat, flax, oats, millet, onions, cucumbers, garlic, lettuce,

leeks5. Stockraising, hunting, fishing6. Ass main work animal; ox less common; horse not until ca. 17007. By Dyn. V, immunity from taxes was granted as royal favor - led to

eventual impoverishment of government8. Eg. nearly self-sufficient, but imports were necessary, esp. timber,

copper, precious and semi-precious stones, and incense9. Trading mainly by the king, but local trade and commerce enjoyed free

enterprise

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a. Payment generally in kindb. Gold used as a standard for exchange, though not as a medium

C. Social

1. King and royal family - many wives but the first considered queen2. No hereditary nobility, but hereditary offices developed, esp. in funerary

circles3. Scribes high in society because writing was necessary to royal service in

a high position; cf. In Praise of Learned Scribes, ANET, 431-324. Peasants and craftsmen5. No slavery known

D. Religious divided into cult of the temple and cult of the tomb with somegods in both areas

1. Ordinary religion had a principal god for each nome, but funerary culthad universal gods

2. Few temples (except those of Re) and little known of cults -reenactment of creation myths practiced at various centers; godsgenerated successive orders of deities

3. Legends of gods developed - Re cycle, Osiris cycle, etc.4. Great gods are Atum-Re of Heliopolis, Ptah at Memphis, Thoth at

Hermopolis, Min at Koptos; Osiris (of the Delta), who had attached to hislegends old gods such as Horus and Anubis; Hathor of Denderah; Isis,wife of Osiris

5. Temple syncretism assimilated all the local gods to Re at Heliopolis andto Ptah at Memphis; cf. The Theology of Memphis, ANET, 4-6

E. Death and burial

1. Afterworld at first thought to be underground2. In the stars (developed in Predynastic Age)3. With the sun - reserved for kings who would sail eternally in the suns

bark4. At end of OK period, all three views merged5. Souls needed bodies, so mummification developed; statues needed

when bodies finally decomposed6. Oval trench > chamber tombs (late Predyn.) > palace (Dyn. IV-V) >

pyramid (Dyn. IV-V) > mastahbahs (Dyn. VI and later)7. Greatest knowledge of funerary cult from the Pyramid Texts (1st in the

reign of Unas) - MK known as Coffin Texts, NK as Book of the Dead

F. Artistic

1. Finest in Egyptian history

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2. Use of stone

a. In Dyn. III relief columns with floral capitalsb. In Dyn. IV free-standing square and polygonal or round columnsc. Corbel arch over burial chambers in pyramidsd. Granite and alabastere. Statues of hard stone such as dioritef. Bas-reliefsg. Frescoe paintingh. Lapidary work of high quality

G. Literary

1. Short autobiographical texts2. Instruction of Prince Hordjedef - written ca. 1200; cf. ANET, 419-4203. From later period wisdom texts mention OK persons - The Instruction

of Kagemni

H. Scientific

1. Medical treatise (Smith Papyrus) goes back in style to the OK2. Mathematics of OK as highly advanced as in MK as seen in MK Rhind

Mathematical Papyrus3. Smiths could cast and weld metals as well as forge, rivet, and engrave

them4. Carpenters knew mortising and dovetailing so well that few nails were

needed5. Enamelling and filing advanced

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FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: DYNASTIES 6-11 (2345 - 1991 BC)

I. Dynasty 6 (2345 2181 BC; CAH 3/I/2, 995)

A. Properly part of the Old Kingdom, but saw the beginning of disintegrationwhich led to the chaos of the 1st Intermediate

B. Founded by Teti

1. Married a daughter of Unas of Dyn V (?)2. Retained many officials of the previous era3. His name appears on stone vase fragments from Byblos

C. Userkare - brief reign of 1 year

D. Phiops I (Pepi or Meryre)

1. Contemporary w. Sargon & Rimus2. Built a pyramid south of Saqqara3. Uni was a high official who led expeditions against the sand dwellers

as far north as Antelope Nose (Carmel?)4. His son Merenre was co-regent for ca. 10 years

E. Merenre (ca. 2285 - 2270)

1. Turned his attention to Nubia2. Uni (Weni) appointed governor of Upper Egypt

F. Phiops II (ca. 2270 - 2175)

1. Power of royalty began to diminish2. Nubians had to be put down several times3. Evidence fragmentary for his entire reign

G. Merenre (ca. 2175)perhaps the oldest surviving son of Phiops II

H. Netjerykare ca. 2174-72

I. Menkare

II. Dynasty VII (ca. 2181 - 2173)extremely obscure

A. Neferkare II thought to be the founder perhaps related to the previousfamily

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B. Remaining kings supplied mainly from the Abydos List though lacking in theTurin Canon

C. Thebes began its rise to power

D. The times are reflected well in literature such as Lamentation of Ipuwer,Autobiography of Uni (ANET, 441; AEL, 1:18-23)

III. Dynasty 8 (ca. 2173 2160 BC)

A. Parallels the fall of Akkad to the Guti (2180 - 2080)

B. Memphis fell to the nomarch of Heracleopolis

C. Thebes began its rise to power

D. The times are reflected well in literature such as Lamentations of Ipuwer,Autobiography of Uni (ANET, 441; AEL, 1:18-23)

IV. Dynasties 9-10 (ca. 2160 - 2040): Heracleopolis

A. 20th nome of Upper Egypt governed by Achthoes

B. Achthoes the founder

1. Influence strong in the South, weak or nonexistent in the NE Deltawhere the Asiatics (Amorites?) were becoming numerous and powerful

2. Referred to in Instruction for King Merykare, his descendant (ANET,414-418)

C. Achthoes II (4th king) mentioned in the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant(ANET, 407-10)

D. Wahkare Achthoes III (ca. 2100 - 2060)

1. May have been the king to whom Abram lied (Gen. 12)2. Composed Instruction for King Merykare (ANET, 414-18)3. Engaged the delta Asiatics whom he put down and against whom he

built elaborate defenses4. Thebes gained more territory including the nomes of This and Abydos5. Heracleopolis and Thebes entered a period of peaceful coexistence for

ca. 50 years

E. Heracleopolis finally fell to Thebes under Mentuhotpe II (ca. 2060 - 2010) ofThebes (ca. 2045)

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V. Dynasty 11 (ca. 2133 - 1991): Thebes

A. Beginning ca. 2160 Thebes and Koptos began to expand both south andnorth

B. After fierce resistance, especially in the north, Thebes created a new dynastyof universal proportions

C. The founder was Mentuhotpe I (2133 - 2118)

D. Inyotef I (dates included with Mentuhotpe)elder son

E. Inyotef II (2117 - 2069)younger son of Mentuhotpe

1. Waged constant war with Heracleopolis2. Captured This

F. Inyotef III (2068 - 2061)constructed and repaired numerous temples,especially of Amon, god of Thebes

G. Mentuhotpe II (2060 - 2010)

1. Took Heracleopolis ca. 20402. Real founder of the Middle Kingdom3. Consolidated his frontiers and trade routes4. Built extensively in Upper Egypt including his tomb at Thebes5. Many nomarchs were permitted to retain power for diplomatic reasons6. Complex bureaucracy established at Thebes to ensure universal control7. Art and construction flourished8. Most foreign involvement was in the South, especially in Nubia

H. Mentuhotpe III (2009 - 1998)

1. Dedicated to building and to relief carvings2. Letters of Hekanakhte provide rich insight into the period3. Reopened the Red Sea traffic via the Wadi Hammamat

I. Mentuhotpe IV (1997 - 1991)

1. Continued Hammamat trade and also traded to the South2. Had problems with the Asiatic movement into the Delta

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MIDDLE KINGDOM PERIOD: DYNASTY 12 (1991 1786 BC)

I. Founder Ammenemes I (1991 - 1962)

A. Native of the nome of Elephantine whose rise was predicted by thepseudo-prophet Neferty (ANET, 444-46)

B. Worshiped Amon of Thebes and made him the chief god

C. Reestablished the authority of the nomarchs but under strict centralcontrolthey had to raise taxes and military levies for the crown

D. Strengthened the Delta fortifications against the nomads

E. Established a pattern of co-regencies with his son Sesostris I

F. Was murdered in a conspiracyrecorded in Instruction of Ammenemes(ANET, 418) and Tale of Sinuhe, who fled in the turmoil, lived in Syria, andlater returned to Egypt (ANET, 18-22)

II. Sesostris I (1971 - 1928)

A. Parallels the fall of Ur III and the rise of Isin and Larsa

B. Revived the power and glory of Egypt

1. Conquered Lower Nubia as far as Kush2. Built many sphinxes and statues

C. Traded with western Asia and maintained good relations with Canaanite andAmorite chieftains (including Isaac?)

D. Object bearing his cartouche was found at Ugarit

E. Built extensively including a pyramid near El Lisht, near the capital

III. Ammenemes II (1929 - 1895)

A. No foreign military exploits

B. Improved agricultural and economic life

C. Fostered close relationships with western Asia; evidence from Ugarit,Megiddo, etc.

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IV. Sesostris II (1897 - 1879)

A. Joseph (1916 - 1806) was sold into Egypt (ca. 1899)

B. Nomarch of Beni Hasan received Semitic guests as recorded on a muralledby a certain Abisha (cf. Posener, Syria 34, 1957, 145-63)

C. Numerous Asiatic servants/mercenaries brought to Egypt (CAH, I/2, 504)

D. Frequent occurrence of Cretan and Minoan pottery in Egypt (evidence ofPhilistines in Canaan in EB-MB?)

E. Undertook major land reclamation and flood control in the Nile-Faiyum basin(under Joseph?; Joseph was released from prison to serve Pharaoh ca. 1886;Gen. 41:46); canal involved is known until today as Bahr Yusef

V. Sesostris III (1878 - 1843)

A. Jacob (2006 - 1859) entered Egypt ca. 1876

B. Certain nomarchs started to regain power so they were put down effectively

C. Reorganized government (under Josephs inspiration?)

1. Three departments (waret) of Upper, Middle, and Lower Egypteachheaded by a reporter all three of whom were under the vizier

2. Middle class (craftsmen, tradesmen, farmers, etc.) arose and prospered

D. Strengthened Egypts hold on Nubia

E. Undertook a campaign to Sekmem (Shechem?) of little importance

F. Execration Texts show familiarity with Canaan and Syria (ANET, 328-29)

VI. Ammenemes III (1842 - 1797)

A. Joseph died (ca. 1806)

B. Concerned with economic development

1. Exploited the turquoise mines of Sinai2. Continued the Faiyum land reclamation (Lake Moeris)3. Built extensively in the area

C. Influence widespread but he was the last of the great kings of the dynasty

VII. Amenemes IV (1798 - 1790) and Sebeknefrure (1789-1786) weak and ineffective

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SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: DYNASTIES 13-17 (1786 1580 BC)

I. Dynasty 13 (1786 1633 BC): native Egyptian dynasty

A. 50-60 kings who reigned mainly from Itj-towy (near El Lisht) though theywere Thebans

B. Transition was peaceful from Dynasty XII and territorial integrity wasmaintained

C. Peak of power was under Sobkemsaf I, Sobkhotpe III, Neferhotep, andSobkhotpe IV

1. Government was divided into three departments (warut)Head of theSouth, Treasury, and Provider of People

2. Many Asiatic slaves mentionedpresupposes large Semitic population3. Asiatics (Hyksos) began to occupy extensive areas of the Deltatook

Avaris ca. 1720

D. Succeeding kings limited to Memphis and Upper Egypt

E. In the reign of Dudimose (Tutimaios?) the Hyksos took Memphis underSalatis, founder of Dynasty XV (ca. 1674)

F. The rest of Dynasty XIII was fragmented and governed by local princes

II. Dynasty 14 (1786 1603 BC): native Egyptian dynasty

A. Centered in Xois (= Sais) in the West Delta

B. Ca. 76 kings who nearly survived the Hyksos threat

III. Dynasty 15 (1674 1567 BC): Hyksos dynasty

A. Created by largely Semitic groups which had infiltrated Egypt for manyyearsAmu, Setjetiu, Mentjiu, men of Retenu

B. Leaders known as Hikau-khoswet (rulers of foreign countries)

C. Led with authority, but not unduly harshly

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D. Though inferior culturally, they adopted Egyptian techniques andappreciation and transmitted much of the literature

E. Adopted the god of Avaris, Seth, who may = Baal or Resheph or evenTeshup/b; also worshiped Re and took his name in throne-names

F. May have introduced or popularized the use of the horse and chariot,composite bow, and a broader, more cosmopolitan outlook in general

G. With the fall of Memphis, Dynasty XV properly began

1. Salatis (= Sharek)ruled as far south as the first cataract2. Yakeb-Baal3. Khyanknown widely

a. palace of Knossosjar lidb. scarab from Palestinec. granite lion from Baghdadd. called himself son of Re (Rameses?)

4. Apophis I

a. daughter married a Theban princeancestress of Dynasty XVIIIkings?

b. also called himself son of Rec. first Egyptian resistance at ThebesHyksos driven out of Upper

Egypt by Seqenenre and his son Kamose

5. Apophis II Hyksos driven back to Avaris

6. Asehre

IV. Dynasty 16 (???): contemporaneous reign of minor chieftains

V. Dynasty 17 (1650 1567 BC): native Egyptian dynasty

A. Early kings ruled over limited area, perhaps Elephantine to Abydos

B. Limited in raw materials, but attempted to build or rebuild on a grand scale,somewhat unsuccessfully

C. Inyotef first challenged Hyksos rule

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D. Seqenenre Tao Ilittle known, but his wife, Tetisheri, lived into DynastyXVIII as a grandmother of its founder, Ahmose

E. Seqenenre II (and wife Ahhotpe)

1. Died young, perhaps in battle

2. His son Kamose expelled the Hyksos from Egypt

22

NEW KINGDOM PERIOD: DYNASTIES 18-19 (1570 1200 BC)

I. Expulsion of the Hyksos

A. Initiated by Kamose, son of Seqenenre II (1578 1570 BC)

1. Attested by a writing-board (Carnarvon Tablet found at Thebes) and theKamose Stela, one continuous record, found at Karnak (cf. Gardiner, JEA3, 1916, 95-110; Habachi, ASAE 53, 1955, 195-202)

2. Launched an attack on Apophis I (in Kamoses third year, 1575) atNefrusy and prevented Kush from moving north to aid the Hyksos(ANET2, 232-233)

3. Died after a short reign and succeeded by his brother

B. Finalized by Ahmose (1570 1546 BC) = Amosis

1. Career documented by inscription of Ahmose, a naval captain (ANET,233-234; Lichtheim, AEL, 2:12-15)

2. Retook Memphis early3. Soldier Ahmose took Avaris ca. 1567?4. Soldier Ahmose followed up by siege of Sharuhen in Canaan (ca. 1563)

(cf. Josh. 19:6)5. Reduced Kush and brought it under his control (AEL, 2:13)

II. Consolidation of the Theban Dynasty

A. Ahmose (1570-1546 BC)

1. Undertook little foreign involvement other than the above2. Strengthened loyal nomarchs under his strong central control3. Reorganized canal and dike systems and land taxation policies4. Expanded trade and industry5. Achieved high development and finesse in building and the arts6. Restored the worship of Amon-Re

B. Amenhotep I (1546 1526 BC)little documentation

1. Undertook extensive campaigns into Nubia2. Made minimal penetration into Asia, though Qedmi (= Qedem, i.e.,

Transjordan) and Mitanni are mentioned as enemies3. Brought western oases under his control, including even Libyan

elements4. Undertook some construction (e.g., at Karnak just north of Thebes)

much of which was destroyed by his successors

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5. First (?) king to cut a tomb in the Valley of the Kings nearThebesseparated the temple from the tomb

III. The Thutmosides to the Amarna Age (1525 1379 BC)

A. Thutmose I (1525 1512 BC)

1. Made of Egypt a militaristic, imperialistic state (AEL, 2:14)2. A commoner who married the sister of Amenhotep I3. Moses born ca. 1526infanticide policy introduced by Thutmose I?

B. Thutmose II (1512 1504 BC)

1. Married to half-sister Hatshepsut, older daughter of Thutmose I and hiswife Ahmose; on Hatshepsut see the popular, semi-fictitious work byEvelyn Wells, Hatshepsut (Garden City, Doubleday, 1969).

2. Quelled rebellions in Nubia and Canaan3. Died youngwas Hatshepsut involved? Cf. Edgerton, SAOC 8, 19334. Named his only son, Thutmose III, to be his successor before he died

(to thwart Hatshepsut?)

C. Thutmose III (1504 1450 BC)// Hatshepsut (1504-1486 BC)

1. Son of a concubine who married his own half-sister, daughter ofHatshepsut and Thutmose II

2. He was minor when he became king, so power was in the hands ofHatshepsut who sought to claim full authority as king (1503 - 1482); cf.AEL, 2:27-29

3. Struggled to remove Hatshepsut and her officials though he co-reignedwith her

4. Finally tried to expunge every reference and monument to her5. Considered to be the greatest king in Egypts history; cf. 1st campaign

(ca. 1484), AEL, 2:29-356. Moses went into exile (ca. 1486)

D. Amenhotep II (1450 1425 BC)

1. Co-reigned briefly with Thutmose III (Gardiner, JEA 31, 1945, 11-28;Redford, JEA 51, 1965, 107-136; Parker, SAOC 35, 1969); ANET, 245,n.1

2. Son of Meryetre Hatshepsut, wife of Thutmose III3. Undertook three or four campaigns into Canaan (perhaps during the

period before the Exodus?); ANET, 245-248; CAH, II/1, 459-4624. Introduced Aten cult (?) and worship of Reshef (= Adad, Teshub/p,

Baal)5. Pharaoh of the Exodus?

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E. Thutmose IV (1425 1417 BC)

1. Son of Tiy, but not heir apparent2. Stele of the Great Sphinx records announcement of his reign which

came about through an unforeseen turn of fate, such as the prematuredeath of an elder brother (W. C. Hayes, CAH II/1, 321); cf. ANET, 449

3. Greatly reduced military career including one trip to Aram Naharaim4. Married daughter of Artatama of Mitanni; in turn ceded city of Alalakh

F. Amenhotep III (1417 1379 BC)

1. Began his reign with many Nubian hunting and military expeditions2. Became a builder and patron of the arts

IV. Religious Developments

A. Rise of Amon of Karnak

1. Begun by the Thebans of Dynasty XII2. Developed to a theogamy by Dynasty XVIII3. Became a national god by mid-Dynasty XVIII4. Temples lavishly built and decorated and began to own or control goods,

lands, and people

B. Rise of the priesthood

1. Controlled much of the temple business2. Became very wealthy3. Served on various clerical levels and in rotating shifts4. High priest and all others were under the control of the king who could

appoint and remove them

V. Political, Social, and Economic Life

A. Government

1. Hereditary nobility of the Middle Kingdom was largely suppressed2. Positions were open to any who were qualified, especially by

educationlater the top positions were filled by intimates and favoritesof the king and they tended to stay within families

3. New aristocracy developed but it was less stable than the old hereditarysuccession

4. Major role was assigned to the viziereventually one in the South(Thebes) and one in the North (Memphis or Heliopolis); cf. The Chargeto Rekhmire, AEL, 2:21-24

25

a. served as chief justiceb. kept the Department of Recordsc. received heads of state and other dignitariesd. oversaw tax collection

5. Provincial leaders were the mayors of the principal cities and towns

a. in charge of taxesb. supported templesc. served on local courts

6. Law

a. promulgated by the king but no doubt codified from time to time asearly as Dynasty XII

b. records indicate, ideally, absolute fairness and impartiality, but thereality was no doubt different

7. Other officials

a. Two overseers of the Treasuryb. Overseers of the granaries of Upper and Lower Egyptc. Overseers of the Cattled. Officials in charge of cattle-related industriese. Overseer of Worksf. Chief Stewardeventually divided into South and Northg. Chamberlainkeeper of the palace and haremh. Scribe

B. Military

1. Development of a large standing army after the model of the Hyksos

a. Use of chariotryb. Use of composite bow and bronze (not copper) weapons

2. division into two major corps, North Egypt and South Egypt, each underthe respective viziers

3. Troops came from native Egyptians until late in Dynasty XVIII whenprisoners and other foreigners were used

a. in peace time they were put on civil service jobsb. most such work was done by civilian corves however

4. Navy consisted mainly of armed commercial vessels stationed on the Nileand in the Mediterranean and Red Seas

26

5. Commander-in-chief was the king, who often personally led his armies6. Privileged class of war heroes developedgained both fame and fortune

VI. The Amarna Age (1379 1320 BC)

A. Amenhotep IV = Akhnaton (1379 1362 BC)son of Amenhotep III and Tiy

1. May have co-reigned with Amenhotep III for ca. 10 years though Aldred(CAH, II/2, 49) denies it

2. Extremely complex individual3. Major contribution was a kind of monotheism which saw Re-Harakhte as

an all-encompassing deity represented by the Aten or disk of thesuneven this was based on an earlier elevation of Aton; cf. GreatHymn to the Aten, AEL, 2:96-100

4. Founded new capital at Akhetaton (El-Amarna) and devoted most of histime and energy to the cult there (AEL, 2:48-51)

5. Built a new cult center to avoid the contamination of older sites and togive Aten a point of origin

6. Major buildings were the Great Palace and the Great Temple (House ofAten), the latter being a series of courts open to the sky; and Housefor the Correspondence of Pharaoh (where the Amarna Letters werefound)

7. Chief queenNefertiti (who later fell from favor)8. Virtually no outside contacts

B. Smenkhare (1364 1361 BC)

1. Co-regent with Akhnaton and the husband of Akhnatons daughter,Merytaten

2. Few monuments ascribed to him

C. Tutankhamon (1361 1352 BC)

1. Only nine years of age at accession but married a daughter of Nefertiti2. Moved his residence to Memphis which brought about the decline of

Akhetaton3. Tried to repair the old shrines and temples and restored the old

priesthood and cult4. The real motivator in this counter-reform was the old vizier Ay5. At his death, his widow Ankhesenamun requested a son of

Suppiluliumas of Hatti as husbandhe was murdered on the way toEgypt

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D. Ay (1352 1348 BC)

1. May have married Ankhesenamun, though his original wife, Tey, alsoappears as queen

2. Because he was aged he undertook no vigorous policy

E. Horemhab (1348 1320 BC)

1. Army commander under Tutankhamon and Ay who may have beenappointed king by the latter in absence of a son

2. Involved in much building and new construction of temples and otherpublic buildings including the Great Hypostyle Hall of the Amon Templeat Karnak

3. Excavated a large tomb in the Valley of the Kings4. Issued an edict which centralized power and brought new, increased

revenues to the state5. Reorganized army units into North and South divisions and restored

judicial power of the viziers of Memphis and Thebes6. Left no male heir so Dynasty XVIII ended with him

VII. Dynasty 19 (ca. 1320 1200 BC)

A. Rameses I (1320 1318 Bc)

1. Vizier of Horemhab who succeeded him2. Appointed his son as co-regent

B. Seti I (1318 1304 BC)

1. Set about to restore Egypts glory and influence2. Engaged in many campaigns; recorded in bas-reliefs on the temple walls

at Karnak

a. His first campaign was to Jezreeldocumented also on Beth-ShanStele; took Raphia, Gaza, Beth-Shan (where he encountered cApiru,ANET, 255), Acre, Tyre, Lebanon, Pella (ANET, 253)

b. His second campaign to Qadesh-on-the-Orontes and Amurruc. His third campaign against the Libyans (early Sea Peoples?)d. His fourth against Hittiteslost Qadesh and made a treaty with

Muwatallishe. for avoidance of inland Canaan, cf. ANET, 476-499

3. Undertook considerable building to recover the worship of Amon atThebes

28

a. Built much of the Hypostyle Hall of Karnakb. Built a temple at Abydos in which he set up the king list which

probably served as the basis or inspiration for the Turin Papyrus

4. Trade and industry

a. worked the Sinai turquoise minesb. traded with (and partially subjugated?) Nubia

C. Rameses II (1304 1236 BC)

1. Co-regent with Seti at first2. Resided mainly in Memphis and Per-Ramesse in the Delta (Rameses of

Ex. 1:11?)(Avaris, now Edh-Dabac)3. Major foreign affairwith the Hittites

a. first campaign was to Nahr el-Kalb in Lebanon in year 4 (ca. 1300);cf. ANET, 255

b. second was year 5 where he met Muwatallish at Qadesh; astalemate ensued but Rameses had to withdraw without takingQadesh (ANET, 255-56); cf. 2-part styleprose and poetryas in Jud.4, 5 (AEL, 2:57-72)

c. this setback must have encouraged Canaanite rebellion for the nextseveral campaigns involved reassertion of Egypt over the Canaanites(but not in territory held by Israel!)

d. by year 10 or 11 he invaded Syria and for several years held at leasttenuous control

e. in year 21 (ca. 1283) a parity treaty was made with Hattushilish(ANET, 199-201)

f. in year 34 (ca. 1270) Rameses married the daughter of Hattushilish(ANET, 256-57), a marriage which Rameses states to be anindication of Egyptian superiority

4. Other encounters

a. minor contacts with Moab, Edom, and the Negev (Kitchen, JEA 50,1964, 47ff.)

b. difficulties with the Libyan peoplesTjemehu, Tjehenu, Meshwesh,Libu; joined at times by the Sherden, part of the Sea Peoples

5. Domestic accomplishments

a. temple buildingthe most in Egyptian history

1) temple at Abydos2) Hypostyle Hall at Karnak

29

3) court of Luxor4) funerary temple at Thebes (Ramesseum)5) Temple of Abu Simbel in Nubia

b. rise of priestly powerc. exploitation of Sinai, Nubia, etc.

D. Merneptah (1236 1223 BC)

1. Thirteenth son of Rameses with whom he co-reigned for ca. 12 years2. Immediately faced by Libyan invasions which partially succeeded

because of Sea Peoples support (Sherden, Sheklesh, Lukka, Tursha,etc.)

3. Repelled by Merneptah as recorded at Karnak and on the Israel Stele(ANET, 376) in year 5 (1231); cf. AEL, 2:73-78

4. Further building only slight5. Much contact with Asia (ANET, 259)

E. Minor kings until Dynasty 20 (1223 1220 BC)only Seti II was importantat all

30

LATE NEW KINGDOM PERIOD: DYNASTY 20 (1200 1100 BC)

I. Sethnakhte (1200 1198 BC); documented in the Great Harris Papyrus in theBritish Museum

II. Rameses III (1198 1166 BC)

A. Three major wars in the years 5-11 (1194-1190 BC)

1. Defeated the Libyans in yr. 52. Repelled the Sea Peoples in yr. 8 by land and by sea (ANET, 262-263);

they consisted of Peleset (= Philistines), Tjeker, Sheklesh, Sherden,Weshesh, Denyen (Adana?) who had conquered the Hatti and Amurru.Of these, the Peleset and Tjeker settled in Canaan, the latter beingmentioned at Dor by Wen-Amon (ANET, 25-29, esp. 26).

3. Crushed the Libyans under Libu and Meshwesh

B. A mural at Medinet Habu shows a putative campaign into Syria and theHarris Papyrus mentions action against Edom

C. Domestic life

1. Prosperity and peace in the earliest years2. Construction of funerary temples at Medinet Habu and a temple at

Karnak3. Trade carried on with Punt and Serabit el-Khadim4. Latter years troubled by the disloyalty of his officials, labor strife, and a

palace conspiracy led by his wife

D. Culture

1. Amon and other Theban gods continued to dominate2. There was also the worship of foreign gods such as Reseph, Baal,

Astarte, Anath, Istar3. There was a more personal relationship to the gods than at any other

period4. Extensive use of oracles in decision-making5. Decline in glyptic and other art forms6. High literary level, especially in fiction; cf. Tale of Two Brothers (ANET,

23)

III. Last of the Ramessides (1166-1100 BC)

31

A. Rameses IIIs death introduced a decline from which there would be norecovery to match Egypts early days

B. The Syro-Palestine provinces were all lost

C. Rameses IV (1166 - 1160), son of Rameses III

1. Undertook great building projects as seen in quarry records2. Restored and adorned with his name many previous constructions

D. Rameses V (1160 - 1156); very little information but cf. Wilbour Papyrus

E. Rameses VI (1156 - 1148), son of Rameses III; defaced the monuments ofthe previous two kings and suffered a period of civil war

F. Rameses VII and VIII, very obscure sons of Rameses VI in the period 1147 -1140

G. Rameses IX (1140 - 1121), Rameses X (1121 - 1113), Rameses XI (1113 -1085)

H. Libyan impact

1. There were continued Libyan incursions throughout Dyn XX, mainlyunder Rameses IX

2. They settled in the Delta and even south of Memphis3. They were gradually assimilated into Egyptian life4. They are known primarily through their personal diaries

32

THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: DYNASTIES 21-26 (1100 650 BC)

I. Dynasty 21 (1085 945 BC)

A. Manetho says there were seven kings who reigned from Tanis

B. The South was under the dynastic high priests of Amon at Thebes

C. Smendes (1085 - 1043); cf. Wen-Amon, ANET, 25 dwelled at Tanis butconquered Upper Egypt

D. Amenemnisu (?) (1043 - 1039)

E. Psusennes (1039 - 991)

F. Amenemope (993 - 978?)

1. Cf. Wisdom of Amenemope, composed in 7th-6th century (ANET,421ff.)

2. King to whom Hadad of Edom fled and whose sister-in-law hemarried(?)

G. Siamun (978 - 959)bestowed Gezer on Solomon as a dowry for hisdaughter; cf. 1 Kings 3:1; 9:16; A. Green, JBL 97(1978):353-367

H. Psusennes II (959 - 945)originally a Theban priest who, following his royalaccession, moved north to Tanis

I. Relations between the North and South improved so much by now that thedaughters of the Tannite kings were married to the Theban high priests

II. Dynasty 22 (946 715 BC)

A. Osorkon (= Shoshenq I = OT Shishak) (946 924 BC)

1. Son-in-law of Psusennes II2. Originally a Meshwesh chieftain but born and reared in Egypt3. United Egypt by seizing power in the South away from the priests of

Thebes4. Reestablished trade with Byblos and Nubia5. Granted asylum to Jeroboam of Israel ca. 945 (1 Kings 11:26-40)6. Undertook a campaign against Israel/Judah which he viewed as a

serious rival (925 B.C.; 1 Kings 14:25-26 = 2 Chron 12:2-9)7. Recorded his triumph on a Karnak topographical list

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8. Undertook building projects at Thebes and Memphis (ca. 924) but diedsuddenly before he could complete his imperial ambitions

B. Osorkon I (924 889 BC)

1. Contributed 20.5 tons of gold to the temple of Amon; did some comefrom the Temple of Solomon?

2. Sent the Nubian general Zerah against Judah but he was defeated byAsa in 897 (2 Chron 14:9-15)

3. Appointed his son Sheshonq II as co-regent in 890, but he died withinthe year

C. Takeloth I (889 874 BC), son of Osorkon of whom little is known

D. Osorkon II (= Shoshenq II?) (874 850 BC)

1. Made overtures to Syria-Palestine because of the rise of the Assyrianmenace; cf. alabaster vase found at Samaria with the name of Osorkon

2. Participated with Ahab and others in the Battle of Qarqar (853)

E. Takeloth II (850 825 BC)

1. Rather inconspicuous reign2. Suffered a civil war between the North and South3. Was supplanted by his younger brother Shoshenq III

F. Shoshenq III (825 773 BC)

1. Reunited Egypt for a short time2. Co-reigned with Pedubast I who founded the rival Dynasty XXIII3. Shoshenq reigned from Tanis and Pedubast form Leontopolis; the South

fell into line with Dynasty XXIII4. Saite (Libyan) elements also rose in the western delta while the Nubians

under Piankhi overthrew Pedubast of Thebes (a priest/ royal pretender)and began to reign from Thebes by 737

G. Pimay (= Piankhi) (773 767 BC)

H. Shoshenq V (767 730 BC)

I. Osorkon IV (730 715 BC) probably the So of 2 Kings 17:4

III. Dynasty 23 (818 715 BC)

A. Pedubast I (818 793 BC)

34

B. Iuput (804 803 BC)son of Pedubast and co-regent who died before hisfather

C. Shoshenq IV (793 787 BC)succeeded Pedubast I; brother of Iuput

D. Osorkon III (787 759 BC)little information survives

E. Takeloth III (764 757 BC) increasing power of priests at Heracleopolis and Thebes

F. Rudamon (757 754 BC)

G. Iuput II (754 720 BC)

H. Shoshenq VI (720 715 BC)

IV. Dynasty 24 (727 664 BC)

A. Tefnakht I (727 720 BC)

1. Ruled from Sais in the western delta2. Fought Piankhi at Memphis (728) but lost so that virtually all of Egypt

fell to Nubia3. Piankhi overcame Iuput II of Dynasty XXIII, Osorkon IV of Dynasty

XXII, and Tefnakht I4. When Piankhi withdrew Tefnakht reasserted control of the delta with

Iuput and Osorkon as vassals

B. Bakenranef (720 715 BC)

V. Dynasty 25 (780 656 BC)Nubian (Ethiopian)

A. Alara (780 760 BC)

B. Kashta (760 747 BC)ruled only south of Aswan

C. Piankhi (747 716 BC)

D. Shabako (716 702 BC)

1. brother of Piankhi2. took Memphis in 715 and controlled all of Lower Egypt3. established an alliance with Assyria (under Sargon II)ca. 712 B.C.

(ANET, 286-87)

E. Shebitku (702 690 BC)

1. Son of Piankhi

35

2. Joined forces with Judah to resist Sennacherib who was, therefore,unable to take Jerusalem in 701 (cf. Sennacheribs third campaign;ANET, 287-88)

F. Taharqa (690 664 BC)brother of Shebitku who was 20 (according to theKawa Stelae) when he reached Judah in 701 (cf. 2 Kgs 18-19; Isa 36-37; 2Chr 32)

1. Ruled in peace until 677 BC2. Repelled an Assyrian invasion under Esarhaddon in 674 BC3. Failed to do so in 671 BC when Esarhaddon drove him from Memphis4. Assurbanipal pressed south and removed Tarhaqa even from Thebes

(667/666)

G. Tantamani (664 656 BC)son of Shebitku

1. Recaptured Memphis and the delta, killing Necho I of Sais (Dyn XXIV)2. Fell before the Assyrians in 664/63 who then went south to Thebes

once more (cf. Nah 3:8; Jer 46:25; Ezek 30:14-16)

VI. Dynasty 26 (664 525 BC)a continuation of Dynasty 24

A. Psammetichus I (664 610 BC): an Assyrian vassal at first but he graduallygained control of all Egypt and reunited it by 656

B. Necho II (610 595 BC)attempted to assist Assyria against Babylonia atHaran in 609 BC (cf. 2 Kings 23) and was later defeated by NebuchadnezzarII at the Battle of Carchemis (605 BC)

C. Psammetichus II (595 589 BC)

D. Apries (= Hophra) (589 570 BC)

E. Amasis II (570 526 BC)

F. Psammetichus III (526 525 BC)