History Eng Lit

8/9/2019 History Eng Lit

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Chapter 1 Old English Literature

Lecture notes:

1. Old English Literature

Generally speaking, this period lasts from

449A.D. to 1066 and it witnessed the making of

the England. After the Roman withdrawal, from

449 three tries form !orthern E"rope in#aded

$ritain% &"tes, Angels and 'a(ons. 'mall

kingdoms estalished y them were grad"ally

)omined into one "nited kingdom% the land of

angels, England. *he diale)ts grad"ally grewinto a single lang"age )alled Anglo+'a(on, or

ld English, whi)h is the asis of -odern

English. English literat"re egan with the

Anglo+'a(on settlement in England. *hey

ro"ght a spe)ifi) poeti) tradition. *he mostimportant poem is The Song of Beowulf , the

national epi) of English people. *he Anglo+

'a(on period e(perien)ed a transition from

trial so)iety to fe"dalism.

Lecture notes:

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literat"re egan.

.Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon

Literature

Anglo+'a(on literat"re, that is, the ld

English literat"re is almost e()l"si#ely a #erse

literat"re in oral form. t )o"ld e passed down

y word of mo"th from generation to

generation. ts )reators for the most part are

"nknown. t was only gi#en a written form long

after its )omposition.

*here were two gro"ps of English poetry inAnglo+'a(on period. *he first gro"p was the

pagan poetry represented y Beowulf , the

se)ond was the religio"s poetry represented y

the works of 5aedmon and 5ynew"lf .

n the th )ent"ry, Anglo+'a(on proseappeared. *he famo"s prose writers of that

period were 7enerale $ede and Alfred the

Great.

Ⅲ. Anglo-Saxon Poetry

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see it is essentially )on)erned with the heroi)

ideal of kings and kingship in !orthern E"rope%

)o"rage and strength, wisdom. $eow"lf is

shown not only as a grand hero, "t also as a

sa#ior of the people.

A. Story:

;rothgat, king of the Danes, has "ilt near

the sea a mead+hall )alled ;eorot. t is the most

splendid hall in the world. E#ery night the king

and his thanes gather there to feast and en


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Grendel>s horrile raids )ontin"e: and s arms. *hen the monster flees to his

din to die.

*he ne(t night, Grendel>s mother des)ends

"pon the hall to a#enge her son. 'he )arries

away the king>s dearest friend. n the morning,$eow"lf p"rs"es her into her lair and slays her

with a sword wro"ght y the giants. hen he

finds the )orpse of Grendel, he )"ts off his head

and rings it a)k in tri"mph. *he Danes award

him many treas"res, and $eow"lf ret"rns to his

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"n)le.

3ater on, $eow"lf e)omes king of the Geats

and reigns o#er his people for /0 years. *hen a

fire+spewing dragon egins to de#astate the

land of his kingdom, e)a"se someody has

stolen a )"p from a mo"ntain )a#e, whi)h the

dragon has g"arded for 800 years. *herefore the

angry dragon determines to p"nish the people

of the kingdom. ith 11 )hosen thanes the aged

king goes to the dragon>s mo"ntain to fight with

it. As a res"lt, the dragon is killed, "t $eow"lf

is se#erely wo"nded d"ring the fight. ;e dies aheroi) death. *he poem ends with the f"neral of

the hero.

B. Writing Features of the Poem

1? t is not a 5hristian "t a pagan poem,despite the 5hristian fla#or gi#en to it y the

monastery s)rie. @p84? t is the prod")t of all

ad#an)ed pagan )i#iliation. *he whole poem

presents "s an all+ro"nd pi)t"re of the trial

so)iety and 5hristian )"lt"re. *he so)ial

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)onditions and )"stoms )an e seen in it. 'o the

poem has a great so)ial signifi)an)e.

? *he "se of the strong stress and the

predominan)e of )onsonants are #ery notale in

this poem. Ea)h line is di#ided into two hal#es,

and ea)h half has two hea#y stresses.

8? *he "se of the alliteration is another

notale feat"re. *hree stresses of the whole line

are made e#en more emphati) y the "se of

alliteration.

4? A lot of metaphors and "nderstatements are

"sed in the poem. =or e(ample, the sea is )alledBthe whale+roadB or Bthe swan roadB: the

soldiers are )alled Bshield+menB: h"man+ody is

referred to as Bthe one+ ho"seB : God is )alled

Bwonder+wielder B : monster is referred to as

Bso"l+destroyerB.

. !eligious Poetry

*he religio"s poetry is also )alled 5hristian

poetry. t is mainly on ili)al stories and

saints> li#es. $"t sometimes there is a mi(t"re


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of 5hristian and pagan ideas in these poems. t

is represented y 5aedmon and 5ynew"lf.

1" Caed#on $%1&-%'&"

5aedmon is the first known religio"s poet of

England. ;e is known as the father of English

song. ;is life story is #i#idly des)ried in

$edeCs Historic Ecclesiastica. *he ook tells "s

that 5aedmon, a h"mle and "nlearned man,

tends )attle for an aey on the orkshire )oast.

ne night, at a feast, when songs are )alled for,

he steals o"t "ietly, e)a"se he feels ashamedthat he )an )ontri"te nothing to the

entertainment. *hen he lies down in the

)owshed to sleep. n his sleep, he hears a #oi)e

asking him to sing. B )anCt sing, B he says, Band

that is why left the feast and )ame here.BB!e#ertheless,B says the mysterio"s #oi)e, Bo"

shall sing to me.B Bhat shall singB asks

5aedmon. B'ing me the song of )reation.B *hen

5aedmon sings a song whi)h is his first poem,

)alled The Hymn of Praise. 3ater on, 5aedmon

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)omposed many other poems y "sing the

ili)al material.

" Cyne(ulf and )is Poe#s

5ynew"lf li#ed in the early 9th )ent"ry.

E()ept the "nknown )omposer of Beowulf , he

is regarded as the greatest Anglo+'a(on poet.

f his life we know #ery little. ;e was

proaly an e))lesiasti) and a s)holar. ;is name

remained "nknown "ntil 140.

;e prod")ed fo"r poems% Christ, Juliana,

The Fates of the Apostles, and Elenef all these poems the most )hara)teristi) is

The Christ , whi)h is a dida)ti) poem in three

parts% the first part )elerates the !ati#ity: the

se)ond part des)ries the As)ension: and the

third part deals with Doomsday.5ynew"lf took his s"


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Ⅳ

. Anglo-Saxon Prose

Frose literat"re did not show its appearan)e

"ntil the th )ent"ry. *here were two famo"s

prose writers% 7enerale $ede and Alfred the

Great.

1. 7enerale $ede @628+28/?

hen we speak of the ld English prose, the

first name that )omes into o"r mind is

7enerale $ede, who is the first s)holar in

English literat"re and has een regarded as

=ather of English learning. ;is works, o#er forty in n"mer, written e()l"si#ely in 3atin,

)o#er the whole field of h"man knowledge of

his day.

*he most important of his works is The

Ecclesiastical History of the English People.*he ook not only tells "s how religion was

introd")ed and spread in England "t also

re)o"nts some histori)al e#ents of that period

and Anglo+'a(on mythologi)al legends. t m"st

e pointed o"t that the man who first des)ried

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5aedmanCs legendary life story is $ede.

. Alfred the Great @4+901?

Alfred the Great, king of esse( kingdom, is

another important fig"re in prose writing of

Anglo+'a(on period. D"ring his reign, he tried

e#ery means to impro#e the state of ed")ation,

s")h as fo"nding )olleges, and importing

tea)hers from E"rope. ;e was a well+known

translator. ;e translated some important 3atin

works into English. $"t of his works, the most

important is The Anglo-Saxon hronicles.*his ook re)ords the main happenings of the

Anglo+'a(on period. t is the est mon"ment of

the ld English prose.

思考题：

1? ;ow many gro"ps does the ld English

poetry fall into hat are they

? hat feat"res does Beowulf ha#e in

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writing

8? hat are the main )hara)teristi)s of

Anglo+'a(on literat"re

4? hat is Alfred>s most important

)ontri"tion to $ritish literat"re

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Chapter iddle English Literature

Lecture /otes:

0. )istorical ac2ground

1. *he /or#an Conquest

n 1066, illiam, the energeti) D"ke of

!ormandy, in#aded England with his strong

army. A fier)e attle was, fo"ght near ;astings

etween the English and the !orman armies. As

the English were di#ided , they lost the attle

and their leader ;arold was killed. *h"s,

illiam, the 5on"eror, e)ame the ing of

England.. *he Consequence of the Conquest

*he !orman 5on"est ro"ght England more

than a )hange of r"lers. Foliti)ally, a fe"dalist

system was estalished in England: religio"sly,

the Rome+a)ked 5atholi) 5h"r)h had a m")hstronger )ontrol o#er the )o"ntry: and great

)hanges also took pla)e in lang"ages. After the

)on"est, three lang"ages )o+e(isted in

England. ld English was spoken only y the

)ommon English people: =ren)h e)ame the

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offi)ial lang"age "sed y the ing and the

!orman lords: and 3atin e)ame the prin)ipal

tong"e of )h"r)h affairs and was "sed y the

)lergymen and s)holars in "ni#ersities. *he

)on"est opened "p England to the whole

E"ropean )ontinent, so that with the

introd")tion of the )"lt"re and literat"re of

=ran)e, taly and other E"ropean )o"ntries, a

fresh wa#e of -editerranean )i#iliation )ame

into England.

. *he iddle English Literature1. A rief Sur,ey

*his period )o#ers ao"t fo"r )ent"ries. n

the early part of the period, from 1066 "p to the

mid+14th )ent"ry, there is not m")h to say

ao"t literat"re in English. t is almost a arren period in literary )reation. $"t in the se)ond

half of the 14th )ent"ry, English literat"re starts

to flo"rish with the appearan)e of writers like

G. 5ha")er, . 3angland, &. Gower, and others.

n )omparison with ld English literat"re,

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-iddle English literat"re is "ttered y more

#oi)es, deals with a wider range of s"


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means of showing medie#al aristo)rati) men

and women in relation to their idealied #iew of

the world. f the epi) refle)ts a heroi) age, the

roman)e refle)ts a )hi#alri) one. *he roman)e

prospered for ao"t 800 years @100+1/00?. t

was written for the nole )lass, so it had

nothing to do with the )ommon people.

1" Essential 3eatures of the !o#ance

*he roman)e was the pre#ailing form of

literat"re in the -iddle Ages. t was a long

)omposition, sometimes in #erse, sometimes in

prose, des)riing the life and ad#ent"res of anole heroHa knight. ts essential feat"res are%

a. t la)ks general resemlan)e to tr"th or

reality.

. t e(aggerates the #i)es of h"man nat"re

and idealies the #irt"es.). t )ontains the ad#ent"res more or less

remote from ordinary life.

d. t lays emphasis on de#otion to a fair lady.

e. *he )entral )hara)ter of the roman)e is the

knight, a man of nole irth, skilled in the "se

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of weapons. ;e is )ommonly des)ried as

riding forth to seek ad#ent"res, or fighting for

his lord in attle. ;e is de#oted to the )h"r)h

and the king.

" !o#ance Cycles

*he enormo"s n"mer of the roman)es fall

into three )y)les or three gro"ps% the Imatters of

$ritainJ, the Imatters of =ran)eJ, and the

Imatters of RomeJ.

a. *he matters of =ran)e deal largely with the

e(ploits of 5harlemagne, often known as5harles the Great, ing of =rank and Emperor

of the est Empire. *he famo"s roman)e of

this gro"p is 5hanson de Roland.

. *he -atters of Rome deal with tales from

Greek and Roman so"r)es. Ale(ander the Great@8/6+88 $.5.?, ing of -a)edonia and

)on"eror of Gree)e, Egypt, ndia and Fersian

Empire is the fa#orite hero of this gro"p.

$esides this, *ro


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). *he matters of $ritain mainly deal with the

e(ploits of ing Arth"r and his knights of the

Ro"nd *ale. *he most interesting of all

Arth"rian roman)es are those of the Gawain

)y)le. *he story of 'ir Gawain and the Green

night is the )"lmination of the Arth"rian

roman)es.

4" Sir !awain an" the !reen #night

t is a #erse roman)e of /80 lines, deri#ed

from 5elti) legend.

A. Story:n !ew ear>s day, ing Arth"r and his

knights are holding a feast. A giant in green

enters the an"et hall on horse a)k with a

attle a(e in his hand. *his ig man )omes to

)hallenge any knight in the hall to gi#e him a low with the attle+a(e. *he )ondition is that a

ret"rn stroke e permitted a year later at the

Green 5hapel. *here isn>t any knight who dares

to a))ept the )hallenge. 'eeing that, the king is

#ery angry, and wants to a))ept the )hallenge.

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&"st then, the ing>s nephew Gawain stands "p

and takes "p the )hallenge. ith one low he

sends the giant>s head rolling thro"gh the hall.

*hen the Green night, who is e#idently a

terrile magi)ian, pi)ks "p his head and mo"nts

his horse. ;e holds o"t his head and the ghastly

lips warn Gawain to e faithf"l to his promise

and to seek thro"gh the world till he finds the

Green 5hapel, where on ne(t !ew ear>s day,

the Green night wo"ld meet him and ret"rn

the low.

A year has passed. 'ir Gawain goes to look for the Green 5hapel and the Green night. ;e

goes thro"gh a lot of diffi)"lties and ad#ent"res

on his way. $"t he )an not find the )hapel and

the knight.

n 5hristmas Day, he loses his way in aforest. *hen he offers prayers to -ary for help%

After the prayers, a great )astle appears on hill

efore him, he enters the )astle and is warmly

entertained y the host and hostess. Gawain is

told that the Green 5hapel is not far away. ;e

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de)ides to ha#e a rest in the )astle.

Gawain stays there for three days. *he host

makes a )ompa)t with him. A))ording to the

)ompa)t, the host goes o"t h"nting ea)h day,

Gawain stays in the )astle to entertain the

ea"tif"l hostess, and in the e#ening they

sho"ld e()hange what they has got d"ring the

day.

n the first day, the host goes o"t to do

h"nting, Gawain stays in the )astle. *he

ea"tif"l hostess tries to ind")e Gawain to

make lo#e to her, "t is ref"sed. 'he gi#esGawain a kiss. n the e#ening, when the host

ret"rns, he gi#es his g"est the game he has

killed, and Gawain ret"rns him the kiss, whi)h

he has got from the hostess. n the se)ond day,

Gawain also re)ei#es a kiss, and he gi#es it a)k to the host when he )omes a)k. n the

third, the lady offers Gawain a ring, and

Gawain ref"ses to a))ept it. *hen the hostess

gi#es him a magi) green girdle and tells him

that the girdle wo"ld preser#e him from death if


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he wears it. Gawain a))epts the girdle and

promises to the lady not to tell anything ao"t

it. hen the host )omes a)k in the e#ening,

Gawain ret"rns the kiss he has got from the

hostess "t he does not say anything ao"t the

girdle.

*hree days later, the host takes Gawain to the

Green 5hapel. As soon as they get there, the

host disappears and Gawain is left alone. ;e

finds that the )hapel is a terrile pla)e. hen he

approa)hes it, he hears a terrifying so"nd.

#io"sly the green giant is sharpening his newa(e. *hen the Green night )omes o"t from the

)hapel with an a(e, and Gawain offers him his

ne)k for the low. *wi)e he is harmless, and the

third time the a(e falls "pon his sho"lder and he

gets slightly wo"nded.*hen the Green night tells 'ir Gawain that

he is none other than the host of the 5astle

where Gawain stayed for three days. ;e says

that the first two swings of the a(e did not harm

Gawain e)a"se he was tr"e to his )ompa)t and

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twi)e ret"rned the kiss. *he last low wo"nded

him e)a"se he )on)ealed the green girdle. ="ll

of shame, Gawain throws a)k the gift and

ready to atone for his de)eption. *he Green

night thinks that he has already atoned, so

presents the girdle to him as a gift.

hen Gawain )omes a)k to his kingdom,

his story e)omes widely known. n order to

rememer this e#ent fore#er, ing Arth"r

orders ea)h of his knights to wear a green

girdle.

*his roman)e is one of the most delightf"lold roman)es in any lang"age. n form, it is an

interesting )omination of =ren)h and 'a(on

elements. t is written in an elaorate stana

)omining alliteration. At the end of ea)h

stana there is a rimed refrain.

. *he#e and otif

Sir !awain an" the !reen #nig ht is the

most a))omplished e(ample of medie#al

roman)e and a poem of ri)h psy)hologi)al and

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moral interest. *he "nknown a"thor of Sir

!awain and the !reen "night was 5ha")er>s

)ontemporary, "t his alliterati#e #erse form

was old fashioned e#en in his own day, and his

diale)t, that of !orthwest England, is also #ery

diffi)"lt for the modern readers.

*he rief s"mmary of the a)tion of the poem

re#eals that it is )on)erned with the rights and

wrongs of )ond")t. ts theme is a series of tests

on faith, )o"rage, p"rity and h"man weakness

for self+preser#ation. *he story presents a

profo"ndly 5hristian #iew of man>s )hara)ter and his destiny. $y pla)ing self+prote)tion

efore honor, and de)eit efore his tr"st in the

lo#e of God, Gawain has sinned and fallen and

e)ome an image of Adam. ;"man e()ellen)e

is marred y original sin and )o"rtly #al"esalone are no prote)tion. *ho"gh Gawain )an

hope to e e()"sed, the girdle itself remains a

perpet"al reminder of his weakness. *here is a

#ery )lear str")t"re in the poem with a

prolog"e, an epilog"e and its main ody. Sir

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!awain and the !reen "night is "ndo"tedly a

roman)e told with the p"rpose of portraying

ideal )hara)ter in a)tion. ith a preferen)e for

irony, s"ggestion and impli)ation, the "nknown

a"thor tries to make his roman)e the #ehi)le of

a wise morality in whi)h the h"moro"sly

grotes"e merges with the morally serio"s.

4 Popular allads

1" 0ntroduction

Fop"lar allads are originally dan)e songs.

*hey are little stories in #erse form, and they)an e s"ng or re)ited y the )ommon people.

*he origin of the English and ')ottish allads is

os)"re. Ks"ally they are anonymo"s, and are

handed down orally for many generations. *hey

are )reated )olle)ti#ely y the people and are)onstantly re#ised, either )ons)io"sly or

"n)ons)io"sly, in the pro)ess of eing handed

down. 'o there are many #ariant forms of

pop"lar allads.

$allads are simple and )r"de in story and

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highly )ondensed and dramati) in presentation.

n the fifteenth )ent"ry, there were se#eral kinds

of allads% histori)al, legendary, fantasti)al,

lyri)al and h"moro"s. Fop"lar allads were

fo"nd all o#er E"rope, "t a parti)"larly fertile

soil was the order area, for on)e many loody

attles were fo"ght etween the English and

')ots there.

" allads of !o5in )ood

*he most famo"s )y)le of English allads

)enters on the stories ao"t a legendary o"tlaw)alled Roin ;ood. n English history, Roin

;ood is partly a real and partly a legendary

fig"re. *he allads tell "s that he li#ed d"ring

the reign of Ri)hard . ;e was the leader of a

and of o"tlaws, and they li#ed in the deepforest. *hey often atta)ked the ri)h, waged war

against the ishops and ar)hishops, and helped

the poor people. *herefore, Roin ;ood and his

followers were )onstantly h"nted y the

sheriffs.

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Ⅲ

. iddle English Prose

*homas -alory is the only important prose

writer in the fifteenth )ent"ry. ;e wrote an

important work )alled B -orte dCArth"rB @Death

of Arth"r? in a prison )ell. *he )harges against

him ranged from e(tortion, roery, and )attle

r"stling, to Bay+laying the D"ke of

$")kinghamB. t is possile, howe#er, that few

of the )rimes were real. ;e was, after all, a

3an)astrian in a time of orkist as)endan)y,

and the law is e#er a ready weapon to those in power. n fa)t, in 146 when two general

amnesties were de)lared y ing Edward 7,

-alory, "nlike the other prisoners in


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death. *he )entral )on)ern is with the

ad#ent"res of Arth"r and his famo"s nights of

the Ro"nd *ale. *he knights fight many attles

and win glory, all of whi)h is a )redit to the

name of ing Arth"r. !ear the end of the story,

howe#er, the tide of good fort"ne t"rns.

3a"n)elot, one of Arth"rCs knights, falls in lo#e

with Arfh"rCs "een, G"ine#er, and the lady

ret"rns his lo#e. ne y one the other knights

e)ome dis)ontented, selfish, or disill"sioned.

*h"s weakened, the kingdom is atta)ked y

for)e "nder 'ir -ordred, Arth"rCs trea)hero"snephew, and "ltimately it goes down in defeat.

Arth"r is orne away on a arge y three

mysterio"s ladies of the 3ake.

#orte d$Arthur was written in a time of

transition. *he fe"dal order was dying. $y thetime -alory egan writing his story, soldiers

were fighting with g"npowder, a middle )lass

of tradesmen was arising: and the pra)ti)es of

)hil#alry were eing s"perseded y a new

aristo)rati) )ode. -alory, in a desire to es)ape

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the disorder and "neasiness of his day, tried to

re)apt"re lost ideals of the romanti) past as

re)o"nted in his tale of nole kings,

ad#ent"ro"s knights, and damsels in distress.

*his ook is #ery important in English

literat"re. ts Arth"rian materials ha#e a strong

infl"en)e on literat"re of later )ent"ries.

Ⅳ

. 6illia# Langland

1. 0ntroduction

illiam 3angland was orn in the western

midland of the )o"ntry, li#ing from ao"t 1880to ao"t 1400. ;e was ed")ated in the s)hool of

a monastery at -al#ern. After s)hool he took

minor orders, "t ne#er rose in the )h"r)h. *hen

he mo#ed to 3ondon and made a s)anty li#ing

y singing masses, )opying legal do)"mentsand doing other odd


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of whi)h were pla)ed in the first half, and the

third in the se)ond half.

. Piers the Plowman

*he poem des)ries a series of wonderf"l

dreams the a"thor dreamed. *hro"gh these

dreams, we )an see a pi)t"re of the life in the

fe"dal England. n the first dream, the a"thor

saw a fair field f"ll of people. *here were the

ri)h and the poor, workers and idlers, noles

and mer)hants, "nworthy priests, pardoners and


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asked y the ing to wed 5ons)ien)e. $"t

when 5ons)ien)e was )alled to the )o"rt, he

flatly ref"sed to marry the lady and set forth her

whole manner of life. 5ons)ien)e said that

$riery )orr"pted the


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'he said 'olomon de)lared that they that ga#e

gifts won the #i)tory and otained hono"r. $"t

5ons)ien)e at on)e reminded her that she had

left o"t the last part of the te(t% B;e that gi#eth

a gift shall ha#e hono"r, "t the so"l of them

that re)ei#e it is o"nd therey. B =inally, the

ing ade them to e re)on)iled. ;ere we )an

see )learly that the poet tried to lash the

)orr"ption of the so)iety with the whip of a

satirist. And he also des)ried the hard life of

the poor peasants and showed sympathy to

them. *he ne(t part of the poem des)ries the pilgrimage of the people in sear)h for *r"th.

n the )onf"sion, 3ady ;oly 5h"r)h

appeared. 'he en)o"raged all the people to seek

*r"th, the est thing in the world. $"t the

people de)lared that they wo"ld ne#er find theway witho"t a g"ide, where"pon appeared to

the s)ene the hero of the poem, Fiers the

plowman. Fiers was a simple and honest

peasant. $efore leading the people on their

pilgrimage, he said that he m"st first ha#e his

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half a)re of land plo"ghed. 'o he set all the

pilgrims to work. ;e e(plained to the people

that the est way in sear)h for *r"th was to take

part in lao"r. n this part, the a"thor praised the

dignity of honest lao"r. ;e )onsidered that the

peasants were the nearest to *r"th.

*his poem is )onsidered one of the greatest

English poems of medie#al times. t>s written in

the alliterati#e #erse and takes the form of

dream #ision, des)riing a s)ene of fe"dal

England. Dream #ision is a fa#orite de#i)e in

medie#al poetry. *his poem satiries )orr"ptionamong the )lergy and se)"lar a"thorities,

depi)ts the miseries and s"ffering of the needy

and "pholds the dignity and #al"e of laor,

personified y Fiers Flowman. t is a realisti)

pi)t"re of medie#al England.

4. Artistic 3eatures of the Poe#

1? Fiers the Flowman is written in the form of

a dream #ision. *he a"thor tells his story "nder

the g"ise of ha#ing dreamed it.

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? *he poem is an allegory, whi)h relates

tr"th thro"gh symolism.

8? *he poet "ses indignant satire in his

des)ription of so)ial a"ses )a"sed y the

)orr"ption pre#ailing among the r"ling )lasses,

e))lesiasti)al and se)"lar.

4? *he poem is written in alliteration.

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7eoffrey Chaucer $148&9 18&&"

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Ⅰ. Life experiences

Geoffrey 5ha")er was orn in 3ondon aro"nd

1840 of a middle+)lass family. ;is father was

one of the prospero"s wine mer)hants. hen he

was still a oy, 5ha")er was sent to ser#e as a

page in the ho"se of 3ionel, the third son of

Edward . At the age of 19, he ser#ed with the

English army in =ran)e, where he was taken

prisoner and later ransomed y the ing. ;is

marriage to Fhilippa related him to Frin)e &ohn

of Ga"nt, who later e)ame his patron. n 1862,

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he entered the ser#i)e of ing Edward and

egan to "ndertake #ario"s diplomati) missions

to the 5ontinent. ;is emassies of 182 and

182 to taly were of parti)"lar signifi)an)e, for

they ro"ght him into )onta)t with talian

literat"re and some of its leading writers,

among whom there were $o))a))io and

Fetrar)h. n 1824, he was made 5ontroller of

5"stoms and '"sidy of ools, 'kins and

;ides in the Fort of 3ondon. n 18/ he e)ame

&"sti)e of the Fea)e and night of the 'hire

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@-emer of Farliament? for the 5o"nty of ent.

;e ser#ed as 5lerk of the ing>s orks in the

period of 189 to 1891. *hen he was appointed

=orester of a royal forest in 'omerset in 1891

and the appointment was renewed in 189. n

1899 he rent a ho"se in the garden of

estminster Aey, "t died shortly afterwards

in 1400. *hro"gho"t his life, 5ha")erCs a)ti#e

)areer d"ring all these years as )o"rtier, soldier,

diplomat, and )i#il ser#ant pro#ided him not

only with knowledge "t also e(perien)es,

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whi)h a))o"nted for the wide range of his

writings and whi)h made it possile for him to

write his masterpie)e The Canter%ury Tales

00. Literary Career

5riti)s tend to di#ide 5ha")erCs literary )areer

into three periods% the =ren)h, the talian and

the mat"re.

1. *he 3rench Period

D"ring this period 5ha")er was mainly "nder

the infl"en)e of the =ren)h literat"re. ;is

earliest work was The &omaunt of the &ose, a

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free translation of a 18th+)ent"ry =ren)h poem

The &oman de la &ose. 5ha")erCs first

important original work, The Boo' of the

(uchess is an elegy for &ohn of Ga"ntCs first

wife, $lan)he, who died in 1869. n dream the

poet en)o"nters a grie#ing knight in la)k

@Ga"nt? who mo#ingly re)o"nts his lo#e and

loss of Bgood fair, hiteCC @$lan)he?. *he theme

@praising the de)eased and )onsoling the

erea#ed? and the form @dream and allegory?

are )on#entional, and many of its lines are

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translated dire)tly from #ario"s works y

=ren)h poets: yet the plan of the work is

imaginati#e and daring, and as a whole the

elegy is on a le#el of e()ellen)e ne#er attained

y the poets from whom 5ha")er is orrowing.

n this period, 5ha")erCs spe)ifi) poeti) models

were =ren)h, "t he also familiaried himself

with writings in 3atin. ;e had a knowledge of

7irgil and of #id in the original, and he knew

the other )lassi)al a"thors thro"gh =ren)h

translations and paraphrases. ;is fa#orite 3atin

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$o))a))io. D"ring this period, 5ha")er mainly

wrote three longer poems. The House of Fame,

whi)h gi#es a h"moro"s a))o"nt of the poetCs

fr"strating


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solemn ad#i)e to yo"ng people to flee #ain

lo#es and t"rn their hearts to 5hrist. 5ha")erCs

)hara)ters are psy)hologi)ally so )omple( that

the work has also een )alled the first modern

no#el. t was also $o))a))io who pro#ided the

so"r)e for his lo#ely, )rypti) lo#e #ision, The

Parliament of Fouls @182/+18/?, in whi)h he

witnesses an in)on)l"si#e deate ao"t lo#e

among the different )lasses of irds. *he third

longer poem written in this period is The

+egend of !ood omen, another lo#e #ision

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ao"t faithf"l women who died for lo#e. *he

Frolog"e to *he 3egend of Good omen is

most original and interesting. After )ompleting

eight of these legends, 5ha")er proaly

aandoned the work and y 182 was engaged

on his masterpie)e.

( The $ature Perio"

Apart from the minor works, 5ha")erCs )hief

literary interest in the last 14 years of his life

was The Canter%ury Tales, his masterpie)e.

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5ha")er had rea)hed f"ll mat"rity in his literary

)reation, free from any dominant foreign

infl"en)e.

Ⅲ. The anter)ury Tales

$eg"n in 186, it represents 5ha")erCs final

poeti) a)hie#ements. =or depth of interest, for

the wealth of its impressions of the h"man

)omedy, and for its mat"re wisdom, it is

"nri#aled among 5ha")erCs works.

*. The Framewor+

*he framework here refers to a narrati#e, whi)h

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is )omposed for the p"rpose of introd")ing and

)onne)ting a series of tales. 5olle)tions of

stories linked y s")h a de#i)e are not

"n)ommon in -iddle Ages.

n planning The Canter%ury Tales, 5ha")er

might ha#e got the idea of framing his stories

from some pre#io"s literary so"r)es, espe)ially

from $o))a))io, "t when he was li#ing in

Greenwi)h, he might, from his ho"se, ha#e

ample opport"nities to oser#e the 5anter"ry

pilgrimage for himself, whi)h may well ha#e

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s"ggested to him the idea of a pilgrimage as a

framework for a n"mer of stories.

5ha")erCs work )onsists of three parts% *he

General Frolog"e, 4 tales, two of whi)h left

"nfinished, and separate prolog"es to ea)h tale

with links, )omments, "arrels, et). in etween.

5ha")er originally planned to ha#e a gro"p of

80 pilgrims with ea)h to tell two stories on the

way to 5anter"ry and another two on the way

a)k . 'o the total stories of the )olle)tion wo"ld

e 10. $"t 5ha")er had a)t"ally )ompleted

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only stories, with two more e(isting in

fragments.

&. The !eneral Prologue

The ,pening ines

*he magnifi)ent eighteen+line senten)es that

open the General Frolog"e is an e(pression of a

do"le #iew of the 5anter"ry pilgrimage. *he

first ele#en lines are a )hant of wel)ome to the

'pring with its harmonio"s marriage etween

hea#en and earth whi)h mellows #egetations,

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pri)ks fo"ls and stirs the heart of man with a

renewing power of nat"re. *h"s, the pilgrimage

is treated as an e#ent in the )alendar of nat"re,

an aspe)t of the general springtime s"rge of

h"man energy whi)h wakens manCs lo#e of

7en"s @nat"ral lo#e?. $"t 'pring is also the

season of Easter and is allegori)ally regarded as

the time of the Redemption thro"gh the

sa)rifi)e of &es"s 5hrist with its )onnotations of

religio"s reirth whi)h wakens manCs lo#e of

God @di#ine lo#e?. *herefore, the pilgrimage is

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also treated as an e#ent in the )alendar of

di#inity, an aspe)t of religio"s piety whi)h

draws pilgrims to holy pla)es. *he

str")t"re of this opening passage )an e

regarded as one from the whole estern

tradition of the )eleration of spring to a lo)al

e#ent of English so)iety, from nat"ral for)es in

their general operation to a spe)ifi) 5hristian

manifestation. *he transition from nat"re to

di#inity is emphasied y )ontrast etween the

physi)al #itality whi)h )onditions the

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pilgrimage and the spirit"al si)kness whi)h

o))asions the pilgrimage, as well as y

parallelism etween the renewal power of

nat"re and the restorati#e power of s"pernat"re

@di#inity?. *h"s, in this eginning passage,

5ha")er sets the do"le moti#ations of the

pilgrims in an amig"o"s tone with remarkale

e)onomy of words and a telling fa)t"ality. t is a

model of narrati#e )ompression, with an 1+

line periodi) senten)e that )omposes of a

s"ordinate )la"se @line 1+11? of 29 words and a

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main )la"se @line 1+ 1? of 49 words,

e(pressing the essential idea of the whole work.

And all this is a)hie#ed along with a

dimin"endo to the familiar, straightforward, low

style of presentation.

*he General Frolog"e is "s"ally regarded as the

greatest portrait gallery in English literat"re. t

is largely )omposed of a series of sket)hes

differing widely in length and method, and

lending the indi#id"al and the typi)al in

#arying degrees. *he p"rpose of the General

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Frolog"e is not only to present a #i#id

)olle)tion of )hara)ter sket)hes, "t also tries to

re#eal the a"thorCs intention in ringing together

a great #ariety of people and narrati#e materials

to "nite the di#ersity of the tales y allotting

them to a di#ersity of tellers engaged in a

)ommon endea#or, to set the tone for the story+

telling ++ one of


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and to introd")e the pilgrims and the time and

o))asion of the pilgrimage. Ranging in stat"s

from a night to a h"mle Flowman, the

pilgrims are a mi)ro)osm of 14th+)ent"ry

English so)iety.

4. *he *ales Proper

*here are all together 4 tales with the nightCs

tale at the eginning, the FarsonCs tale at the

end, and the 5lerkCs tale and others stret)hing in

etween. *hese tales represent nearly e#er

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#ariety of medie#al story at its est, whi)h )an

e di#ided into different gro"ps s")h as

Roman)e, =alio", 'aintsC 3egends, ;omilies,

-oralities, De#otions and -arriage. *he

spe)ial geni"s of 5ha")erCs work, howe#er, lies

in the dramati) intera)tion etween the tales

and the framing story. *he night starts the

story )ontest y presenting a )o"rtly and

philosophi)al roman)e of two )hi#alri) knights,

Falamon and Ar)ite, who fell in lo#e with the

same yo"ng lady and who later fo"ght a fier)e

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attle for winning the lady. *hen, the -iller

interr"pts with a deli)io"sly awdy story of

sed")tion aimed at the Ree#e @an offi)er or

steward of a manor?: the Ree#e takes re#enge

with a tale ao"t the sed")tion of a millerCs wife

and da"ghter. *h"s, the tales de#elop the

personalities, "arrels, and di#erse opinions of

their tellers. *he prolog"es and tales of the ife

of $ath and the Fardoner are high points of

5ha")erCs art. *he ife, an o"tspoken

)hampion of her gender against the traditional

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anti+feminism of the )h"r)h, initiates a series of

tales ao"t se(, marriage, and noility. *he tale

told y the ife of $ath ill"strates the #iew that

women m"st r"le men and that only the wifeCs

domination )an lead to pea)e and happiness in

marriage. n the )ontrary the 5lerkCs tale points

to the attainment of happiness y a woman

a)ting in f"ll s"mission to her h"sand,

s"ggesting therey that the wifeCs patien)e and

meekness is the key to married liss. $oth the

-er)hantCs tale and the =ranklinCs tale are

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BtriangleB lo#e stories of h"sand, wife and

lo#er, in whi)h the lo#er, following the

)on#entions of )o"rtly lo#e, attempts to

pers"ade the wife to e "nfaithf"l to her

h"sand. *he differen)e is that in the first tale

e#eryody eha#es )ontemptily, and noody

wins, while in the se)ond one e#eryody

eha#es admiraly and e#eryody wins. *he

Fardoner gi#es a mo)k+sermon against a#ari)e,

whi)h is delierately designed y him to )heat

the simple folk o"t of their money. Altho"gh

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5ha")er in this way satiries the a"ses of the

)h"r)h, he also in)l"des a n"mer of dida)ti)

and religio"s tales, )on)l"ding with the good

FarsonCs sermon on peniten)e. *his is followed

y a personal )onfession in whi)h 5ha")er

Bretra)tsB all his se)"lar writings, in)l"ding

*roil"s, and those 5anter"ry tales that Bin)line

toward sin.B 3ike the ending of *roil"s, the

retra)tion is a reminder that that 5ha")er>s

geni"s was always s"


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and style, The Canter%ury Tales sho"ld e read

as a whole poem and not simply as a )olle)tion

of tales str"ng together y some loose thread. n

its total impression, the 5anter"ry pilgrimage

of the poem is the pro)ession of the h"man

)omedy itself. *he di#ersity of the tales f"lfills

the promise of that initial di#ersity of pilgrims

presented in the Frolog"e, B)hara)tersB who are

oth indi#id"als and representati#es in the

moral and so)ial sense. n the interl"des

etween the tales, these B)hara)tersB are set in

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a)tion, )hatting, arg"ing and "arreling with

one another: and the tales themsel#es are a

li#elier e(tension of their talk. *hese tales are

the entertainment the pilgrims pro#ide for ea)h

other and at the same time they are a f"ll

re#elation of the pilgrims themsel#es, their

interests, attit"des and antagonisms.

Chaucer;s contri5utions:

1. =orer"nner of ;"manism

n the last part of the 14th )ent"ry, when

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5ha")er was learning from the great talian

writers, the infl"en)e of Renaissan)e was

already felt in the field of English literat"re.

5ha")er affirms men>s and women>s right to

p"rs"e earthly happiness and opposed

as)eti)ism @a#oiding physi)al pleas"res and

)omforts?. ;e praises man>s energy, intelle)t,

"i)k wit and lo#e of life and he e(poses and

satiries the so)ial #i)es, in)l"ding the

)orr"ption of the 5h"r)h. n this sense, his

works ear the marks of h"manism, and his

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poetry shows a path to the literat"re of English

Renaissan)e.

. *he first realisti) writer

ld English literat"re is mainly ao"t heroi)

eha#ior , with religio"s )olor or pagan )olor

and portrays the image of the idealied hero.

-iddle English roman)e mainly )on)erns the

knight and makes wide "se of the improale,

often of the s"pernat"ral. *ho"gh in this period,

Piers, the Plowman refle)ts the religio"s and

so)ial iss"es of his days, it is written in the form

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of dream #ision. hile, 5ha")er, for the first

time in English literat"re, presents to the

readers a )omprehensi#e realisti) pi)t"re of the

English so)iety of his time and des)ries a

series of #i#id )hara)ters from all walks of life

in The Canter%ury Tales.

5ha")er>s wide range of reading gi#es him

plots and ideas, and his e(perien)e gi#es him

models of )hara)ters. =rom his irth to his

death, he keeps in to")h with all sorts of people,

whi)h is really helpf"l for the )hara)teriation

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of his writing.

8. =ather of English poetry @)alled y &ohn

Dryden?

5ha")er introd")es from =ran)e the rhymed

stanas of #ario"s types to English poetry to

repla)e the old English alliterati#e #erse. ;e>s

the first to "se the rhymed )o"plet（双行押

韵） of iami)（抑扬格） pentameter （五音

步的） , whi)h is to e )alled the heroi)

)o"plet. *h"s, he lays the fo"ndation of the

English toni)+syllai) #erse.

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4. -aster of the English lang"age

n his writing, 5ha")er draws )ertain

)on#entions and themes from =ren)h, talian

and 3atin models, "t he is the first great poet

who wrote in the )"rrent English. ;is

prod")tion of so m")h e()ellent poetry is an

important fa)tor in estalishing English as the

literary lang"age of the )o"ntry. 5ha")er "ses

3ondon diale)t in his writings and he

)ontri"tes to making it the fo"ndation for

modern English spee)h.

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Chapter4 *he!enaissance English Literature

0. )istorical 5ac2ground

At the end of the 18&&s ， the (orldchanged. 0n 18's ,oyage to the A#erica opened

European eyes to the existence of the /e(

6orld. /e( 6orlds，5oth geographical andspiritual ， are the 2ey to the

!enaissance， the ?re5irth@ of learning and

culture，(hich reached the pea2 in ritain

during the reign of ueen EliBa5eth fro#

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1


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the 5irth of Christianity， opened up the

hu#anist (ays of thin2ing.

Politically， it (as an unsettled ti#e.

Although )enry>s daughter EliBa5eth

reigned for so#e forty-fi,e years ， there

(ere constant threats+ plots and potential

re5ellions against her. Protestant $Puritans"

(ere a constant presence：#any people left

the country for religious reasons， in order

to set up the first colony in irginia and

Pennsyl,ania ， the 5eginnings of another

/e( 6orld. )o(e,er，EliBa5eth;s reign didgi,e the nations so#e sense of sta5ility，and

a considera5le sense of national and religious

triu#ph (hen ， in 1


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the nation， London de,eloped in siBe and

i#portance as the nation;s capital ， and

fro# the foundation of the first pu5lic

theatre in London， the stage 5eca#e the

foru# of de5ate ， spectacle ， and

entertain#ent. 0t (as the place (here the

(riter too2 his (or2 to an audience (hich

#ight include the ueen herself and the

lo(liest of the su5Fects. )and in hand (ith

the gro(th in theatrical expression (ent the

gro(th of odern English as a national

language.uring this period+ the increasing of

cloth industry sti#ulated the greed of the

#oneyed classes to seiBe #ore and #ore land

out of the hands of the peasants. *his is

2no(n as the Enclosure o,e#ent. As aresult of the #o,e#ent+ thousands upon

thousands of peasants lost their land and

5eca#e hired la5ourers for the #erchants. 0t

(as a ti#e (hen+ according to *ho#as ore+

?sheep de,oured #en.@

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000. English !enaissance

*he !enaissance (as a European

pheno#enon. 0t had its origin in north 0taly

in the fourteenth century+ and spread

north(ard to other European countries-to

3rance+ to 7er#any+ to the Lo( Countries+

and lastly to England. 0t re,i,ed the study of

!o#an and 7ree2 classics and #ar2ed the

5eginning of 5ourgeois re,olution. uring

the period of English !enaissance England

enFoyed sta5ility and prosperity. *he English!enaissance encouraged the !efor#ation of

the Church. English ing+ )enry 000+ (ho

started the !efor#ation+ declared the 5rea2

(ith !o#e and 5eca#e head of the English

Church. *hus Catholicis# (as got rid of inEngland. Protestantis# (as esta5lished.

0n the !enaissance Period+ scholars and

educators (ho called the#sel,es )u#anists

5egan to e#phasiBe the capacities of the

hu#an #ind and the achie,e#ents of hu#an

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culture+ in contrast to the #edie,al e#phasis

on 7od and conte#pt for the things of this

(orld. So hu#anis# 5eca#e the 2eynote of

English !enaissance. English !enaissance is

usually di,ided into three periods:

1" *he first period called the 5eginning of the

!enaissance started in 18'< and ca#e to

an end in 1


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Ⅳ . English Literature in the !enaissance

Period

English literature in the !enaissance

Period is usually regarded as the highlight in

this history of English literature. 0n the

second period of English !enaissance+ that

is+ in EliBa5ethan Period+ English literature

de,eloped (ith a great speed and #ade a

#agnificent achie,e#ent. *he greatest and

#ost distincti,e achie,e#ent of EliBa5ethan

literature is the dra#a. *hus appeared a

group of excellent dra#atists. *hey are GohnLyly+ *ho#as yd+ 7eorge Peele+ !o5ert

7reene+ Christopher arlo(e+ en Gonson

and 6illia# Sha2espeare. /ext to the dra#a

is the Lyrical Poetry. EliBa5ethan Poetry is

re#ar2a5le for its ,ariety+ its freshness+ itsyouthfulness and its ro#antic feeling. A

group of great poets appeared+ and a large

nu#5er of no5le poetry (as produced. 0n

that period+ (riting poetry 5eca#e a fashion.

ueen EliBa5eth herself (as a poet. She

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suggested su5Fects and re(arded poets. )er

#inisters and courtiers o5eyed her exa#ple

and tried to ri,al each other in shaping

5eautiful ,erses. *he gentry+ as a #atter of

fact+ also follo(ed the exa#pleH and after the

gentry+ all educated people. *he uni,ersities

#ade the#sel,es particularly 5usy (ith

poetry. England then 5eca#e I a nest of

singing 5irdsI. *he fa#ous poets of that

period (ere *ho#as 6yatt+ )enry )o(ard+

Philip Sidney and Ed#und Spenser.

Since English !enaissance Period (asan age of poetry and dra#a+ and (as not an

age of prose+ there (ere not so #any prose

(riters. 0n the 5eginning period+ the great

hu#anist+ *ho#as ore+ (rote his fa#ous

prose (or2 IJtopiaI+ (hich #ay 5e thoughtas the first literary #asterpiece of the

English !enaissance. 0n EliBa5ethan Period+

3rancis acon (rote #ore than fifty

excellent essays+ (hich #a2e hi# one of the

5est essayists in English literature.

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6illia# Sha2espeare $1s life: the church and legal

records+ the fol2 traditions+ and the

co##ents of his conte#poraries.

Sha2espeare (as 5orn in Stratford-on-

A,on in on April %+ 1s cler2.

0n 1


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A fe( years later+ $1


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)*+|}~的•€‚，n{7ƒ6„…

†‡qˆ,‰Š，‹ŒV„…Ž的‘5

uring the t(enty-t(o years of his

literary career+ he produced 4D plays+ 1


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group consists of si#ple and shre(d clo(ns

and other co##on people. *hese characters

#a2e the play full of hu#our and laughter.

*he success of Sha2espeare>s co#edies o(es

#uch to the appearance of clo(ns. 6ithout

the# the plays (ould 5eco#e dull and

hu#orless.

Sha2espeare put (o#en characters at a

pro#inent place in his co#edies. )e sho(ed

great respect for the dignity+ honesty+ (it+

courage+ deter#ination and

resourcefulness（’o“”） of (o#en.*he young heroines in Sha2espeare>s

co#edies are independent in character and

,ery fran2 . *hey are no longer controlled 5y

their parents or hus5ands. *hey are of a ne(

type. *hey are (itty+ 5old+ lo,ing+ laughingand faithful. *hey are happy and #a2e

others happy. *hey carry their destinies in

their o(n hands. 0n spea2ing+ thin2ing and

feeling they are equals or e,en superiors of

#en. Sha2espeare>s co#edies sho(

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progressi,e significance.

Sha2espeare produced 1% co#edies

altogether. )is #ain co#edies are: $erchant

of 0enice1 A $i"summer 2ight%s 3ream1 As

4ou i+e 't1 The Winter%s Tale1 an" The

Twelfth 2ight .

4" )is *ragedies

Sha2espeare>s great tragedies are

associated (ith a period of gloo# and sorro(

in his life. uring this period+ England

(itnessed a general unrest+ and socialcontradictions 5eca#e ,ery sharp. 6hat

caused the (riter>s personal sadness is

un2no(n to us. 0t is generally attri5uted to

the political #isfortune of his friend and

patron+ Earl of Essex+ (ho (as 2illed 5y theueen. Sha2espeare (rote 11 tragedies. )is

#ain tragedies are: Hamlet1 ,thello1 #ing

ear1 an" $ac)eth. All of these plays express

a profound dissatisfaction (ith life. *hey

sho( the struggle and conflicts 5et(een good

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and e,il of the tune+ 5et(een Fustice and

inFustice. 0n these plays+ the (riter

Sha2espeare conde#ns the dar2 and e,il

society.

8" )istorical Plays

Sha2espeare>s historical plays are

political plays. *he principal idea of these

plays is the necessity for national unity under

one so,ereign. At his ti#e+ this idea (as anti-

feudal in natureH and it su##ed up the

general opinion of the rising 5ourgeoisie inSha2espeare>s o(n day.

Sha2espeare>s historical plays reflect the

historical e,ents of t(o centuries fro#

!ichard to )enry 000. *hey sho( theⅡ

horrors of ci,il (ar+ the necessity for nationalunity+ the responsi5ilities of efficient ruler+

and the i#portance of legiti#ate succession

to the throne.

0n Sha2espeare> s historical plays there

is only one ideal 2ing )enry + though his

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real prototype differs little fro# the other

2ings. /e,ertheless+ for English patriots of

that ti#e his na#e (as associated (ith the

#ilitary ,ictories of England in the )undred

Kear>s 6ar and 5eca#e a sy#5ol of English

glory in the eyes of the (ell-to-do citiBens of

England.

A#ong Sha2espeare>s 1& historical plays+

)enry 0 and )enry are t(o re#ar2a5le

plays. )enry is the continuation of )enry

0. *he t(o plays deal (ith the e,ents of the

1<

th

century and gi,e the picture of atrou5led reign.


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0enus an" A"onis is a poe# in %-line

stanBas. 0t tells us that enus (oos the youth

Adonis+ 5ut she can> t get his lo,e. 3inally

enus finds the young #an 2illed 5y a 5oar.

ucrece is a poe# in D-line stanBas. 0t tells

us a sad story a5out a lady called Lucrece+

(ho has 5een outraged 5y a lustful prince+

and then she 2ills herself 5ecause of sha#e.

*he 5ul2 of Sha2espeare>s sonnets (ere

(ritten 5et(een 1


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poor people and disclosed the greed and

cruelty of the upper class. 0n his plays+

Sha2espeare also re,ealed the e#ergence of

the early coloniBation and racial pro5le#

arising (ith capitalis#. )e fully reflected the

po(er of #oney in the age of gro(ing

capitalis#. )e (as far-sighted into #oney+

capitalist accu#ulation and its effect.

*he stories of Sha2espeare>s plays often

too2 place in other countries or in the past

instead of in England or in his o(n age. *he

characters are clothed in foreign dresses+ yettheir thought and feelings and their attitude

to(ards life 5elong to the age of

Sha2espeare. 0n fact+ his characters are

representati,es of the people of his ti#e.

Sha2espeare>s #ain characters are depictedin typical situations. *hey are typical

characters. *heir funda#ental traits are

re,ealed in their conflicts (ith their

surroundings+ in their relations (ith their

fello(#en $such as )a#let+ (hose character

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is depicted through his relations (ith his

father+ #other+ uncle+ his friend )oratio+ his

lo,er Ophelia etc.". Each of his characters is

a representati,e of a group of #en $such as

)a#let representing the hu#anistsH Shyloc2

the usurerH".

Sha2espeare>s dra#atic for# fits the

content of his plays ,ery (ell. )is plays are

not controlled 5y the rules of the classical

unities of ti#e+ place and action. *he action

#o,es fro# place to place. A play co,ers

se,eral days or years. 0n order to reproducethe #anifold i#ages of life+ Sha2espeare

used peculiar co#5ination in his dra#a:

co#5ination of #aFestic and funny+ of poetic

and prosaic+ of tragic and co#ic.

Sha2espeare (as a great #aster of English language. *he language of each of

his characters fits his position in society and

re,eals the peculiarities of his character. )e

co##anded a ,oca5ulary larger than any

other English (riter. )e lo,ed to play (ith

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(ords+ or to #a2e puns (ith the#.

So#eti#es (e find it>s ,ery difficult to

understand hi#. Sha2espeare also created a

lot of ne( (ords and expressions+ thus

enriching English language. Sha2espeare is

also a great poet. )e (as s2illed in #any

poetic for#s. )e could (rite songs+ lyrics+

sonnets+ couplets+ quatrains$行– "+ and

5lan2 ,erse（—韵–） . lan2 ,erse is the

principal for# of his dra#as. Each of

Sha2espeare>s plays consists of three parts:

--ialogues or soliloques（˜™） in prose --ialogues or soliloques in 5lan2 ,erse

? hat feat"res does Beowulf ha#e in

writing

8? hat are the main )hara)teristi)s of

Anglo+'a(on literat"re4? hat is Alfred>s most important

)ontri"tion to $ritish literat"re

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Chapter8 English Literature in the

Se,enteenth Century

Ⅰ. Social ac2ground

*he *udor ynasty esta5lished 5y )enry 00 ca#e into

po(er in 18


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5ourgeoisie (ere adherents of the religious doctrine of

Puritanis#. *hey (ere people of strict #orals and

austere life. *hey preached on thrift+ hard (or2 and

plain life. *heir ai# (as to attain self-co##and+ to 5e

#aster of the#sel,es+ of their thought+ speech and acts.

At first+ they (ere supported 5y the 5road #asses of the

(or2ers and peasants. ut after they got ,ictory+ they

carried things to extre#es+ and suppressed #uch that

(as har#less. Life (as stern in those days+ and the la(s

(ere se,ere+ and #any si#ple pleasures (ere for5idden.

Puritans fought for li5erty and Fustice+ o,erthre(

despotis# and #ade #en;s life and property safe fro#the tyranny of rulers.

0n 1%


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hea,ily influenced 5y 3rench fashion and ideas+

especially 5y a #ore secular ,ie( of the (orld. uring

this period+ a (hite terror (as also introduced to the

country. 6hen CharlesⅡthreatened to restore the old

a5solute #onarchy+ the 5ourgeoisie too2 a decisi,e

action+ that is+ to ha,e hi# expelled and in,ite Ga#es

6illia#+ prince of Orange+ for# )olland to 5e 2ing of

England in 1%''. *his is called the ?7lorious

!e,olution@. *his 5loodless e,ent co#pleted the

5ourgeoisie re,olution. So+ after a century of disputes

and 5attles+ #odern England (as fir#ly esta5lished and

capitalis# (ould de,elop freely (ithin the statestructure of #odern England+ constitutional #onarchy.

Literary characteristics

English literature of the re,olution and restoration

(as ,ery #uch concerned (ith the tre#endous socialuphea,als of the ti#e.

1. Literature of the !e,olution Period

*he !e,olution Period (as one of confusion in

literature due to the 5rea2ing up of the old ideals. *he

Puritans 5elie,ed in si#plicity of life. *hey disappro,ed

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of the sonnets and the lo,e poetry (ritten in the

pre,ious period. Literature (as as di,ide spirit as (ere

the struggling parties.

Puritan literature is different fro# the literature of

EliBa5ethan Period in the follo(ing three aspects：

1" EliBa5ethan literature had a #ar2ed unity and the

feeling of de,otion to the ueen+ 5ut in the !e,olution

Period，all this (as changed+ the 2ing 5eca#e the open

ene#y of the people+ and the country (as di,ided 5y the

struggle for political and religious li5erty. So literature

(as as di,ided in spirit as (ere the struggling parties.

" EliBa5ethan literature (as generally inspiring. 0tthro55ed (ith youth and hope and ,italityžLiterature

in the Puritan Age expressed sadness. E,en its 5rightest

hours (ere follo(ed 5y gloo# and pessi#is#.

4" EliBa5ethan literature (as intensely ro#anticž*he

ro#antic spirit sprang fro# the heart of youthžPeople5elie,ed all things+ e,en the i#possi5le ž ut in

literature of the Puritan period+ (e cannot find any

ro#antic ardor.

*he #ain literary for# of the period (as

poetry ž A#ong the poets+ ilton (as the greatest.

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esides hi#+ there (ere t(o other groups of poets+ the

etaphysical Poets （ Ÿ ¡ ） and the Ca,alier

Poets（¢)¡）.

. etaphysical Poets

*he etaphysical Poets appeared in England at a5out

the 5eginning of the 1Dth century+ due to the a5sence of

any fixed standard of literary criticis#.

*he early 1Dth century (as an age of transition+ of

conscious change. 0n literature+ there is also a tendency

to in,estigate no,elties+ Fust as in the spirit of science.

*he ter# ?#etaphysical poetry@ is co##only used todesignate the (or2s of the 1Dth century (riters (ho

(rote under the influence of Gohn onne. Pressured 5y

the harsh+ unco#forta5le and curious age+ the

#etaphysical poets sought to replace the old 5eliefs (ith

ne( philosophies+ ne( sciences+ ne( (orld and ne(poetry. *hus+ (ith a re5ellious spirit+ they tried to 5rea2

a(ay for# the con,entional fashion of EliBa5ethan lo,e

poetry+ in particular the sonnet tradition+ and fa,ored in

poetry a #ore colloquial language+ a single-#inded

(or2ing of one the#e. *he #etaphysical poets are not

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finally to 5e characteriBed 5y their spo2en+ colloquial

diction+ 5ut rather 5y a pointed (it that #ay find its

focus in conceits of a special type+ (hich are used to

connect the a5stract (ith the concrete+ the re#ote (ith

the near+ and the su5li#e (ith the co##onplace.

*hey tended to logically reason the things+ esp.

e#otions+ psychologically analyBe the e#otions of lo,e

and religion+ use the #etaphysical conceits+ and ignore

the con,entional de,ices. *he (or2s of these poets are

characteriBed 5y #ysticis# in content and fantasticality

in for#.

Gohn onne $1s poetry had great influence on the poets of his

ti#e and the poets of later ti#es. )e is still the o5Fect of

study for scholars up to this day.

7eorge )er5ert $1


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sing the glory of 7od. )e descri5ed his Foys+ fears and

dou5ts in a sy#5olic (ay: any of his poe#s are

o,erloaded (ith the conceits+ too o5scure to 5e

appreciated. )is chief (or2 is a collection called The

Temple+ (hich includes his 1%& short poe#s.

4. Literature of the !estoration

0n literature of the !estoration+ (e note a sudden

5rea2ing a(ay fro# old standards. 0n the puritan days+

#any of the literary #en ha,e 5een dri,en out of

England (ith Charles 00 and his court. On their return

they renounced old ideals and de#anded that English

poetry and dra#a should follo( 3rench style. *hey

5egan to i#itate the 3rench (riters+ so the so-called

period of 3rench influence 5egan. *his influence sho(ed

itself in English literature for the next century.

*he early !estoration (riters sought to paint realistic

pictures of a corrupt society. *hey e#phasiBed ,ices

rather than ,irtues. *hey produced coarse+ lo( plays

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(ithout interest or #oral significance. Later+ this

tendency to realis# 5eca#e #ore (holeso#e. Another

tendency in literature of this age (as to(ard directness

and si#plicity of expression. *o this tendency+ English

literature is greatly inde5ted. 3ro# 3rance the (riters

5rought 5ac2 this tendency. *hey regarded esta5lished

rules for (riting+ to e#phasiBe close reasoning rather

than ro#antic fancy+ to use short and clean cut

sentences (ithout an unnecessary (ord.

Another thing in !estoration literature is the adoption

of the heroic couplet+ that is+ t(o ia#5ic penta#eter

lines (hich ri#e together+ as the #ost suita5le for# of poetry. 6aller+ the #ost noted poet of the !estoration

Period+ 5egan to use it in 1%4. *herefore+ 6aller is

generally regarded as the father of the heroic couplet.

6aller and his pupil ryden #ade the couplet the

pre,ailing literary fashion. 0t (as do#inant in Englandfor a full century. 0t (as used 5y later (riters+ such as

Pope+ 7olds#ith and yron. *hese four things: the

tendency to ,ulgar realis# in the dra#a+ a general

for#alis#+ the de,elop#ent of a si#pler and #ore

direct prose style+ and the pre,alence of the heroic

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couplet in poetry are the #ain characteristics of

!estoration literature. *hey are all exe#plified in the

(or2s of one #an+ Gohn ryden.

8. Gohn ilton $1%&'-1%D8"

Life

ilton is the greatest (riter of the se,enteenth

century+ and one of the giants in English literature. 0n

his life and literary career the t(o do#inant historical

#o,e#ents of !enaissance and !efor#ation co#5ine

and recei,e their #ost intense and intelligent expression.

)e to(ers o,er his age as Sha2espeare to(ers o,er theEliBa5ethan age+ and as Chaucer to(ers o,er the

#edie,al period.

ilton (as 5orn in London. )is father (as a

prosperous scri,ener+ a Puritan and a lo,er of #usic and

literature. )is education 5egan at St. Paul>s school+(here he sho(ed fro# the 5eginning a talent for

#astering the ancient languages and literatures: 7ree2+

Latin. )e (ent on to distinguish hi#self at Ca#5ridge

Jni,ersity+ (here he graduated . A. in 1%=+ and . A.

in 1%4. )e #ight (ell ha,e entered the #inistry upon

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co#pleting his for#al studies. ut ilton decided that

he had still not fully equipped hi#self for the (or2 he

(as capa5le of perfor#ing+ and he retired for fi,e years

to his father>s country house in uc2ingha#shire+ (here

he read ,irtually all there (as to read of ancient and

#odern (ritings. )is poetic co#positions ca#e only

occasionally during this period of intense pri,ate study.

ut 5asically during this period ilton (as preparing

hi#self for #ore a#5itious underta2ings+ in religion and

politics as (ell as in poetry. 0n 1%4' he left England to

co#plete his education (ith t(o years of tra,el in

Europe+ 3rance+ S(itBerland and 0taly. 6hen hereturned ho#e in 1%4=+ England (as on the ,erge of a

ci,il (ar.

After his return to England+ he soon plunged hi#self

into the struggle for (hich he had long 5een preparing.

)e ga,e all his energies to the (riting of pa#phletsdedicated to the people;s li5erty. At that ti#e+ the

Church of England (as the #aFor 5ul(ar2 of the

#onarchy. ilton (as stirred 5y the contro,ersy and

(rote a series of pa#phlets headed 5y ,f 5eformation in

Englan"1 in (hich he urged the necessity of a thorough

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religious refor#. After the !e,olution succeeded+ and

the co##on(ealth (as esta5lished+ ilton 5eca#e

Latin Secretary to the council of 3oreign Affairs in 1%8=.

)e (rote a nu#5er of pa#phlets defending the English

re,olution+ such as 3efence of the English People+ and

Secon" 3efence of the English People. 0n these

pa#phlets he attac2ed the ene#y (ithout #ercy. )e

played an acti,e role in pu5lic affairs during the Ci,il

6ar and the Co##on(ealth. Jntil the end of the

Co##on(ealth+ there (ere t(o leaders in England+

Cro#(ell the #an of action+ and ilton the #an of

thought.ilton (as #arried to ary Po(ell in Gune 1%8+ 5ut

the #arriage pro,ed to an unhappy one. *he Po(ell

fa#ily (as strongly royalist and ary (as not a5le to

share his political ,ie(s. Six (ee2s after the #arriage

she left to return to her parents+ and for se,eral yearsilton issued pa#phlets in (hich he argued that all

English#en should ha,e the right to get a di,orce.

uite understanda5ly+ ilton gained the reputation of

5eing a political radical during the !e,olution Period. 0t

(as (hile he (as engaged in this proFect that ilton

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(ent 5lind in 1%s go,ern#ent.

6ith the !estoration of the #onarchy in 1%%&+ ilton

not only (as confronted (ith the collapse of the cause to

(hich he had gi,en so #uch+ 5ut also (as i#prisoned

and threatened (ith execution. *hrough the

inter,ention of so#e friends (ho carried so#e influence

(ith the ne( royal go,ern#ent+ ilton (as let off (ith a

fine and so#e loss of property. Shortly after(ard+ li,ingin 5lindness and ,irtual seclusion fro# all 5ut the

#e#5ers of his i##ediate fa#ily+ ilton 5egan his

#asterpiece Para"ise ost . efore his death ilton

pu5lished t(o other (or2s on a grand scale+ Para"ise

5egaine" and Samson Agonistes. oth appeared in 1%D1Hneither is as successful as Para"ise ost . ilton died in

1%D8+11+'.

6or2s:

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Paradise Lost *66/

Para"ise 5egaine" 1%D1

Samson Agonistes 1%D1

1" Para"ise ost

Para"ise ost is ilton>s #asterpiece+ and the greatest

English epic. 0t is a long epic in 1 5oo2s+ done in 5lan2

,erse. *he stories (ere ta2en fro# the Old *esta#ent:

the creationHthe re5ellion in )ea,en of Satan and his

fello(-angelsH their defeat and expulsion fro# )ea,enH

the creation of the earth and of Ada# and E,eH the

fallen angels in hell plotting against 7odH Satan>ste#ptation of E,eH the departure of Ada# and E,e fro#

EdenH and the possi5le sal,ation.

A.*he#e and CharacteriBation

*he poe#+ as (e are told at the outset+ (as Ito Fustify

the (ays of 7od to #anI+ and the reader soon gets thei#pression that the #ain idea of the poe# is the heroic

re,olt against 7od>s authority.

0n the poe# 7od is no 5etter than a selfish despot（£

¤，˜¥"） + seated upon a throne (ith a chorus of

angels a5out hi# eternally singing his praises. )e is

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cruel and unFust in his struggle against and punishing

Satan. )is angels are silly. 0t has 5een noted 5y #any

critics that the picture of 7od surrounded 5y his angels+

(ho ne,er thin2 of expressing any opinions of their o(n+

and (ho indeed ne,er see# to ha,e any opinion of their

o(n+ rese#5les the court of an a5solute #onarch. 6hile

the re5el Satan (ho rises against 7od and+ though

defeated+ still see2s for re,enge+ is 5y far the #ost

stri2ing character in the poe#. Satan and his follo(ers

(ho freely discuss all issues in council 5ear close

rese#5lance to a repu5lican Parlia#ent. *his epic

expresses the reactionary forces of his ti#e and sho(spassionate appeal for freedo#.

6hat #a2es Para"ise ost a po(erful poe# is

precisely the (ay in (hich the i5lical past is pulled into

the present in an intriguing (ay. !unning through the

poe# are the 2ey political questions of freedo# and Fustice. *hese 5egin in oo2 1 (hen the fallen angels

de5ate (hat to do next. 3ro# the perspecti,e of Satan

and his follo(ers+ re5ellion against 7od (as ine,ita5le.

)ea,en de#anded o5edience and ser,itude. *he re,olt

#ay ha,e failed+ 5ut it has left the# their freedo#.

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3reedo# here #ay see# heroic+ defiant and attracti,e+

5ut it is clear that the fallen angels ha,e also lost their

for#er glory. ilton does 5la#e E,e for (anting to gain

2no(ledge and equality (ith Ada#+ and 5la#e Ada#

for ta2ing the fruit and Foining her in sin. Ket ilton

2no(s that Ada# and E,e act of their o(n free (ill. *he

final i#age of the poe# is profoundly for(ard-loo2ing+

an i#age of gain through loss. As Ada# and E,e go

hand in hand out of Eden+ the loss of Paradise is seen as

the gain of a future for hu#anity on earth.

*he 0#age of Satan*he finest thing in Para"ise ost is the description of

hell+ and Satan is the real hero of the poe#. As a

conquered and 5anished giant+ he re#ains o5eyed and

ad#ired 5y those (ho follo( hi# do(n to hell. )e is

fir#er than the rest of the fallen angels. 0t is he (ho+o,erco#ing so #any o5stacles+ #a2es #an re,olt

against 7od. *hough defeated+ he pre,ails+ since he has

(on fro# 7od the third part of his angels+ and al#ost

all the sons of Ada#.

)e prefers independence to ser,ility+ and (elco#es his

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defeat and his tor#ents as a glory+ a li5erty and a Foy. *o

ilton+ the proud Satan represented the spirit of

re5ellion against an unFust authority. y using Satan as

his #outhpiece+ ilton is uttering his intense hatred of

tyranny in the capacity of the !e,olutionary.

" Para"ise 5egaine"

0t explores the the#e of te#ptation and fall: in this

case+ it is the te#pting of Gesus 5y Satan to pro,e his

godhead.

4" Samson AgonistesSamson Agonistes is a poetical dra#a #odeled on the

7ree2 tragedy. *he story (as ta2en fro# the Old

*esta#ent. Sa#son (as an athlete of the 0sraelites. )e

stood as their cha#pion+ fighting for the freedo# of his

country. ut he (as 5etrayed 5y his (ife and 5linded 5yhis ene#ies the Philistines.

0n this poetical dra#a+ ilton is telling us his o(n

story. Li2e Sa#son+ he has 5een 5etrayed 5y his (ife. )e

has suffered fro# 5lindness and 5een scorned 5y his

ene#ies+ and yet he has struggled heroically against his

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ene#ies. Sa#son;s #isera5le 5lind ser,itude a#ong his

ene#ies+ his longing for sight and freedo#+ and the last

terri5le triu#ph are all allusions to the poet;s o(n story.

So the (hole poe# strongly suggests ilton>s passionate

longing that he too could 5ring destruction do(n upon

the ene#y at the cost of his o(n life. Sa#son is ilton.

8" 3eatures of ilton>s Poetry

A. ilton is a great re,olutionary poet of the 1Dth

century. )e is also an outstanding political pa#phleteer

of the !e,olution period. )e dedicated hi#self to the

re,olutionary cause. )e #ade a strong influence on thelater English poetry. E,ery progressi,e English poet

since ilton has dra(n inspiration fro# hi#.

. ilton is a great stylist. )is poetry has a grand

style. *hat is 5ecause he #ade a life-long study of

classical and i5lical literature. )is poetry is noted forsu5li#ity of thought and #aFesty of expression.

C. ilton is a great #aster of 5lan2 ,erse. )e is the

glorious pioneer to introduce 5lan2 ,erse into non-

dra#atic poetry. )e has used it as the #ain tool in his

#asterpiece Para"ise ost. )is 5lan2 ,erse is rich in

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e,ery poetic quality.

. ilton (rote the greatest epic in English literature.

)e #ade a strong influence o later English poetry.


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i#agination. )e 5egan to read the i5le. P.1%%

unyan li,ed at a ti#e (hen political struggles

adopted the for# of religious struggles. *he pulpit (as

then controlled 5y the aristocratic and 5ourgeois classes+

(hile the poor #asses also insisted on their o(n right to

thin2 and preach their o(n religion. So there sprang up

all 2inds of dissenting sects (ho+ in pulpit or #ar2et

place+ infla#ed the hearts of the discontented #asses+

re,ealed the corruption of church+ society and state+ and

inspired the poor in a religious language. unyan Foined

a aptist society of edford and 5egan to preach a#ong

the ,illagers (ith po(erful effect. )e preached the truthas he sa( it and directed his attac2s against social

a5uses and the oppressors of the poor+ the court and the

5ourgeoisie.

0n 1%%&+ Puritans lost the pri,ilege of freedo# of

(orship. After the !estoration+ he (as i#prisoned forrefusing to o5ey the la( prohi5iting religious #eetings.

Although he re#ained in Fail for t(el,e years+ unyan

continued to preach to his fello( prisoners and to (rite

religious 5oo2s. )e (as released and allo(ed to 5eco#e

the pastor of a church in edford+ 5ut in 1%D< he (as

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i#prisoned again. 0t (as during this second

i#prison#ent that he (rote his #ost i#portant (or2+

The Pilgrim%s Progress.

O,er the centuries the 5oo2 has 5een the #ost (idely

read during the Puritan Age+ and one of the #ost

popular pieces of Christian culture e,er to appear in

English.

The Pilgrim%s Progress is an allegory+ a narrati,e in

(hich general concepts such as sin+ despair+ and faith

are represented as people or as aspects of the natural

(orld. *he (orld;s literature has three great allegories:

The Faerie 9ueene+ ante;s 3i8ine ome"y and Pilgrim7s Progress. *he first appeals to the poets+ the

second to the scholars+ and the third to the co##on

religious people of e,ery age and condition. 0t e,entually

5eca#e the #ost (idely read 5oo2 in English after the

5i5le.The Pilgrim%s Progress tells of a religious #an;s search

for sal,ation+ and gi,es a truthful picture of English

society. *he 5asis of the allegorical narrati,e is the idea

of a Fourney. *he tra,eler>s na#e is Christian+ and he

represents e,ery Christian in hu#an (orld. *he figures

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and places Christian encounters on his Fourney stand for

the ,arious experiences e,ery Christian #ust go through

in the quest for sal,ation.

*he (hole 5oo2 falls into t(o parts. At the 5eginning

of the first part the author tells us that he has a drea#.

0n his drea#+ he notices a #an called Christian carrying

a 5ag of sins on his 5ac2 and reading the i5le. 3ro#

the 5oo2 Christian gets to 2no( that his ho#e city (ill

5e destroyed so#eday in a 5ig fire. *hen on the ad,ice of

the E,angelistR音¦道" + he flees a(ay fro# his ho#e

city -- the city of estruction.

Christian+ soon after the (ay has 5een pointed out tohi#+ falls into the Slough of espond § ¨ + (hich

represents the depression (hich o,erco#es the ne(

con,ert (hen he has passed the stage of first

enthusias#H later he has to pass through phases of

spiritual despair and terror+ sy#5oliBed 5y the alleys of )u#iliation and the Shado( of eathH he has to face the

derision and anger of pu5lic opinion in the to(n of

anity 3air+ and so on. Part One #ainly descri5es his

pilgri#age through the Slough of espond+ anity 3air+

ou5ting Castle+ the alley of )u#iliation+ and the

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alley of the Shado( of eath. On the (ay he

o,erco#es #any o5stacles and encounters ,arious

allegorical personages+ such as r. 6orldly 6ise#an+

3aithful+ )opeful+ 7iant espair+ the foul fiend Apollyon

and so#e others. 3inally he acco#plishes his Fourney

and arri,es at the )oly City.

*he secret of the success of The Pilgrim7s Progress is

pro5a5ly si#ple. 0ts predo#inant #etaphor --- life as a

Fourney --- is si#ple and fa#iliar. *he o5Fects Christian

#eets are ho#ely and co##onplace+ and the scenes

presented are typical English scenes+ 5ut throughout the

allegory a spiritual significance is added to theco##onplace details.

All classes of #en read it 5ecause they found in it a

true personal experience told (ith strength+ interest and

hu#or.

*he 5est-2no(n section of Part One in this 5oo2 is theanity 3air episode. Christian+ the hero+ and his

co#panion+ 3aithful+ are passing through a to(n called

anity during the season of the local fair. On the anity

3air+ honors+ titles+ 2ingdo#s+ lusts+ pleasures and li,es

can 5e sold or 5ought+ and cheating+ #urder and

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in Asia+ Africa and /orth A#erica+ and a

continuous increase of colonial (ealth and

trade pro,ided England (ith a #ar2et for

(hich the s#all-scale+ #anual production

#ethods of the ho#e industry (ere hardly

adequate. All these created not only a great

de#and for large quantities of #anufactured

goods 5ut also standardiBed goods #ade in

ritain. *his (as the 5asic cause of the

0ndustrial !e,olution+ of the in,ention of

textile #achines and other 2inds of

#achinery.At ho#e in the country+ Acts of Enclosure

(ere putting #ore lands into the hands of

fe(er pri,ileged rich lando(ners and forcing

thousands of s#all far#ers and tenants off

their land to 5eco#e (age earners inindustrial to(ns. As a result+ there appeared

a #ar2et of free la5or anal free capital+ thus

pro,iding the essential conditions for the

rising of 0ndustrial !e,olution. So+ to(ards

the #iddle of the 1=th century+ England had

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5eco#e the first po(erful capitalist country+

the (or2-shop of the (orld+ flooding the

#ar2ets 5oth at ho#e and a5road (ith its

#anufactured goods.

*hese changes+ 5oth political and social+

enriched the 5ourgeoisie and the aristocracy

(ho ruled the country+ 5ut 5rought great

#iseries to the #aFority of the people in

England+ Scotland+ and 0relandH and in the

colonies. Popular uprisings again and again

hit 0relandH in Scotland people (ere

threatening of independence fro# the ritishgo,ern#entH and the A#erican people

started their 6ar of 0ndependence in 1DD%

and finally 5ro2e a(ay fro# the ritish

go,ern#ent.

As England (as gro(ing into a po(erfulindustrial country+ it also (itnessed the rapid

gro(th of the 5ourgeois #iddle class at

ho#e. *hese- (ere #ainly city people:

traders+ #erchants+ #anufacturers+ and

other ad,enturers such as sla,e-traders and

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colonists. *hey 5eca#e the 5ac25one of the

fast de,eloping England. As the 0ndustrial

!e,olution (ent on in its full s(ing+ #ore

and #ore people Foined the ran2 of the

#iddle class. 0t (as a re,olutionary class

then and quite different fro# the feudal-

aristocratic class. *hey (ere the people (ho

had 2no(n po,erty and hardship+ and #ost

of the# had o5tained their present social

status through #uch hard (or2. orally+

they stressed the ,irtues of self-discipline+

thrift and hard (or2. 3or the#+ to (or2 andto accu#ulate (ealth constituted the (hole

#eaning of their life.

. Cultural ac2ground

1. Enlighten#ent*he Enlighten#ent (as a progressi,e

intellectual #o,e#ent throughout 6estern

Europe in the 1'th century. 0t (as an

expression of struggle of the 5ourgeoisie

against feudalis#. *he enlighteners fought

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against class inequality+ stagnation+

preFudices and other sur,i,als of feudalis#.

*hey thought the chief #eans for 5ettering

the society (as Ienlighten#entI or

IeducationI for the people. *he English

enlighteners (ere 5ourgeois de#ocratic

thin2ers. *hey (ere different fro# those of

3rance+ for they appeared not 5efore 5ut

after the 5ourgeois re,olution. *hey set no

re,olutionary ai# 5efore the# and (hat

they stro,e for (as to carry the re,olution

through to an end.ost of the English (riters (ere

enlighteners. *hey fell into t(o groups-the

#oderate group and the radical group. *he

#ore #oderate enlighteners supported the

principles of the existing social order andconsidered that partial refor#s (ould 5e

sufficient. 0n thi

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