Historic Buildings

Historic Buildings The original version of this book was written by Goolbai Gunasekara, Principal of the Asian International School, for students on the pre-University General English Language Training Programme conducted by the University Grants Commission. The programme was coordinated by Mrs Oranee Jansz and Prof Rajiva Wijesinha who added the exercises. Though the programme was closed down, Mrs Gunasekara kindly agreed to add more material, so that the book now covers all areas of the world and a wider range of historical periods, while more exercises have been added to develop more language competencies.

The Pyramids of Egypt 3rd to the 1st millennium BC

Everyone has seen pictures of the Pyramids. Earlier, historians thought that these large structures, so many of which can still be seen in Egypt, were only used as tombs for great kings. We have now found that pyramids had a much greater function, which will be discussed later. In fact pyramids probably had many functions.

The ancient Greek Historian Herodotus called Egypt the ‘Gift of the Nile’. Even today, the Nile river is very important to Egyptians. Although there is little rain in Egypt, the flooding of the river every year makes the Nile Valley a fertile ground. This made it attractive to settlers, and so began the Egyptian Nation. Ancient Egypt was ruled by the Pharaohs. Little was known about ancient Egypt, largely because no one could understand their hieroglyphics, or picture writing. Then in 1799, when Napoleon invaded Egypt, a group of soldiers discovered, among some ruins, a stone with writing on it that they soon realized was very special. That stone is known as the Rosetta Stone, and on it were Greek letters and Egyptian hieroglyphics. A French Scholar, Jean Champollion, used this to unlock the mystery of Egyptian writing and so opened the way for the study of Egyptian History.

The first pyramid was built by Zoser and his clever Minister Imhotep. It is called the ‘Step Pyramid’.

In 2613 BC Pharaohs began to build pyramids in earnest. The biggest pyramid is called the Great Pyramid and stands in Giza. The King who built it was Khufu, or Cheops. His name means ‘Smasher of Foreheads’. He was a very strict ruler as his name shows.

Herodotus made a guess and said that the Great Pyramid must have taken 20,000 men and 20 years to build. His guess is not accurate. It is hard to say how the pyramids were built. It would be almost impossible to build them even with modern technology. How did ancient Egyptians build them? They are the biggest buildings in the world today. Some people even say that aliens built them. Some of the stone blocks weigh 5,000 pounds and were brought from very far away. Some were brought by boat and weighed 30 tons. Each block used to build the Great Pyramid was perfectly cut. They fitted so beautifully together that even today a blade cannot be slipped between the stones. In the days of the Pharaohs the pyramids had a smooth outside of white marble. There was a band of pink at the bottom and the top block was of gold. This art of building pyramids is still a mystery to us. The pyramid has a lot of other mysteries. Here is one of them. The structure of the pyramid has healing powers. If you are sick and you lie in a small pyramid-like building, you will get well. Another mystery is that nothing seems to decay in a pyramid. Bodies of dead animals found in the passages of pyramids become dry but they do not rot.

A Czechoslovakian manufacturer found that if you put used blades into a tiny pyramid the blade could be used for double the time. It became sharp again when placed inside the pyramid. So we must believe that the pyramid structure has almost magical qualities. The bases of the pyramids are said to be aligned with the solar system. Pyramids may have been used to find the dates of the Equinoxes. Astronomers find the pyramids very interesting. The more they study the pyramids, the more there is to learn about them. Bodies of many ancient Pharaohs were found inside the tombs. The Egyptians believed that after death the spirit lived on in the body. So they tried to preserve the body and keep all the royal treasure with it. The builders of the pyramids made lots of secret passages so that thieves could not steal the gold and silver buried inside. Sometimes the architect of the pyramid was put to death so that he could not tell anyone where the Pharaoh was buried. Unfortunately the treasure was often found and stolen though the bodies were left. However most of the treasures of the Pharaoh Tutankhamen’s (1361-1351 BC) remained intact, until they were discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter, an English Archaeologist. These can be seen at the Cairo Museum.

At the time Tutankhamen’s treasures were discovered, it was said that they had remained untouched because there was a curse on anyone who disturbed them. Many of those involved in Carter’s expedition died within a few years of the discovery. Some people still refer now to Tutankhamen’s Curse as the cause of these deaths.

It is interesting to know that pyramids do not belong to Egypt alone. Pyramids have been found in South America, in a completely different continent. How did such similar structures arise in two places so far away from each other? Was there contact between the two continents of Africa and South America? Were there boats sailing these oceans so long ago? Were the legends of Atlantis the Lost Continent true? These are some of history’s mysteries. A few people have wondered if the Egyptians knew the art of levitation, which is the method of lifting objects using only the mind. It seems a very silly thing to believe, and yet there is no better explanation for these amazing architectural miracles. Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary

1. Give in your own words the meaning of the words or phrases that are highlighted.

2. To what do the pronouns in italics refer?

3. Divide the proper nouns in this passage into those that name people, those that name places, and those that describe a special type of place or person. Which proper nouns are used as adjectives? Are there any proper nouns that name things?

4. Identify three adjectival clauses and three adverbial clauses in the first five paragraphs.

5. Identify five noun clauses in the last five paragraphs.

Comprehension and Further Activities

6. Name three functions of the pyramids. 7. In what other river valleys did ancient civilizations begin? Mark these, together with

Egypt, on a map of the world. 8. Write down briefly in your own words the main point of each of the paragraphs in this

passage. Which paragraphs deal mainly with the building of the pyramids, and which with their functions?

9. What are the Equinoxes? What is the name given to the other significant days of the

year that mark particular stages in the circling of the earth round the sun?

10. Discuss in your groups what makes people think of aliens and curses and spirit life in talking about the pyramids. Can you give examples of similar tales of supernatural phenomena from areas within your own experience?

11. Working in pairs, write down in point form the instructions given by Zoser to Imhotep,

and the concept paper prepared by Imhotep for Zoser, regarding the building of the Step Pyramid.

12. Discuss why people want grand tombs and why treasures were buried in them.

The Parthenon in Greece 447-438 BC

Greece is one of the three peninsulas extending into the Mediterranean Sea in the south of Europe. The capital of modern Greece is Athens. It is a very old city and dates back to a time long before the Birth of Christ, according to which we divide time into BC and AD. In that early period, Greece consisted of different city-states. Each was independent of the other. The two strongest city-states were Athens and Sparta. In those days, most developed areas were river valley civilizations, established around rivers in fertile areas that were good for agriculture.

These civilizations were generally kingdoms, with power in the hands of a single person. In Greece however, there was more participation by the people in government, and it is from the Greeks that we get our idea of democracy. The word democracy comes from two Greek words, ‘demos’ which means people and ‘kratos’ which means power. The concept of democracy was most developed in Athens. All Athenian citizens used to come to a hill in Athens every nine days to argue, make speeches and vote. Being a citizen meant more than voting. It meant holding office in government, and also acting as a juror, that is participating in making decisions in the courts. Every citizen was expected at some stage in his life to do his share of duty as an office holder and a juror, and to make sure this happened many such positions were allocated by lot, rather than by election. However this form of democracy was not perfect. The Athenian idea of a citizen was not the same as today. Only men were considered citizens. Women and slaves, as well as foreigners, could never be citizens. Since the men made up little more than half the population, this system cannot be described as fully democratic. The hill they met at is called the Acropolis. The Acropolis was made very beautiful, specially during the time of Pericles, a wise Athenian leader who lived from around 495 to 429 BC. He ruled in Athens during what is called its ‘Golden Age’. During his time he had the famous Parthenon built. This period also marked the development of the Athenian empire, which included almost all the islands between Greece and the western part of Asia, called Asia Minor.

The Empire arose when the Greeks defeated the Persians, whose empire had extended from present day Iran to the shores of the Mediterranean. Amongst their conquests were many islands inhabited by Greeks. When Persia was defeated in its attempt to conquer Greece too, the islands rose in revolt and asked mainland Greece to help them. Sparta which was not keen on new adventures refused, but the Athenians got involved and helped in what they called freeing their fellow Greeks. However they then wanted to control these islands themselves, and so they built up their own empire. Through this empire they also developed their own trade routes to the east, and in fact established some commercial contacts

with Persia and countries further east as well. The Parthenon was a temple dedicated to Athena, the chief goddess of Athens. It was built between 447 and 438 BC, with money that the Athenians collected from their empire. Initially this money had been collected as contributions to common defence purposes, but Pericles used this money as though it belonged entirely to Athens.

Inside the Parthenon was a statue of Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. This was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Athena represented wisdom, and the Athenians prided themselves on their learning and their educational system. The Greeks believed in simplicity. They felt that ‘understatement was elegance’. This means that real fashion is always simple. Even their buildings were built with this saying in mind. They used tall columns. These were of three types of architecture: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The pillars of the Parthenon look perfectly straight but actually they slant inward just a little. This gives the impression of perfect straightness. If the columns did not do this, they would look as if they were slanting outward.

Pericles had a frieze done just above the entrance to the Parthenon by an artist called Phidias. This frieze is regarded as one of the best works of art in the world. Some of the sculptures of the Parthenon were taken to Britain in the 19th century, when Greece was just emerging from the control of the Turkish Empire, and required assistance from Britain to win and maintain its independence. Now Greece is trying to get back these sculptures, known as the Elgin Marbles, but Britain is unwilling to return them, since they are amongst the most treasured exhibits of the British Museum. Today the Parthenon and other buildings on the Acropolis are in danger. Pollution in the form of acid rain is eating away at the lovely building. New cracks are appearing in the walls and steps. After lasting two and a half thousands years, they now face the dangers of tourism and pollution. Fortunately the Government of Greece is doing its best to protect this great building. Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary

1. Give in your own words the meaning of the words or phrases that are highlighted.

2. To what do the pronouns in italics refer?


4. Find three adverbial phrases of time, beginning with different prepositions, in the first five

paragraphs.

5. Find three adverbial phrases of place, beginning with different prepositions, in the last five paragraphs.


6. Name three other types of government. What is the meaning of ‘archy’, which is also used in the second part of words describing types of government?

7. What are the other peninsulas of Southern Europe? Mark these, together with Greece and

Athens and Sparta and Persia on your map of the world. What is the modern name for Persia?

8. Write down briefly in your own words the main point of each of the paragraphs in this passage. Which paragraphs deal mainly with Greece or Athens, which with the Parthenon, and which with the situation now?

9. What sort of government did Sparta have? What was their main safeguard against one man rule?

10. Find out about three Greeks famous for learning and write a short paragraph about each.

11. Do you agree that elegance requires understatement? Discuss with reference to a building that

you consider beautiful.

12. What are the threats in Sri Lanka now to ancient buildings, and what is being done about these?

The Great Wall of China 3rd century BC

The Great Wall of China is said to be the only man made object we can see from space. It stretches 1400 miles over mountains, plains and rivers. It was built by Emperor Shih Huang Ti around the year 214 BC. China’s history was always influenced by geography. It is a very large country. This has made it very difficult to conquer, but also very difficult to unite. China is protected from invaders by mountains in the South and West. However, no such protection exists in the North. When Shih Huang Ti became king, he was determined to create a nation and rule as a strong king. He realized though, that he could not unite China through force alone. So he ordered all the rulers of the little Kingdoms, into which the country was divided, to live at his capital. This way he was able to keep an eye on them. He also won the loyalty of the peasants by allowing them to own the land they work on. But Shih Huang Ti was also a cruel king. He killed anyone who criticized him.

460 scholars were buried alive because they had dared to tell him he was wrong. He burnt their books and sent other scholars to work on his wall. The wall began because of a dream which Shih Huang Ti had. He dreamt that barbarians from the North would invade his country unless he built a great wall. He collected 300,000 workmen, peasants and prisoners and made them into a construction team. Work on the wall began. The work was very hard and the workers were badly treated. Many of them died of starvation and weakness. They were buried inside the wall and stones laid around their bodies. The Great Wall has therefore been called ‘The longest graveyard in the world’. The Emperor had heard something else about the wall. Some soothsayer had told him that unless 10,000 people were buried in the wall it would not be finished. There is a story that the cruel Emperor found a man whose name Wan meant 10,000. He buried him in the rampart and the work continued. The Great Wall is 20 feet high. The towers are 44 feet high and are spaced at intervals along the Wall. There were higher towers called Beacon Towers. Messages could be sent from beacon to beacon in a very short time. The Wall itself was used as a road to transport troops and provisions across the country. A full army was stationed across the entire Wall and China was safe from invaders for many years.

When Shih Huang Ti died there were few to weep at his funeral. He was buried in an elegant tomb, but all were glad that his strict rule had come to an end. However he had done many things for China, the most important being uniting the country. In fact no other nation can boast of having been united over a period of 2,000 years. After him, other emperors added to and strengthened the Great Wall. The Great Wall was a magnificent feat of civil engineering and parts of it stand even today. It is probably China’s greatest tourist attraction, drawing thousands of visitors each year.

Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary

1. Give in your own words the meaning, as used in the passage, of the words or phrases that are highlighted.

2. To what do the pronouns or other words in italics refer?


4. Identify the clauses or sentences in this passage that give results that are unexpected, or reasons

that did not lead to the expected result. What are the conjunctions or connecting words that introduce these clauses or sentences?

5. Find three noun clauses in this passage, that are themselves modified by adverbial or adjectival

clauses. Comprehension and Further Activities

6. Describe three ways in which Shi Huang Ti fulfilled his main determination. 7. Mark the main rivers and mountains of China on your map of the world, together with China’s

neighbours, including those separated from it by sea.

8. What are China’s neighbours to the west? Which of these people succeeded in breaking through the Great Wall, and what happened then to the Chinese Empire?

9. Write down briefly in your own words the main point of each of the paragraphs in this passage.

Which paragraphs deal mainly with Shi Huang Ti and which with the Great Wall?

10. Describe briefly the main uses of the Great Wall.

11. Find out about a famous Chinese who lived before Shi Huang Ti, and write a brief paragraph about him.

12. Evaluate, giving weight to both positive and negative points, Shi Huang Ti’s contribution to China.

Hagia Sophia in Istanbul Between 4th and 6th centuries AD / 15th century AD

Hagia Sophia is a building that has changed much over the years. It is in Istanbul, which was earlier called Constantinople, and before that Byzantium. Byzantium had been a Greek city, established by Greeks who went into the Black Sea to trade. They needed a stopping place on the way, at a place where they could control entry into the Black Sea. Byzantium was therefore situated at the narrowest point of the straits that join the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, and separate Europe from Asia. Istanbul then developed over the centuries into a unique city, with half of it in Asia and the other half in

Europe. It is at the crossroads of two great continents and many great cultures. Byzantium was conquered by the Romans when they established their empire over the entire Mediterranean region, and it became more and more important as Roman commerce with Asia developed. At the beginning of the 4th century AD the Roman Emperor Constantine made it the capital of the Empire. He renamed the city Constantinople. He also became a Christian and made Christianity the official religion of the empire, and in 307 AD he built a church in his new capital. It was on the site of that church that another great emperor of Constantinople, somewhere around 537 AD, built a much more elaborate church, that was known as Hagia Sophia. . Justinian (527-563 AD) was an unusual King. He was married to a beautiful woman named Theodora. She had been a performer in the circus before she became Queen. During a riot the old church was destroyed. Justinian set about rebuilding the church on a grand scale, for which he hired two of the most famous architects of that period. Constantinople, we must remember, was the center of European and Christian civilization at that time. The Roman empire had been divided into two by one of Constantine’s successors, since it faced many threats and it was thought two smaller areas would be easier to administer and defend. But towards the end of the 4th century AD the western part of the Roman empire had been taken over by various tribes from Northern Europe who were comparatively less civilized. Though Rome still continued a Christian city, Constantinople was clearly the dominant centre of Christian culture at that time, and Justinian tried to symbolize this importance through his new church.

Hagia means Holy in Greek, and Sophia, which is also used as a girl’s name, means wisdom. Hagia Sophia, which therefore means ‘The Church of Holy Wisdom’, is the most beautiful building of Byzantine culture. It has a huge dome which is set on beautifully proportioned walls that create a sense of simple elegance. The inside of the church, or the cathedral as the most important church in a city is called, was brilliantly lit up. It sparkled with gold pictures. Precious stones and metals were used to decorate the inside walls. The dome of the church can be seen from the Bosphorus, the river that flows through the city of Istanbul.

Hagia Sophia was one of the world’s most impressive cathedrals, and it is now one of the world’s most impressive mosques. In 1453 Constantinople was conquered by the Turks. Hagia Sophia’s statues, icons and Christian pictures were taken down. The great church was transformed into a centre of Muslim prayer, though it is smaller than many famous mosques since it is still contained within its original walls.

Constantinople continued as the capital of the Turkish Empire for nearly 5 centuries. However, Turkey lost its Arab Empire after the First World War, and also what remained of its European conquests. Though it retained Constantinople and a small area of land in Europe, the new government thought it better to move the capital to the Asian part of Turkey. Ankara therefore became the capital of Turkey, while Constantinople was renamed Istanbul. It is now not as important politically as it was for nearly two thousand years, but Istanbul is still considered one of the great cities of the world, given its history and its geographical location. The church/mosque of Hagia Sophia is its best landmark. Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary

1. Give in your own words the meaning, as used in the passage, of the words that are highlighted.



4. Select five passive voice constructions in this passage in which the agent can be identified, and

turn them into active voice sentences.

5. Find five passive voice sentences in which the agent is not or cannot be specified, and turn them into active voice sentences by using suitable words to indicate agency.


6. Mark Turkey on a map, along with three countries in Asia that became independent of Turkey in the 20th century. You may look up an encyclopaedia to find the required information.

7. Identify three countries in Europe that became independent of Turkey in the 19th century. In which

countries in Europe is Islam still a dominant religion?

8. Do you know of any other important ruler who changed his religion? Draw a chart that compares that ruler and Constantine in terms of time and place and, if you can find the information, reasons for and results of the change.

9. Find out more about Justinian and write a brief essay on his significance.


Which paragraphs deal mainly with the city and which with the church?

11. Read about Istanbul in an Encyclopaedia and write brief paragraphs about two other important buildings of that city.

12. Read about the fall of Constantinople in 1453 amd write a brief essay on the impact of this on

Europe.

Machu Picchu in South America Mediaeval period, before 16th century AD

The city of Machu Picchu is another one of history’s mysteries. It lies high up in the Andes mountains of Peru in South America. No one in the modern world had ever heard of this lost city till the 20th century. When the Spaniards conquered South America in the early 16th century, the soldiers of Spain were called Conquistadors. They were cruel and destructive. They burnt down all the beautiful cities of the Incas in Peru and the Aztec in Mexico. They killed the Inca and Aztec kings. They took all the gold of South America back to Spain. Nothing of

those civilizations exists today except the great buildings and temples which could not be destroyed by the Spanish. Fortunately for everyone, the Spaniards did not find the city of Machu Picchu. This may have been because of the difficulty in getting there. Machu Picchu is not easy to reach. The roads are not very good and it was too far away for the Conquistadors to worry about. So nobody bothered about this little city hidden away in its mountain retreat. In 1911 an archaeologist from the University of Yale discovered this lost city. It was deserted of course. Only the ruins of the stone buildings remained. One mystery of Machu Picchu is that these are made of stone, yet no stone quarry is nearby. How did the Incas carry so many heavy stone blocks up to this mountain city without modern machinery? Machu Picchu was an ancient fortress of the Incas. It is not certain when it was inhabited. It is five square miles in size, or about 17 square kilometers. It lies about 50 miles north west of Cuzco, another ruined city of the Incas that has now become a well populated modern city. Machu Picchu however remains empty of actual inhabitants, though it is a popular tourist destination. It still has, albeit after some careful restoration, a citadel, temples, houses, terraced gardens and granaries. This suggests a very organized life style. Even though the Spaniards had thought of these people whom they conquered as primitive, in fact their government, social order and religious life were extremely developed. What sort of people lived there? Who could have built a city like this so far from the plains? How were huge blocks of stone pulled up the mountains without any modern machines? How were such perfect buildings constructed? All these questions cannot be answered. Like the pyramids, the buildings of Machu Picchu cannot be explained easily. Today the city is a great tourist attraction. Though you can also get there by railway, many tourists take the Inca Trail, the path up the mountains that the ancient Incas must have used over half a millennium ago. Though the road is steep and difficult, the scenery is beautiful and, when you finally reach Machu Pichchu, you feel you are really on top of the world. It must have been a beautiful place in which to live. Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary

1. Give in your own words the meaning, as used in the passage, of the words or phrases that are

highlighted.


3. Divide the proper nouns in this passage into those that name people, those that name places, and those that describe a special type of place or person.

4. Find two adverbial clauses and a noun clause introduced by ‘when’ in this passage. 5. Identify the adjectives and the nouns amongst the underlined words. Find the corresponding noun

or adjective and use them in sentences. Note that for two of these words the noun and the adjective are the same.


6. Find out about the other great early South American civilization, and mark on your map the centers of this civilization as well as those of the Aztecs and the Incas. What countries constitute these areas now?

7. Make a chart of the periods in which these flourished, if you are able to find out the dates, and

also note on your chart other highlights of early civilizations in other parts of the world during these same periods.

8. What are the other great mountain ranges of the world? Mark the Andes and these others on your

map of the world, together with China’s neighbours, including those separated from it by sea.

9. Write down briefly in your own words the main point of each of the paragraphs in this passage. Which paragraphs deal mainly with Machu Pichchu and which with its history? In your view, to which of these aspects does the description of its situation belong?

10. Find out the names of the Europeans associated with the discovery and conquest of South

America, and write brief paragraphs about three of them.

11. Discuss in groups what sort of areas of social interaction should be well organized to allow a society to be described as developed. Present a brief group report on your conclusions.

12. Write a description, covering the various aspects mentioned in this passage, of a Sri Lankan site

that you feel has similarities to Mach Pichchu.

Angkor Wat in Cambodia c.1113-1150

Emperor Asoka of India sent Buddhist missionaries to countries like China, Burma (now known as Myanmar), Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos and Sri Lanka. Most of these countries accepted some form of Buddhism, and their art and architecture was greatly influenced by Indian art. In Indonesia the Temple of Borobudur is one such instance. In Cambodia the great Temple of Angkor Wat is a magnificent example of this influence exerted by India. A hundred years ago nobody in the modern world knew of Angkor. How had this happened? For different reasons, the city of Angkor had been left empty and,

after a few centuries the jungle grew over the temple and the city, hiding them from view. Cambodians forgot about it. Old Chinese history books spoke of a great temple in Cambodia but no one knew where it was, since no one lived in that forested area any longer. One day in 1850 a French missionary saw some old ruins in a jungle and he wrote a description of them. In 1860 an Englishman named D O King visited what he could of the ruins, and wrote an article about them. But the credit for discovering the famous old temple goes to Henry Mouhot, a French scientist who went into the jungle and lived for three weeks in the ruins of Angkor. He studied them. Scholars took notice of this newly discovered city and so the restoration of the city and of its greatest building, the temple of Angkor Wat, began. Little by little the jungle was cleared away. The rooms and statues of the temple were cleaned. Mud and earth were swept out. The lovely temple, and several others, emerged for the first time after centuries of being hidden beneath undergrowth and trees. Angkor immediately became a tourist attraction. Scholars, historians, archaeologists, diplomats and military men began to travel to Angkor to see the fabulous stone city. The monuments are being restored and preserved even today. Angkor was part of the great mediaeval Empire of the Khmers. The Khmers had originally come from Indonesia, where the great Buddhist temple of Borobudur has resemblances to the art they developed later in Cambodia. After settling on the mainland of South East Asia, the Khmers grew more powerful. Their religion shifted between Buddhism and Hinduism, which had also spread to those regions from India. Angkor was a massive city, although today much is lost. But the great temple remains more or less intact, and many other temples and buildings bear witness to the glories of that civilization. Angkor became powerful during the reign of King Suryavarman II in the 12th century. Angkor Wat began as partly a temple to Vishnu as well as a place of worship for Mahayana Buddhists. The city also had many other great kings, of whom perhaps the most famous was Jayavarman VII. He was strongly Mahayana Buddhist and under him the country of Cambodia prospered. The temples of Angkor Wat were enlarged and made even more beautiful. Jayavarman thought that his old religion, Hinduism, had brought him ill fortune, so he turned to Buddhism. Angkor Wat became a fully Buddhist shrine. The long galleries of the temple are decorated with historical scenes. Figures and mythological scenes from the life of the Gods are carved into

the stone walls of Angkor. A picture of Suryavarman and one or two other kings can also be seen in the carvings. Given its size, and the carefully crafted consistency of design, the temple of Angkor should not be compared to other structures like the Aztec buildings of South America, the Acropolis of Athens, the Taj Mahal of India or the Gothic churches of Europe. We must remember that Angkor Wat is original and unique. There is no other building like it anywhere in the world. It is a part of the cultural heritage of all mankind and it remains a very special place. Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary



3. Divide the proper nouns in this passage into those that name people, those that name places,

and those that describe a special type of place or person. Which proper nouns are used as adjectives? Are there any proper nouns that name things?

4. Identify the different clauses, including one noun clause, in the first three paragraphs of this

passage. What is the subject of the last clause of the third paragraph?

5. Find in the 6th paragraph a sentence that includes two adjectival clauses? What do these describe, and what words are used to introduce these clauses?


6. What countries belong to the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)? Which of these countries was two countries earlier, that have now reunited as one country? Which of these countries recently gave independence to a much smaller country it had conquered a few decades earlier/ Mark all these countries on your map.

7. Of the different countries of South East Asia, which are predominantly Buddhist, which Christian

and which Muslim? What are the different forms of Buddhism that are dominant in the mainly Buddhist countries? In which island, that is part of one country, is Hinduism still prominent?

8. Find on a map the main river of South East Asia. Through how many countries does it flow?

9. Which European countries owned the different countries of South East Asia during the colonial

period? When did these different countries regain their freedom?

10. Write a letter from one of the first Europeans to find Angkor, describing to a friend or relation what he saw and his feelings on seeing this.


Which paragraphs deal with the background to the building of Angkor, which with the history of its discovery, and which with the temple itself?

12. Find out about two temples in Sri Lanka that blends Buddhism and Hinduism and write a brief

description about one of them.

THE ALHAMBRA 10th – 15th century AD

The Alhambra is in Granada, Spain. It is situated on a hill overlooking the city and it is one of the most famous examples of Moorish architecture. The Moors conquered Spain in the 8th century AD and ruled it for over 700 years. They brought Islam to a Christian country but they did not force the people to be Muslims. Instead they set about building beautiful palaces and great mosques. They were sophisticated and elegant and, under the Moors, Spain reached a high stage of development in Art, Architecture, Medicine, Science and Law. The Alhambra was begun in the 10th century and

gradually evolved into being a fortress, a palace and a Court. Alhambra means ‘Red Castle’ and the red bricks that were used in certain sections probably gave it this name. In the Alhambra lived the Emirs or Kings of Granada. They made it into the most marvellous of Moorish palaces. European Kings would see it and be rendered speechless by the beauty of its many halls and the stunning visual impact of the decorated walls. The Muslim religion does not allow human figures to be depicted in art so Muslim artists turned to geometric designs and floral patterns, which they combined with such glorious effect that they have held the imagination of visitors for centuries. Moorish artists also made good use of calligraphy in their designs for decoration.

The most famous tourist attraction today is the Court of the Lions. Moors loved gardens. As they came from desert lands they also loved water. Being great engineers they diverted water from the hills to feed the city of Granada, and in the Alhambra there are huge pools with many fountains spraying water to create the illusion of coolness. There are also deep canals carrying water to planned gardens. The Moors considered that gardens were an extension of Paradise on earth and the gardens of the Alhambra are truly like Paradise. In 1829 the writer Washington Irving, an American, visited Spain. He got permission from the Governor of Granada to stay in a tiny apartment in the now deserted Alhambra palace. He was enchanted. To him the Alhambra was the epitome of refinement and elegance. A British writer Samuel Butler said

‘The Moors believe Granada lies Directly under Paradise.’

The Alhambra saw scenes of great cruelty as well as scenes of much romance. In the famous Hall of Ambassadors the Emir Boabdil slaughtered an entire tribe, after having first lured them to the palace by trickery. The Hall of the Sisters is so called because two princesses living in the Alhambra would watch lovers meeting outside their walls, knowing that they would never have the chance to experience such love. In 1492 Moorish rule in Spain ended at last. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella won back the country and threw out the highly educated progressive Moors. Granada was the last city to fall. Emir Boabdil decided not to fight a battle he was bound to lose. He left the city in tears but his decision saved the beautiful Alhambra for us to admire today. Christopher Columbus was present at the historic scene when Boabdil kissed the hand of Queen Isabella and gave her the keys of the city. His mother watched him weep with no pity. ‘You do well to weep as a woman what you could not defend as a man,’ she said witheringly. And so the Moors sailed back to

North Africa never to return. Behind them they left palaces like the Alhambra for the world to marvel at and admire. Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary




and those that describe a special type of place or person. Which proper nouns are used as adjectives? Why are capitals used for the nouns in the last sentence of the first paragraph?

4. Find nouns that correspond to the underlined adjectives, and use them in sentences to bring out

their meaning.

5. Find three participle phrases in this passage that describe the subject of the sentence in which they occur.


6. Trace on a map the route by which the Moors arrived in Spain from their origins in Arabia. Mark the countries which are still Islamic.

7. Mark Granada on your map as well as the capitals of Spain and Portugal, and the port from which

Christopher Columbus sailed to discover America.

8. Debate in pairs whether Boabdil did the right thing in refusing to fight to stay on in Granada.

9. Discuss in groups the advantages and disadvantages of not being permitted to depict human figures in art.


Which paragraphs deal with the architecture of the Alhambra, and which with the history of the Moors in Spain?

11. Write a brief description of the palace in which they are living from the point of view of the two

sisters described in this passage.

12. The paragraph about water implies that people love what they do not normally have. Discuss in groups whether this is generally true. On that basis, what would be the characteristic features of a highly admired building in Sri Lanka/

The Potala in Tibet Mediaeval period onward

Tibet has been isolated from the world for a long time. The capital city is Lhasa and it used to be called ‘The Forbidden City’ because travelers and strangers were not welcomed. Tibet used to be under the rule of the Dalai Lama who was the head of the Buddhist religion as it was practised in Tibet. Tibet is situated high up in the great range of Himalayan mountains that lie to the north of India. It is to the south west of China, and China claims that Tibet has always been a part of China. However it had its own independent Government for a long time and, though it came under Chinese domination at various times during the last millennium, the Dalai Lama and his

predecessors always had a different system of rule from that of the Chinese Emperor in Beijing. In the 20th century, after being dominated for over a hundred years by foreign powers, China began to reassert itself. A revolution in 1911 swept away the Emperor, but this was followed by many years of internal struggle. In the 1930s Japan took over much of the eastern coast, which was the political and economic center of China. The Nationalist government and the Communist party that was challenging it came together to oppose Japan but, when the Japanese were finally expelled with Western assistance at the end of the Second World War, the Civil War in China resumed. Finally, in 1949, the Communist Party under Mao Ze Dong chased the Nationalist party leader Chiang Kai Shek, and his government, to Taiwan, an island a couple of hundred miles off the east of China. Then, in 1950, the Communist government sent an army of invasion into Tibet. The Dalai Lama, who was very young then, fled to India nine years later, after an unsuccessful revolt by the Tibetan people against the Chinese forces. Since then he has headed a government in exile in a place called Dharmasala in Northern India. Tibetan Buddhism, also incorrectly known as ‘Lamaism’, is a special form of Buddhism that evolved in Tibet from the 7th century AD onward. It is closer to the Mahayana Buddhism found in China than to the Theravada version we have in Sri Lanka, but it is also very distinctive. The Dalai Lama is the head of the dominant Dge-lugs-pa order and is venerated by the Tibetans as almost divine. It is believed that, when a Dalai Lama dies, his soul is reborn in a child who can then be recognized as the next Dalai Lama. In 1989 the current Dalai Lama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, in recognition of his nonviolent campaign to end Chinese domination of Tibet.

The Potala used to be the winter palace of the Dalai Lama. It is situated at a height of about 11,975 feet (3,650 meters) and it towers over the city. The Potala contains hundreds of rooms. Before the Dalai Lama fled from Tibet he used the top floor of the Potala as his private rooms. The pillars on the roof were painted gold and glittered from afar in the morning sun. The Potala is surrounded by dark and barren hills, which makes it seem even more attractive. It was built on the north ridge which meant that it could be seen by all Tibetans in the city as they looked up northward every day. It is not used as a residence any more, but is on show to the public as a tourist attraction.






4. Identify the different clauses in the last sentence of the third paragraph.

5. Identify the subject of each of the full verbs in the last paragraph.


6. Find the Tibetan plateau on a map and identify the rivers that start there. In which directions do they flow?

7. What are the countries that neighbour Tibet? Mark all of them on your world map, as well as

Lhasa and Dharmasala and Beijing and Taiwan.

8. How is this passage different from the others in this book? Note down in your own words five interesting things you learnt from this passage.

9. Write a brief essay comparing the Potala with the other religious buildings you have read about in

this book.

10. Write down briefly in your own words the main point of each of the paragraphs in this passage. Which paragraphs deal with Tibet, which with Chinese history, which with the Dalai Lama, and which with the Potala? Which paragraphs deal with more than one of these subjects?

11. Find out more about the Dalai Lama and about Mao Ze Dong, and write brief accounts of their

lives.

12. What happened to Taiwan after Chiang Kai Shek went there? What is the current relationship between the government of mainland China and that of Taiwan?

ST PETER’S CATHEDRAL 15th – 16th centuries AD

The first place a tourist in Rome wishes to visit is usually St Peter’s Cathedral. It is the largest church in the world and certainly the most famous. The site of the church has a story behind it. It is believed that St. Peter, Jesus Christ’s chief disciple who is said to have been the first Bishop of Rome, was martyred and buried around 64 BC on the very spot where St Peter’s Cathedral now stands. It was therefore considered holy ground even before anything was built on it. In 319 AD the Emperor Constantine built the original basilica there. It lasted over a thousand years. But in the 15th century the Popes, as the Bishops of Rome were called when they established themselves as the heads of the Catholic Church, left Rome and lived at Avignon in France. There was a split in the Catholic Church and many old churches were badly neglected.

St. Peter’s was particularly affected so Pope Nicholas V began a new construction when the Papacy came back to Rome. There were many quarrels over the building of St. Peter’s, but finally the architect Bramante was employed. He is one of the most famous Renaissance names but he was accused of embezzling funds and was sacked. Then a series of equally famous architects were brought in over the years. One of the last was Michelangelo who was hired when he was already 72 years old, many years after he had completed his beautiful statue of David in Florence. As might have been expected he died before completing the magnificent Dome he planned. But the design was exceptional, and the finished building is considered an architectural masterpiece, which draws tourists by the thousand. St. Peter’s took about 176 years to complete. Sections were added as and when each Pope felt like it or had money. There are many interesting details about the building and various parts of it. For instance, if you look at the bronze statue of St Peter you will see that the right foot has been worn down since the 13th century because millions of adoring visitors keep kissing it.

Bronze taken from the Parthenon in Athens was melted down to make Bernini’s canopy above the altar. The bronze throne above the main alter encases a wooden throne. People like to think that it was the throne of St Peter himself. In actual fact, it probably dates from the Middle Ages. Michelangelo’s beautiful statue of the Pieta is on the North side of the Church. This is a tender sculpture of Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, holding him as he was dying. It is protected by glass because a few years ago a mad tourist attacked the statue. Another of Michaelangelo’s grand creations should also be mentioned here, though it is not part of the church. This is the roof of the Sistine Chapel, which may be visited as part of the Vatican Museum, in the building which is the official residence of the Pope. The fresco

on the roof, of God creating Adam, the first man according to Christianity, is one of the greatest of all religious paintings. One of the most admired features of St Peter’s is Bernini’s long symmetrical colonnade that leads up to the church. It encircles a square and features a central obelisk and two identical fountains.

In St Peter’s you can also see the Swiss Guards who wear the same uniforms they have worn since 1506 when they came to the Vatican at the invitation of Pope Julius II. The guards have to be Swiss by nationality and new entrants take their oath to defend St Peter’s on the 26th of May, so as to commemorate the sacking of Rome in 1527 when the Swiss Guards protected the Pope and saved his life. On that day only 42 of the 189 who defended him survived. St Peter’s is located in the Vatican City, which is an independent country. It is ruled by the Pope, who is thus a religious leader who

also has political power. The Vatican City is however completely surrounded by the city of Rome, the capital of Italy, and the Vatican relies on Italy for many of its needs. And even if they are not practising Catholics, all Romans, indeed all Italians, are very proud of this magnificent Cathedral. Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary





4. Identify the main verbs in the third paragraph and the subjects of each of them.

5. Identify the different ways in which the underlined infinitives have been used in this passage.


6. Find out more about Michaelangelo and write a brief account of his life and work. Try to find illustrations of some of his work to accompany your account.

7. Mark Rome on your map along with Florence and the capitals of France and Switzerland.

8. Identify ten items that tourists might look for at St Peter’s, and specify which of these you would

find inside the church and which outside.

9. The Vatican City is the smallest independent state in the world. Identify at least three other small states, and find out what sorts of government they have.


Which paragraphs deal with the The Vatican, which with the Papacy and which with St Peter’s?

11. Do you know of any other religious leaders who exercise political power?

12. Find out about the different types of Christianity and when the main divisions developed.

The Taj Mahal at Agra c. 1650 AD

Everybody knows the story of the Taj Mahal. One of the great Moghul Emperors of India, Shah Jehan, built it when his beloved wife died. He ruled over almost all of India from 1628 to 1658 AD. His love for his wife is a romantic story that is like a fairy tale. Babur, a great Mongol king, conquered India in 1526 and established the Moghul Dynasty (Moghul refers to the Mongol conquerors of India). The first four emperors developed their power and set up a system of Government that included all Indians, Hindus and Muslims. Among them was Akbar, one of the truly great monarchs of all time. By the time Shah Jehan became emperor he could turn his mind more fully to cultural activities too.

Emperor Shah Jehan was a handsome man. He looked every inch a Prince. His wife, Mumtaz Mahal, was half Persian and was one of the loveliest women at the Moghul Court. ‘She had long black hair, delicate eyebrows and skin like a lily.’ wrote one poet. But more than her beauty, Mumtaz Mahal was a very good woman. She was an excellent wife and mother. She was kind and helped hundreds of women in distress. She was loved by all and most of all by her husband. Shah Jehan used to travel round his Empire a great deal. Mumtaz Mahal always went with him, taking her three daughters and four sons with her. In fact each of her four sons was born while she was on a military campaign with the Emperor. When Mumtaz Mahal died, Emperor Shah Jehan wept for two months. He was inconsolable. For two months he did not come out of his room. When he did come out he was a very sad man. He decided to built a Mausoleum, that is a tomb, in her memory. He was going to place the body of Mumtaz Mahal inside this tomb, which he wanted the whole world to admire. He began work on the Taj Mahal. The architects of this building of great beauty are unknown. Some people think they may have been Italians. Others think Shah Jehan got Persians to design this beautiful building. The Taj Mahal took about 20 years to build. It is made of the finest white marble and the whole structure is richly decorated. Precious stones were put into the outside walls, but these were eventually stolen away. When the lamps were lit at night the gems would gleam in the darkness. It was said to be the most beautiful sight in the world. Shah Jehan spent too much money on the Taj Mahal. He spent money that could have been better used to benefit the people of his empire. When the Taj Mahal was finished he laid the body of his wife inside and planned to build another tomb out of black marble for himself. This was the height of folly. His son Aurangzeb imprisoned him and stopped any further expense. When Shah Jehan was put into prison he was kept in a room in the Agra Fort which overlooked the Taj Mahal. From his prison room he could gaze upon the lovely building he had created. He died a few years after his imprisonment, and was buried in the Taj Mahal, near his beloved wife. The Taj Mahal has been called ‘a poem in marble’. Without any doubt, it is one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. Expensive though it was, Mumtaz Mahal, his good and loyal queen, deserved her

monument. And today the building is one of India’s greatest tourist attractions, providing a wonderful sight each year to thousands of Indians and foreigners. It is especially beautiful by moonlight, and you are lucky if you can see it under a full moon. It is one of the most stunning sights on earth.






4. Find nouns that correspond to the underlined verbs and use them in sentences to bring out their

meaning.

5. Find three sentences in this passage that describe habitual actions. What are the different ways in which it is made clear that the action happened often?


6. Find out the names and dates of the Moghul Emperors from Babur to Aurangzeb. Where is each of them buried? Mark these places on your map.

7. Read more about Akbar and write a short essay about why he is considered a truly great

monarch.

8. Sum up in a few lines, like the poet quoted in this passage, the beauty of a place or a person that you admire.


Which paragraphs deal with the love story of Shah Jehan and Mumtaz Mahal?

10. Debate in groups whether the construction of the Taj Mahal was a waste of money.

11. Construct in pairs a discussion between Aurangzeb and Shah Jehan about the plan for another tomb.

12. Find out, and record on a chart, what was happening in Europe and in China during the period of

the first six Moghul Emperors. What interactions were there during this period between Europe and Asia?

THE KREMLIN Early modern times to the 19th century

Whenever we think of the Kremlin we think of Russia. It is in the very heart of Moscow. The Kremlin buildings have grown along with the Russian State and they are indissolubly linked with the history of the country. The Kremlin is situated on the Moskva river on the high left bank. The first time the Kremlin was mentioned was around 1475 when the architect Aristotele Fioravanti was invited by Czar Ivan III to plan the overall architecture of its walls and towers. But this does not mean that the Kremlin was being built for the first time. There had been an earlier Kremlin built of white stone in the shape of a triangle. The triangle of the new walls repeated the old triangle. The old buildings and the new ones eventually became a distinctive architectural ensemble.

The Kremlin consists of many buildings, both secular and religious. There are lovely churches like the Cathedral of Archangel Michael. There was also the old Patriarchal Palace which is now a museum. What many see as the central building of the Kremlin, the Great Palace, was built in 1838 under the direction of Konstantin Thon. To build this magnificent edifice old Kremlin buildings were torn down. The old palaces of the Czar gave way to the new one. The Kremlin is huge. It is not possible to describe every section of it. It is enough though to say that it is of exceptional historical and engineering interest. It is also most artistic. There are about 700 rooms in the palace alone. Electricity was installed in 1886. Before that it took 20,000 candles and 5000 kerosene oil lamps to light the Kremlin at night. After Czar Nicholas II lost his throne in 1917, the Kremlin became the center of Government of the new

Communist State. Most of us have seen pictures of Russian leaders, and before that leaders of the former Soviet Union, taking the National Day Salute in front of this imposing building. The Kremlin has always made an unforgettable impression on foreigners. It was quite different to other European Castles and fortifications. It was something more than all these. It is a historical monument and seems to embody the soul of Russia. It is associated with some of the most dramatic and stirring pages of Russia’s long history and for many Russians, of whatever political persuasion, the Kremlin represents both the present and past glory of that great country.





4. Find adjectives that correspond to the underlined nouns and use them in sentences to bring out

their meaning.

5. Replace three sentences beginning with ‘It is ….’ or ‘There are ….” (where it is not a pronoun with an antecedent) with sentences that have a similar meaning.


6. Mark Moscow on your map, and also two other cities that have also been capital cities of Russia. 7. What is meant by ‘the former Soviet Union’? Find out when Russia became the Soviet Union, and

how the Soviet Union broke up.

8. Mark on a map at least ten countries of the former Soviet Union. How many of them have now joined the European Union?


Which paragraphs deal with the buildings of the Kremlin, and which with its history?

10. Discuss in groups the possibility of a building embodying the soul of a country.

11. Debate in pairs the importance of secular and of religious elements in developing a sense of national commitment.

12. What is the main religion in Russia, and what relationship does it have now to the state? Was the

situation the same when Russia was part of the Soviet Union?

THE WHITE HOUSE

18th century AD No two buildings can be less alike than the Kremlin of Russia and the White House of the United States of America. The Kremlin is an old and rather romantic building. The White House is comparatively new. The Kremlin is huge. The White House is small when compared to the massive Russian Presidential residence. The two buildings are the homes of two of the most powerful men in the modern world. Until the breakup of the USSR the Russian President was as greatly respected, or feared, as the American President. Today, however, there is no doubt that the President of America is the single most powerful man in the world and the White House is probably the building that is presented most often in the media.

Almost all American presidents have lived in the White House. Strangely enough the first president, George Washington, did not do so for the simple reason that it had not yet been built. But it was he who planned a Presidential Building with the city planner Pierre L’Enfant at what is now 1600, Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington DC. He visualized a planned city with a Presidential House in the center. Nine architects competed to design it. John Hoban won and construction began in 1792. John Adams was the first President to live in the brand new White House but it was not given this name in the beginning. At first it was simply called ‘The President’s House’. It is the private residence of the President but it is the only private residence of a Head of State that is open to the public free of charge. This has sometimes led to problems. In 1829 President Jackson welcomed visitors on the 4th of July, which is the date of American Independence. Over 20,000 callers went through the White House that day and the poor President had to flee to a nearby hotel to escape the mob. Bathtubs were filled outside on the lawn with orange juice and whisky to persuade the crowd to leave the White House. The White House has a unique history. It is not as exciting as that of the Kremlin, but it is interesting nonetheless. The British tried to burn it down in 1814 and it had to be rebuilt. Then there was another fire in 1929 when Hoover was President. After that there had to be more rebuilding. But the walls are the same as when they were first erected in 1792. The most famous room in the White House is the Oval Office. It is here that the President works. It is from his desk in this office that he speaks to the nation on TV or radio. He meets with all foreign dignitaries in this room. The White House has hosted some of the most important people in the world. Kings and Queens, Heads of States, Military Dictators, great names in the world of entertainment, famous actors, singers and musicians, all have been guests of the Presidents and their wives. The White House has 132 rooms and 35 bathrooms. It has 5 fulltime chefs and can serve dinner to 140 guests. One thousand people can be served cocktails and short eats at one time. Nearly 570 gallons of paint are needed to paint

the outside of the building. The White House and the President continue to be the center of interest to the world. Anything that the American President does affects the world today. Exercises Grammar and Vocabulary




and those that describe a special type of place or person. Which proper nouns are used as adjectives?

4. Identify the various clauses in the third paragraph.

5. Find adjectives that correspond to the underlined nouns and use them in sentences to bring out

their meaning. Comprehension and Further Activities

6. Mark Washington DC on your map, and also three other important cities in the United States. What does DC stand for?

7. Mark the countries that neighbour the United States and their capitals.

8. Write down five statements from this passage concerning the President of the United States, and

note which of these are fact and which opinion.

9. Note down five historical facts concerning the White House.

10. Write a brief comparison of the White House with other buildings you have studied in this book that were used as residences.


Which paragraphs deal with the White House and which with its history?

12. Find out how the American President is selected, and for how long he can serve. Discuss in your groups the benefits or otherwise of this system.

Historic Buildings

Documents

Transcript of Historic Buildings