HippocratesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor other uses, seeHippocrates (disambiguation).Hippocrates of Kos

Engraving byPeter Paul Rubens, 1638

Nativename

Bornc. 460 BCKos,Ancient Greece

Diedc. 370 BCLarissa, Ancient Greece

EthnicityGreek

OccupationPhysician

EraClassical Greece

TitleThe Father of Western Medicine

Hippocrates of Kos(/hpkrtiz/;Greek:;Hippokrts;c.460 c. 370 BC) was aGreekphysicianof theAge of Pericles(Classical Greece), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in thehistory of medicine. He is referred to as the"Father of Western Medicine"[1][2][3]in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine. This intellectual school revolutionizedmedicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally been associated (theurgyandphilosophy), thus establishing medicine as a profession.[4][5]However, the achievements of the writers of theCorpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself were often commingled; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as theparagonof the ancient physician, and credited with coining theHippocratic Oath, still relevant and in use today. He is also credited with greatly advancing the systematic study ofclinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Corpus and other works.[4][6]Contents[hide] 1Biography 2Hippocratic theory 2.1Crisis 2.2Professionalism 3Direct contributions to medicine 4Hippocratic Corpus 4.1Hippocratic Oath 5Legend of Hippocrates' daughter 6Legacy 6.1Image 7Genealogy 8Namesakes 9See also 10Notes 11References 12Further reading 13External linksBiography[edit]

AsklepieiononKosHistorians agree that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on theGreekisland ofCos; other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue.[7]Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greekgynecologist,[8]was Hippocrates' first biographer and is the source of most personal information about him. Later biographies are in theSudaof the 10th century AD, and in the works ofJohn Tzetzes, which date from the 12th century AD.[4][9]Hippocrates is mentioned in passing in the writings of two contemporaries: Plato, in "Protagoras" and "Phaedrus",[10]and,Aristotle's "Politics", which date from the 4th century BC[11]Soranus wrote that Hippocrates' father was Heraclides, a physician, and his mother was Praxitela, daughter of Tizane. The two sons of Hippocrates,ThessalusandDraco, and his son-in-law,Polybus, were his students. According toGalen, a later physician, Polybus was Hippocrates' true successor, while Thessalus and Draco each had a son namedHippocrates.[12][13]Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather, and studied other subjects withDemocritusandGorgias. Hippocrates was probably trained at theasklepieionofKos, and took lessons from theThracianphysicianHerodicus of Selymbria.Platomentions Hippocrates in two of his dialogues: inProtagoras, Plato describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, theAsclepiad";[14][15]while inPhaedrus, Plato suggests that "Hippocrates the Asclepiad" thought that a complete knowledge of the nature of the body was necessary for medicine.[16]Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far asThessaly,Thrace, and theSea of Marmara.[13]Several different accounts of his death exist. He died, probably inLarissa, at the age of 83, 85 or 90, though some say he lived to be well over 100.[13]Hippocratic theory[edit]"It is thus with regard divine nor more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause from the originates like other affections. Men regard its nature and cause as divine from ignorance and wonder..."On the Sacred Disease[17]Hippocrates is credited with being the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods. Hippocrates was credited by the disciples ofPythagorasof allying philosophy and medicine.[18]He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by thegodsbut rather the product of environmental factors, diet, and living habits. Indeed there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did work with many convictions that were based on what is now known to be incorrectanatomyandphysiology, such asHumorism.[19][20][21]Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on how to deal with disease. TheKnidianschool of medicine focused on diagnosis. Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greektabooforbidding the dissection of humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms.[22]The Hippocratic school orKoanschool achieved greater success by applying generaldiagnosesand passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care andprognosis, notdiagnosis. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice.[23][24]Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from that of modern medicine. Now, the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school. This shift in medical thought since Hippocrates' day has caused serious criticism over the past two millennia, with the passivity of Hippocratic treatment being the subject of particularly strong denunciations; for example, theFrenchdoctor M. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a "meditation upon death".[25]Crisis[edit]Another important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of acrisis, a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin to triumph and the patient would succumb to death, or the opposite would occur and natural processes would make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur oncritical days, which were supposed to be a fixed time after the contraction of a disease. If a crisis occurred on a day far from acritical day, a relapse might be expected. Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that it predated him.[26]

Illustration of aHippocratic bench, date unknownHippocratic medicine was humble and passive. The therapeutic approach was based on "the healing power of nature" ("vis medicatrix naturae" inLatin). According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the power to re-balance the four humours and heal itself (physis).[27]Hippocratic therapy focused on simply easing this natural process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and immobilization [were] of capital importance."[28]In general, the Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient; treatment was gentle, and emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile. For example, only clean water or wine were ever used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Soothingbalmswere sometimes employed.[29]Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis.[29][30]Generalized treatments he prescribed include fasting and the consumption of apple cider vinegar. Hippocrates once said that "to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness." However, potent drugs were used on certain occasions.[31]This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones which requiredtractionto stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. TheHippocratic benchand other devices were used to this end.One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis onprognosis. At Hippocrates' time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an illness and predict its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories.[21][32]Professionalism[edit]

A number of ancient Greek surgical tools. On the left is atrephine; on the right, a set ofscalpels. Hippocratic medicine made good use of these tools.[33]Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism, discipline, and rigorous practice.[34]The Hippocratic workOn the Physicianrecommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for, "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancientoperating room.[35]He even kept hisfingernailsto a precise length.[36]The Hippocratic School gave importance to the clinical doctrines of observation and documentation. These doctrines dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.[13]Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions.[32]He is said to have measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to discover whether the patient was lying.[37]Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment.[38]"To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation."[21]For this reason, he may more properly be termed as the "Father of Medicine".[39]Direct contributions to medicine[edit]

Clubbing of fingers in a patient withEisenmenger's syndrome; first described by Hippocrates, clubbing is also known as "Hippocratic fingers".Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. He is given credit for the first description ofclubbingof the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic lung disease,lung cancerandcyanotic heart disease. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers".[40]Hippocrates was also the first physician to describeHippocratic faceinPrognosis.Shakespearefamously alludes to this description when writing ofFalstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii. ofHenry V.[41][42]Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses asacute,chronic,endemicandepidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation,relapse, resolution, crisis,paroxysm, peak, andconvalescence."[32][43]Another of Hippocrates' major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis ofthoracic empyema, i.e.suppurationof the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students ofpulmonary medicineand surgery.[44]Hippocrates was the first documentedchest surgeonand his findings and techniques, while crude, such as the use of lead pipes to drain chest wall abscess, are still valid.[44]The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the humanrectumand the treatment thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine.Hemorrhoids, for instance, though believed to be caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways.[45][46]Cauteryandexcisionare described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred methods:ligatingthe hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron. Other treatments such as applying various salves are suggested as well.[47][48]Today, "treatment [for hemorrhoids] still includes burning, strangling, and excising."[45]Also, some of the fundamental concepts ofproctoscopyoutlined in the Corpus are still in use.[45][46]For example, the uses of the rectalspeculum, a common medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus.[46]This constitutes the earliest recorded reference toendoscopy.[49][50]Hippocrates often used lifestyle modifications such asdietandexerciseto treat diseases such as diabetes, what is today calledlifestyle medicine. He is often quoted with "Let food be your medicine, and medicine be your food" and "Walking is man's best medicine",[51]however the quote "Let food be your medicine" is an apparent misquotation and its exact origin remains unknown.[52]Hippocratic Corpus[edit]Main article:Hippocratic Corpus

A 12th-centuryByzantinemanuscript of the Oath in the form of acrossThe Hippocratic Corpus (Latin:Corpus Hippocraticum) is a collection of around seventy early medical works fromAlexandrian Greece.[53]It is written inIonic Greek. The question of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of the corpus has not been conclusively answered,[54]but the volumes were probably produced by his students and followers.[55]Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, scholars believe Hippocratic Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen).[31]The corpus was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity, and its teaching generally followed his principles; thus it came to be known by his name. It might be the remains of a library of Kos, or a collection compiled in the 3rd century BC inAlexandria.[14][35]The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order.[54][56]These works were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes written from opposing view points; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus.[57]Notable among the treatises of the Corpus areThe Hippocratic Oath;The Book of Prognostics;On Regimen in Acute Diseases;Aphorisms;On Airs, Waters and Places;Instruments of Reduction;On The Sacred Disease; etc.[31]Hippocratic Oath[edit]Main article:Hippocratic OathTheHippocratic Oath, a seminal document on theethicsof medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death. This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently the authenticity of the document's author has come under scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for other, similaroathsand laws that define good medical practice and morals. Such derivatives are regularly taken today by medical graduates about to enter medical practice.[14][58][59]Legend of Hippocrates' daughter[edit]The Travels of Sir John Mandevillereports (incorrectly) that Hippocrates was the ruler of the islands of "Kos and Lango" [sic], and recounts a legend about Hippocrates' daughter. She was transformed into a hundred-foot longdragonby the goddessDiane, and is the "lady of the manor" of an old castle. She emerges three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands. Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter. This is a version of the legend ofMelusine.[60]Legacy[edit]

Mural painting showingGalenand Hippocrates. 12th century;Anagni, ItalyHippocrates is widely considered to be the "Father of Medicine".[55]His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the advancement stalled.[61]So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time.[14][28]The centuries after Hippocrates' death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out," according toFielding Garrison.[62]After Hippocrates, the next significant physician wasGalen, aGreekwho lived from AD 129 to AD 200. Galen perpetuated Hippocratic medicine, moving both forward and backward.[63]In theMiddle Ages, the Islamic world adopted Hippocratic methods and developed new medical technologies.[64]After theEuropean Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were revived in western Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates' rigorous clinical techniques wereThomas Sydenham,William Heberden,Jean-Martin CharcotandWilliam Osler.Henri Huchard, a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine."[65]The most severe form of hair loss and baldness is called the Hippocratic form.[66]Image[edit]

A conventionalized image in a Roman "portrait" bust (19th-century engraving)According toAristotle's testimony, Hippocrates was known as "The Great Hippocrates".[67]Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor" and later as "stern and forbidding".[14]He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical.Francis Adamsdescribes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense."[22]His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face. Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style ofJoveandAsklepius. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that have been found could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities.[61]Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals.Fielding Garrison, an authority on medical history, stated, "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit."[65]"His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician," according toA Short History of Medicine, inspiring the medical profession since his death.[68]Genealogy[edit]Hippocrates' legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry toHeracles.[31]According to Tzetzes'sChiliades, theahnentafelof Hippocrates II is:[69]

An image of Hippocrates on the floor of theAsclepieionof Kos, withAsklepiusin the middle1.Hippocrates II. "The Father of Medicine"2. Heraclides4. Hippocrates I.8. Gnosidicus16. Nebrus32. Sostratus III.64. Theodorus II.128. Sostratus, II.256. Thedorus512. Cleomyttades1024. Crisamis2048. Dardanus4096. Sostratus8192. Hippolochus16384.Podalirius32768.AsklepiusNamesakes[edit]

Statue of Hippocrates in front of theMayne Medical SchoolinBrisbaneSome clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe those.Hippocratic faceis the change produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like.Clubbing, a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers.Hippocratic succussionis the internal splashing noise ofhydropneumothoraxorpyopneumothorax.Hippocratic bench(a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) andHippocratic cap-shaped bandageare two devices named after Hippocrates.[70]Hippocratic CorpusandHippocratic Oathare also his namesakes. The drinkhypocrasis also believed to be invented by Hippocrates.Risus sardonicus, a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile.In the modern age, a lunar crater has been namedHippocrates. TheHippocratic Museum, amuseumon the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him.The Hippocrates Projectis a program of theNew York UniversityMedical Center to enhance education through use of technology.Project Hippocrates(an acronym of "HIghPerfOrmanceComputing forRobot-AssisTEdSurgery") is an effort of theCarnegie Mellon School of Computer ScienceandShadyside Medical Center, "to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots."[71]Both theCanadian Hippocratic RegistryandAmerican Hippocratic Registryare organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times.See also[edit] Hippocrates Prize for Poetry and MedicineNotes[edit]1. Jump up^Grammaticos PC, Diamantis A (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus".Hell J Nucl Med11(1): 24.PMID18392218.2. Jump up^"Hippocrates".Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Microsoft Corporation. 2006. Archived fromthe originalon 2009-10-31.3. Jump up^Strong, W.F.; Cook, John A. (July 2007),"Reviving the Dead Greek Guys"(PDF),Global Media Journal, Indian Edition4. ^Jump up to:abcGarrison 1966, pp.92935. Jump up^Nuland 1988, p.56. Jump up^Garrison 1966, p.967. Jump up^Nuland 1988, p.48. Jump up^Britannica Concise Encyclopedia 20069. Jump up^Nuland 1988, p.710. Jump up^Jones, W. H. S."Hippocrates Collected Works I".Perseus Classics Collection.11. Jump up^Aristotle."Politics Book VII".Internet Classics Archive.12. Jump up^Adams 1891, p.1913. ^Jump up to:abcdMargotta 1968, p.6614. ^Jump up to:abcdeMart-Ibez 1961, pp.868715. Jump up^Plato 380 B.C.16. Jump up^Plato 360 B.C. 270c17. Jump up^Hippocrates 400 B.C.18. Jump up^Adams 1891, p.419. Jump up^Jones 1868, p.1120. Jump up^Nuland 1988, pp.8921. ^Jump up to:abcGarrison 1966, pp.939422. ^Jump up to:abAdams 1891, p.1523. Jump up^Margotta 1968, p.6724. Jump up^Leff & Leff 1956, p.5125. Jump up^Jones 1868, pp.121326. Jump up^Jones 1868, pp.46,48,5927. Jump up^Garrison 1966, p.9928. ^Jump up to:abMargotta 1968, p.7329. ^Jump up to:abGarrison 1966, p.9830. Jump up^Singer & Underwood 1962, p.3531. ^Jump up to:abcdEncyclopdia Britannica 191132. ^Jump up to:abcGarrison 1966, p.9733. Jump up^Adams 1891, p.1734. Jump up^Garrison 196635. ^Jump up to:abMargotta 1968, p.6436. Jump up^Rutkow 1993, pp.242537. Jump up^Mart-Ibez 1961, p.8838. Jump up^Margotta 1968, p.6839. Jump up^Leff & Leff 1956, p.4540. Jump up^Schwartz, Richards & Goyal 200641. Jump up^Singer & Underwood 1962, p.4042. Jump up^Margotta 1968, p.7043. Jump up^Mart-Ibez 1961, p.9044. ^Jump up to:abMajor 196545. ^Jump up to:abcJhannsson 2005, p.1146. ^Jump up to:abcJani 2005, pp.242547. Jump up^Jhannsson 2005, p.1248. Jump up^Mann 2002, pp.1, 17349. Jump up^Shah 2002, p.64550. Jump up^NCEPOD 2004, p.451. Jump up^Chishti, Hakim (1988).The Traditional Healer's Handbook. Vermont: Healing Arts Press. p.11.ISBN0892814381.52. Jump up^Cardenas, Diana (2013). "Let not thy food be confused with thy medicine: The Hippocratic misquotation". e-SPEN Journal.53. Jump up^Iniesta, Ivan (20 April 2011), "Hippocratic Corpus",BMJ342: d688,doi:10.1136/bmj.d68854. ^Jump up to:abSinger & Underwood 1962, p.2755. ^Jump up to:abHanson 200656. Jump up^Rutkow 1993, p.2357. Jump up^Singer & Underwood 1962, p.2858. Jump up^Jones 1868, p.21759. Jump up^Buqrat Aur Uski Tasaneef byHakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India, 1966, p. 56-62.60. Jump up^Anthony Bale, trans.,The Book of Marvels and Travels, Oxford 2012,ISBN 0199600600,p. 15and footnote61. ^Jump up to:abGarrison 1966, p.10062. Jump up^Garrison 1966, p.9563. Jump up^Jones 1868, p.3564. Jump up^Leff & Leff 1956, p.10265. ^Jump up to:abGarrison 1966, p.9466. Jump up^"The dilemma of balding solve by father of medicine Hippocrates". Healthy Hair Highlights News. 15 August 2011.67. Jump up^Jones 1868, p.3868. Jump up^Singer & Underwood 1962, p.2969. Jump up^Adams 189170. Jump up^Fishchenko & Khimich 198671. Jump up^Project Hippocrates 1995References[edit]

Awoodcutof the reduction of adislocatedshoulder with a Hippocratic device Adams, Francis (1891),The Genuine Works of Hippocrates,New York: William Wood and Company. Boylan, Michael (2006),Hippocrates, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrievedSeptember 28,2006. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2006),Soranus of Ephesus, Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc., retrievedDecember 17,2006. Encyclopdia Britannica (1911),HIPPOCRATESV13, Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc., p.519, retrievedOctober 14,2006. Garrison, Fielding H. (1966),History of Medicine,Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company. Fishchenko, AIa; Khimich, SD (1986), "Modification of the Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage",Klin Khir1(72).PMID 3959439 Hanson, Ann Ellis (2006),Hippocrates: The "Greek Miracle" in Medicine, Lee T. Pearcy, The Episcopal Academy, Merion, PA 19066, USA, retrievedDecember 17,2006 Hippocrates (2006) [400 B.C.],On the Sacred Disease, Internet Classics Archive: The University of Adelaide Library, archived fromthe originalon September 26, 2007, retrievedDecember 17,2006. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2006),Democritus, The University of Tennessee at Martin, retrievedDecember 17,2006. Jani, P.G. (2005), "Management of Haemorrhoids: A Personal Experience",East and Central African Journal of Surgery10(2): 2428. Jhannsson, Helgi rn (2005),Haemorrhoids: Aspects of Symptoms and Results after Surgery, Uppsala University,ISBN91-554-6399-1. Jones, W. H. S. (1868),Hippocrates Collected Works I, Cambridge Harvard University Press, retrievedSeptember 28,2006. Leff, Samuel; Leff, Vera. (1956),From Witchcraft to World Health,LondonandSouthampton: Camelot Press Ltd.. Mann, Charles V. (2002),Surgical Treatment of Haemorrhoids, Springer,ISBN1-85233-496-7. Major, Ralph H. (1965),Classic Descriptions of Disease,Springfield, Illinois. Margotta, Roberto (1968),The Story of Medicine,New York: Golden Press. Mart-Ibez, Flix (1961),A Prelude to Medical History,New York: MD Publications, Inc., Library of Congress ID: 61-11617. National Library of Medicine (2006),Images from the History of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, retrievedDecember 17,2006. National Library of Medicine (2000),Objects of Art: Tree of Hippocrates, National Institutes of Health, retrievedDecember 17,2006. NCEPOD (2004),Scoping our practice(PDF), London: National Confidential Enquiry into Patient Outcome and Death. Nuland, Sherwin B. (1988),Doctors, Knopf,ISBN0-9539240-3-3. Pinault, Jody Robin (1992),Hippocratic Lives and Legends,Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers,ISBN90-04-09574-8. Plato (2012) [360 B.C.],Phaedrus, Internet Classics Archive: The University of Adelaide Library, retrievedNovember 1,2012. Plato (2006) [380 B.C.],Protagoras, Internet Classics Archive: The University of Adelaide Library, retrievedDecember 17,2006. Project Hippocrates (1995),Project Hippocrates, Center for Medical Robotics and Computer Assisted Surgery, Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science, retrievedDecember 30,2006. Rutkow, Ira M. (1993),Surgery: An Illustrated History,LondonandSouthampton: Elsevier Science Health Science div,ISBN0-8016-6078-5. Schwartz, Robert A.; Richards, Gregory M.; Goyal, Supriya (2006),Clubbing of the Nails, WebMD, retrievedSeptember 28,2006. Shah, J. (2002), "Endoscopy through the ages",BJU International(London: Academic Surgical Unit and Department of Urology, Imperial College School of Medicine, St. Mary's Hospital)89(7): 645652,doi:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2002.02726.x,PMID11966619. Singer, Charles; Underwood, E. Ashworth (1962),A Short History of Medicine,New YorkandOxford: Oxford University Press, Library of Congress ID: 62-21080. Smith, William (1870),Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology2,Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, retrievedDecember 23,2006Further reading[edit] Adams, Francis (translator) (1891) (1994) [1891],Works by Hippocrates, The Internet Classics Archive: Daniel C. Stevenson, Web Atomics 19942000. Coulter, Harris L (1975),Divided Legacy: A History of the Schism in Medical Thought: The Patterns Emerge: Hippocrates to Paracelsus1, Washington, DC: Weehawken Book Craik, Elizabeth M. (ed., trans., comm.),The Hippocratic TreatiseOn glands (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009) (Studies in ancient medicine, 36). Di Benedetto, Vincenzo (1986),Il medico e la malattia. La scienza di Ippocrate, Turin: Einaudi Edelstein, Ludwig (1943),The Hippocratic Oath: Text, Translation, and Interpretation, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press Goldberg, Herbert S. (1963),Hippocrates, Father of Medicine, New York: Franklin Watts Heidel, William Arthur (1941),Hippocratic Medicine: Its Spirit and Method, New York: Columbia University Press Hippocrates (1990), Smith, Wesley D, ed.,Pseudepigraphic writings: letters, embassy, speech from the altar, decree, Leiden: Brill,ISBN90-04-09290-0 Jouanna, Jacques (1999),Hippocrates, M. B. DeBevoise, trans, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,ISBN0-8018-5907-7 Jori, Alberto(1996),Medicina e medici nell'antica Grecia. Saggio sul 'Per tchnes' ippocratico, Bologna (Italy): il Mulino. Kalopothakes, M. D. (1857),An essay on Hippocrates,Philadelphia: King and Baird Printers. Langholf, Volker (1990),Medical theories in Hippocrates: early texts and the "Epidemics", Berlin: de Gruyter,ISBN978-3-11-011956-5 Levine, Edwin Burton (1971),Hippocrates, New York: Twayne Lopez, Francesco (2004),Il pensiero olistico di Ippocrate. Percorsi di ragionamento e testimonianze. Vol. I, Cosenza (Italy): Edizioni Pubblisfera,ISBN978-88-88358-35-2. Moon, Robert Oswald (1923),Hippocrates and His Successors in Relation to the Philosophy of Their Time, New York: Longmans, Green and Co Petersen, William F. (1946),Hippocratic Wisdom for Him Who Wishes to Pursue Properly the Science of Medicine: A Modern Appreciation of Ancient Scientific Achievement, Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Phillips, E.D. (1973),Aspects of Greek Medicine, New York: St. Martin's Press Pliny the Elder,Natural History: Book XXIX., translated byJohn Bostock. See original text inPerseus program. Sargent, II, Frederick (1982),Hippocratic heritage: a history of ideas about weather and human health, New York: Pergamon Press,ISBN0-08-028790-5 Smith, Wesley D. (1979),Hippocratic Tradition, Cornell University Press,ISBN0-8014-1209-9 Temkin, Owsei (1991),Hippocrates in a world of pagans and Christians, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,ISBN0-8018-4090-2External links[edit]Find more aboutHippocratesat Wikipedia'ssister projects

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GreekWikisourcehas original text related to this article:Hippocrates The Harvard Classics Volume 38 with "The Oath of Hippocrates", project gutenberg Works by HippocratesatLibriVox(public domain audiobooks) Hippocratesentry in theInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Works by or about Hippocratesin libraries (WorldCatcatalog) First printed editions of the Hippocratic Collectionat the Bibliothque Interuniversitaire de Mdecine of Paris (BIUM) studies and digitized texts by theBIUM (Bibliothque interuniversitaire de mdecine et d'odontologie, Paris)see its digital libraryMedic@. Wesley D. Smith.Hippocrates.Free full-text article from Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Last accessed 24 April 2012.[show] v t eAncient anaesthesia

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Authority control WorldCat VIAF:287984736 LCCN:n79005643 ISNI:0000 0004 3523 8545 GND:11855140X SELIBR:190903 SUDOC:027324885 BNF:cb119075525(data) ULAN:500103049 NLA:35196951 NDL:00443405 NKC:jn19981001461 RLS:000035188 BNE:XX932328

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