Hinduism and Globalization - svAbhinava

Singh, Rana P.B. and Aktor, Mikael 2015. Hinduism and Globalization; in, Brunn (ed.) CWRM. NY 1917

Sub.: 06 March 2012, Rev. 20 Sept. 2014.<5,993 words, 6 Figs., 2 Tables>. Released: 1 March 2015.

[426-15]. Singh, Rana P.B. and Aktor, Mikael 2015. Hinduism and Globalization; in, Brunn, Stanley D. (ed.) Changing World Religion Map: Sacred Places, Identities, Practices and Politics. Springer Science + Business Media B.V., Dordrecht/ New York: pp. 1917-1932. <Vol. III, Chapter VIII.100>. ISBN Book: 978-94017-9375-9. ISBN e-Book: 978-94017-9376-6. DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9376-6_100.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Vol. III, Chapter VIII.100. Chapter No.: 100 0002197429. © The Authors.

Hinduism and Globalization Rana P. B. Singh (India) and Mikael Aktor (Denmark) 100.1. Introduction: History of Hinduism India has its own history of contrasts: ecological, religious, linguistic, historical, political and eco-psychological. India, the homeland of the three major religions, viz. Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism has a long history of civilization, going back to c. 2600-1900 BCE tracing the urban culture along the Indus River in the west India. Later the Harappa culture spread toward farther east and south as revealed by archaeological findings at many sites, including Mehargarh (west), Novsaro, Kot Diji, Amri, and Surkotada, Lothal (south). By c. 1800 BCE the Vedic culture was introduced, which later became the base of evolving Indian culture. By c. 1200 BCE many hymns of the Vedas were composed, the first and oldest called the Rig Veda. The remaining three Vedas are Yajura, Sama and Atharva Vedas. In the later phases, c. 1000 BCE, the Vedic culture expanded and spread over the Ganga Valley in north India. With the start of settled life, scholastic traditions also became very strong leading to writings of the Upanishads that deal with the philosophy of human-nature interaction and the relationship between humanity and divinity. Along these lines varieties of thoughts and ways developed in their own regional settings, which altogether generally are referred to as Hinduism. Michaels (2004, p. 3) states that “There is neither one founder of the religion nor one church nor one religious leader. Nor is there one holy book or one doctrine, one religious symbol or one holy centre. As a result, no one binding religious authority could emerge.” In fact, “Hinduism is not a homogeneous religion at all, but is rather a potpourri of religions, doctrines and attitudes toward life, rites and cults, moral and social norms” (ibid.).

It was during later periods, following the Buddha (6th or 5th century BCE) who tried to resolve the superstitions and ritualistic frame of Hindu traditions, when Buddhism was introduced. It was also when the great epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were composed. The great threat and also the enculturation from the West started with the invasion of Alexander the Great (c. 327-325 BCE), when the Mauryan dynasty (c. 324-185 BCE) was at its zenith and when Ashoka patronized the Buddhism. Since the beginning of the Current Era and several centuries many text and treatises were composed referring to the life-issues, values, society and administration. All the nature symbols and divine spirit were given anthropomorphic form which led to the foundation for the growth of various forms of divinities. The most popular were Vishnu (in the forms of Krishna and Rama), Devi (goddess), and Shiva. Also there were several indigenous and folk deities, locally worshiped independently or sometimes together with


the above three main divinities, as represented in Minakshi temple of Madurai (Fig. 100.1). During this phase of growth there also evolved the hierarchical system of four functional groups, called Varna (“color-based group”): Brahmins (“priests”), Kshatriya (“warriors”), Vaishya (“producers”), and Shudra (“servants”), which with the passage of time became segmented into hierarchy-based functional sub-groups of social classes, called jati (caste) (Fig. 100.2).

Fig. 100.1. A section of one of the temple towers of the Minakshi-Sundareshvara temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. South Indian temple towers are famous for their multi-colored elaborate depictions of the Hindu pantheon. The polytheism of Hinduism reflects a multi-faceted world view (photo by Mikael Aktor, April 2011).

Fig. 100.2. Vedic Hinduism: Sociogony, Social Organization (after Singh, 2009, p. 71).


From the four Varnas developed thirty-six major castes and several regional sub-divisions, totaling 3,742 castes (jatis) and sub castes (up-jatis) and an additional 4,635 communities (Singh, 1999, p. 58). In this process there also developed various sects and sub-groups of religious sects and traditions, numbering around two hundreds. Hinduism is like a Banyan tree with many branches and roots that continuously spring up their own roots when it is fully grown (Fig. 100.3). The branches of Hinduism such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, Jainism, Buddhism, etc. have developed their own deep roots, and many of them became independent in passage of time. Though there are many branches, roots, leaves and flowers, the Banyan tree is only one! Hinduism, like the banyan tree is a single unified entity with diversified beliefs and customs, of course it has both its glories and pitfalls. Fig. 100.3. A Banyan tree (Ficus Benghalensis) in Delhi Zoo; the tree with its thick net of

aerial roots is often regarded as the national tree of India. In Hinduism it is a sacred tree often functioning as a temple in its own right with small figurines of deities placed on the ground (photo by Mikael Aktor, May 2011).

In a way Hinduism may be referred to geographically as a defined group of distinct

but related “regions” working together and resulting in a multiplicity or spatial mosaicness (von Stietencron, 1989, p. 21). This promoted the most common practice of liberality in matters of religion having freedom for each individual to practice any of the paths what he wants to follow, and also to combine different religious approaches and ways of performances in his personal quest for the divine to satisfy oneself. This led to religious plurality and multiple layering and liberality, which is an important message in the era of globalization.


Hindus constitute a billion plus inhabitants of the planet, roughly one-fifth of the world’s population today and when the modern Indian innovativeness in technology mindedness combines with the universal, spiritual, vibrating, dancing, life force energy of the tradition, they are in a position to change the shape of the world for the betterment of generations to come. Thus Hinduism (“Hindu traditions” together in one frame) is an ongoing learning, transforming, and transferring process forever rooted in the past, continuity and practice in present, and with hope and vision moving into the future.

The four stage Varna frame, when extended into the four-level structure of stages and actions in Hindu life, can be formulated on the basis of the Puranic description of lifecycle, viz. dharma (moral duty) and karma (phenomenal action) interaction. Of course, they act side-by-side, they are no way identical, but rather operate in a complex system. At different levels the lifecycle in Hinduism follow the system of the counterpart (Fig. 4), representing the integrated frame of daily ongoing actions related to religio-ritual practices and duties. Considering an average life-span of one hundred years, the periods of life along with the subsequent actions are divided into four stages. Although they are not identical, they have similarities.

Fig. 100.4. Lifecycle in Hinduism (after Singh, 2009, p. 79).


The Grihyasutra prescribes five great sacrifices which one is required to perform everyday as daily routine forming part of his/her lifecycle. The human being is at the base having as a main sacrifice and responsibility to serve humanity symbolized with water. The two side axes above the base refer to the worship of knowledge and spirits; and two top axes symbolizing gods and manes. These five sacrifices are further correlated with five elements which constitute the total life: earth, water, fire, sky/ether, and air, as described in Hindu mythologies. According to the Bhagavadgita (7.4) the structure of the human and cosmic relationship can be divided into eightfold divisions which include the above five elements in addition to mind (mana), understanding (buddhi), and self-sense (ahamkara). All these sets are controlled by the ninth part, that is, eternal realization (chaitanya) (cf. Fig. 100.5). The man and cosmic relationship in a life-span is theologically reflected with five essential sacrifices (yajna) symbolically represented with five elements which together constitute the organic life. These five elements and sacrifices are influenced by three mental states and overall governed by eternal realization. Fig. 100.5. Human and Cosmic Relation in Hinduism (after Singh, 2009, p. 81).

The on-going ritual practice in a space-time-continuum can be expressed with the

structure of ritual-mandala which expresses the levels and intensity of believers from low to high, and from secular to sacred. With the four-fold taxonomy of ritual practices, there appears a system of “whole” that represents the rituals in practice, geometrically described with four patterns of ascending, descending, pyramidal, and concentric rings (cf. Fig. 100.6). In each case “the symbolic significance of rituals organized in these patterns are parallels by number, ritual purity or other dimensions of worshippers and


their gods” (Singh, Rana 1984, p. 108). In the process of space-time variation in daily life of Hindu society, there appears a complex system of ritual practices which distinctively form four geometric shapes. The counter-dependent and interdependent processes work together, and the variations can easily be observed in intensity of Scale, and Status that further reflect the segmented reality of the changing dimensions of “self” and his/her “world” in time-bound frame. These interrelationships finally merge to form a total system of ritual-mandala (cf. Fig. 100.6).

Fig. 100.6. Ritual Mandala and time geometry in terms of secular-sacred hierarchy (after

Singh, 2009, p. 247)

Of course, there does not exist strict orthodoxy in Hinduism; however, there are

several principles that share a commonality among the various sects. Virtually all Hindus believe in:

• The three-in-one god known as “Brahman,” which is composed of: Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the Preserver), and Shiva (the Destroyer).

• The Caste System (4 Varnas, 36 Jatis, c. 2400 sub-Jatis). • Karma, the law that good begets good, and bad begets bad. Every action, thought,

or decision one makes has consequences, good or bad, that will return to each person in the present life or in one yet to come.

• Reincarnation is also known as “transmigration of souls” or “samsara.” This is a journey on the “circle of life,” where each person experiences as series of physical births, deaths, and rebirths. With good karma, a person can be reborn into a higher caste or even to godhood. Bad karma can relegate one to a lower caste or even to life as an animal in their next life.


• Moksha (Nirvana). This is the goal of the Hindu. Nirvana is the release of the soul from the seemingly endless cycle of rebirths.

There also exist and continue to exist threefold spaces of Hinduism, of course they

have areas of overlapping and also sometimes contestations for identity and superiority: a. “Village Hinduism” prevailing in rural India (inhabiting 68 per cent of the

population) made up of grassroots, “Little tradition” Hindu ritual practices including shamanistic traditions of ecstatic experience but with some observance of pan-India mainline Hindu practices;

b. Literate, or scripture-based “Sanskrit, Vedic Hinduism” is a “Great tradition” variety represented by Brahmin priests, pandits, itinerant ascetics or monastic practitioners who propagate the ancient mythology and dominate the network of Brahmanical system; and

c. “Renaissance Hinduism” or Neo-Hinduism (“reformative”) is popular among the urban alienate, a portion of the new urban middle class, (often followers) of Ramakrishna (1836-1886), Vivekananda (1863-1902), Satya Sai Baba (1926-2011) and many others, and active in the missionary programmes in India and abroad (cf. Larson, 1995, pp. 20-21; Chapple and Tucker, 2000, p. xxxix).

Hindu adherents, standing fourth (ca. 1.08 billion as of 2007) in the numerical hierarchy at global level, after Christianity (2.1 billion), Islam (1.5 billion), and Secular/ /Agnostic/ Atheist (1.1 billion), maintain closer ties and links with other religious groups like Buddhism (376 million), Jainism (4.2 million) and Sikhism (23 million), the religions that originated and grew up in Indian soil long back in history, a process that resulted in a mutual cohesiveness.

In India the Hindu community shares about 80 per cent of total population, but that percentage is slowly decreasing. Contrary to this pattern is the Muslim population, which is increasing in numbers and its percentage (cf. Table 100.1). Table 100.1. Hindus and Muslims in India, 1961-2011: Population and Decadal Growth.

Percentage of Total Population Decadal Growth rate, % Religious commu-nities

1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

People 2001, mill.

People 2011, mill.

1971-81

1981-91

1991-01

2001-11

Hindus 84.4 83.5 83.1 82.4 80.5 79.8 827.6 965.5 24.2 25.1 20.3 16.7 Muslims 9.9 10.4 10.9 11.7 13.4 14.6 138.2 177.3 30.8 34.5 36.5 29.3

(Sources: Census of India, various Reports, collated by Rana P.B. Singh).

Table 100.2. Hindus by Country; their Percentage Share in the Total Population, 2007.

Country Hindus,% Country Hindus,% Country Hindus,%

Nepal 81.0 Bangladesh 12.4 Belize 2.3 India 79.8 Sri Lanka 12.1 Indonesia 2.0 Mauritius 50.0 Kuwait 12.0 Seychelles 2.0 Fiji 33.0 Qatar 7.2 Pakistan 1.8 Guyana 33.0 Malaysia 7.0 U.K. 1.7 Suriname 27.4 Réunion 6.7 Canada 1.0 Bhutan 25.0 Bahrain 6.2 New Zealand 1.0 Trinidad-Tobago 22.5 Oman 5.7 Kenya 1.0 United Arab Emirates

21.3 Singapore 5.1

(Source: Wikipedia, 2013).


The percentage of Hindus varies by countries, recoding dominance in South Asia

and Pacific Islands, and least share in marginal countries (see Wikipedia, 2013; cf. Table 100.2). Over the course of time such people organized themselves for socio-cultural activities by establishing their religious-cultural centers for community services that also extend support to Hindu community organizations in India. Such centers and temples act not only as community cultural centres, but also raise funds for charity works in India and remain central to philanthropic giving.

A scenario of diasporic Hindus acknowledges that “The articulation of identity by the Hindu migrants to Great Britain and North America, for example, has typically focused more on religion than on language or ethnicity. Religion represents a practical and socially acceptable source of identity in these places and maintains for the individual a strong sense of connection to the certainties of a familiar worldview and ethos. For Hindus, moreover, religious identity often provides the foundation for a larger diasporic community at local scales than would language or ethnicity” (Stump, 2008, p. 374). Obviously, the articulation of a common Hindu identity often brings together individuals whose traditional expressions of Hinduism have differed, the result being processes of simplification, homogenization, or innovations in religious practice as believers emphasize the commonalities in their understandings of tradition.

Still about one-half of the Hindu population in India is not really educated or literate in a strict sense and the majority exhibits little concern for the present century or economy. Yet they are still listening to mythologies and practicing rituals without a critical and rational testing of their relevance today, and they still hope that an universal order be maintained in this era of Kali-Yuga by coming of savior, Kalki.

Indian culture has never been isolated from the outside world. At no time did India or Indian kingdoms close itself off from interaction with the larger world like what happened in periods of East Asian history. Seals produced during the Harappan civilization (2500-2000 BCE) have been found in the countries of the Persian Gulf attesting to a trade with the Middle East at this early stage. The post-Alexander Seleucid Bactria spread its influence into northwest India after its independence 250 BCE and became a melting pot of Greek and Indian culture and religion. Early Buddhist art in North India was dominated by the Gandhara style that was one of the aesthetic results of this interaction. The trade of spices, textiles and incense connected India with Rome and with the larger Europe for many centuries. During the same centuries Buddhism spread from India towards East and North and became a major vehicle for intellectual exchange with larger Asia through a well-established network of monasteries and universities. Hindu and Buddhist culture also spread South East over the seas and established itself through Indo-China and Indonesia. From about 1000 CE India became increasingly influenced by Islamic culture and thus was connected to the Middle East and North Africa. Vasco da Gama’s arrival to Calicut (Kozhikode) at the Malabar Coast in 1498 boosted the trade with Europe but at the same time paved the way for European colonization during the next centuries. Christian missionaries were generally on board on the ships together with military, trade and administrative personnel, and through conversion new Christian communities were added to the original Saint Thomas Christians or Nasranis in Kerala. With the British colonization of India from 1798 and onward the mutual influence between India and Europe of religious as well of as secular ideas increased. Hindu reformers like Ram Mohan Roy were open to inspiration from Christian and Western social ideas while Vivekananda later experienced great success in exporting Vedanta to the West. After the Second World War the gradual increases in the world economy made it possible for large groups of young spiritually seeking Westerners


to travel to India and for Indian religious leaders to settle in Europe and America where they established Hindu religious institutions and networks that today are permanent parts of the religious landscape in the West.

100.2. Globalization and Hinduism

The process of globalization has also promoted cultural interactions and the acceptance of cultural differences and the establishment of universal norms of behavior in which religions have also intersected in a significant and complex ways, including movement and propagation of religious ethics, and promotion of tolerance, transformation and acceptance of other ideas at the global scale. What is unique about this wide history of cultural and religious globalization is that Hinduism remained such a strong tradition in India. Whereas the polytheistic religions of the Mediterranean, Arabian and North African cultural spheres vanished under the Christian Churches and the Islamic Ummahs, the Hindu traditions of India were capable of resisting missionary efforts. We should also remember that unlike Christianity, Islam and Buddhism, Hindu traditions do not owe their existence to one founder from whom a more or less uniform set of doctrines was established. These two factors, its polytheistic mythology and its openness of doctrine, have together contributed to the great diversity of the Hindu traditions. This diversity expresses itself in the remarkably rich and large narrative culture of India. With the disappearance of Greek, Roman, Germanic and other indigenous Indo-European mythologies, the European stock of religious narratives was severely reduced. In spite of the revival by artists and literati during the European Renaissance, it never became a living culture again. This is in strong contrast to India. Whereas Mediterranean mythologies died during the first half of the first millennium CE, Hindu traditions have had 2000 years more to proliferate, enter into new syntheses and become even more multiple. Even those Hindu reformers like Ram Mohan Roy who insisted on the singleness of God, coupled by a critique of so-called Hindu “idolatry,” never succeeded in winning the minds and hearts of the masses.

Hindu traditions are woven into a common history and have been systematized by priestly and other elites in such a way as to preserve a recognizable unity in a seemingly irreconcilable diversity. This process has been described as an interplay between local so-called “small traditions” and a pan-Indian “great tradition” whereby local groups or religions have aspired to recognition through adaptation of characteristics of the great tradition, or in terms of Indian ethnography, as a process of “sanskritisation” (Srinivas, 1952). The process attests to the rich and diverse demography that throughout Indian history has been one of the major factors of Indian social dynamics.

Even today with modern media of communication Hindu traditions and the Hindu self-awareness remain strong. The rich and great narrative tradition mentioned already is undoubtedly an important factor. This tradition is a major means of socialization not only in homes where parents tell their children the stories of Rama or Ganesha, but even also in school books, TV series, Bollywood production, songs, cartoons and many other forms of popular culture.

Based on the essence of Hindu ethics, Gandhi’s method of “truth force” (satyagraha) led to India’s independence from England in 1947 and also inspired Martin Luther King Jr.’s non-violent methods in the American civil rights movement in the 1950s and 60s. Moreover, in the 19th century, the American writers Emerson and Thoreau had been affected by, and in turn encouraged, the study of Hinduism. Since the 1960s the growth of yoga and meditation movements to promote physical and mental


health in the United States and Europe indicates that Hindu methods can be beneficial even when unaccompanied by faith in the theoretical worldview of Hinduism.

Historically, there have been deep and complex tensions between Hindu reactionaries and extreme Islamists that continue even today in different contexts. These stem largely from the clash between the Muslim monotheistic and Hindu polytheistic outlooks. Nevertheless, Hinduism reveals a strong acceptance of other faiths. Swami Vivekananda (1893) illustrated this in his lectures in the World Parliament of Religions at Chicago, which encouraged acceptance and understanding of Hinduism and its teachings. Since mid 20th century with the pushing forces of globalization, the ethics and basic Hindu philosophy of Human-Nature interrelationship has been in process of wider acceptance.

The proliferation of Hindu temples now spread over the North American religious landscape appears as part of a new process of globalization for Hinduism in an era of transnational religions. Many Hindus today are urban middle class people with religious values similar to those of their professional counterparts in America and Europe. Just as modern professionals continue to build new churches, synagogues, and now mosques, Hindus are erecting temples to their gods wherever their work and their lives take them. Despite the perceived exoticism of Hindu worship, the daily lifestyle of these avid temple patrons differs little from their suburban neighbors (cf. Waghorne, 2004). The construction of huge temples and replication of grand temples of the south in the north Indian big cities is another way of mass acceptance and using Hindu sensibility for religion and religious tourism.

Nevertheless it would be wrong to say that Hindu traditions are unaffected by modern globalization processes. According to recent globalization studies there seems to be two opposite effects of globalization on religion. One is the tendency witnessed in certain more conservative religious environments to close themselves off from others and to emphasize the borders to the surrounding society the other is the tendency toward openness of other more liberal religious groups (Beyer, 1994: 86ff). Both of these main tendencies can be seen in the religious landscapes of India. The conservative tendency is regarded as a reaction to the pressures of globalization in the form of increased fragmentation and competition from other ideologies. Globalization essentially means that global differences are shared by everyone everywhere. The world has become a single place. This increase of complexity (socially, conceptually, ideologically, economically, etc.) triggers defensive and nostalgic reactions for the more conservative religious groups. For the more liberal groups, on the other hand, globalization is regarded as an opportunity for strengthening the profile of the group by engaging in global issues of peace, environment, climate debates and similar areas that tend to be left unsolved by politicians and that are in need of long term solutions.

Thus, it would not be wrong to see the growth of Hindu Nationalism during the last three decades in the light of globalization. Notwithstanding the fact that most of the Hindu communalist movements have their roots in the pre-1947 struggle for independence, the vitality and growth that we have witnessed during these decades present significant evidence of conservative reactions to globalization. At the other end of the spectrum we find many religious movements that have opened themselves to non-Indians and have articulated their message in terms of global values of peace, non-violence, spirituality and human development. Many of these Hindu movements are also established in the West with large groups of Western followers. In the West they have for some time been influential in actually changing the religious landscape and the religious priorities of established Western religion. Thus, in an attempt to adapt to the development, the Christian Churches in many Western societies have had to look towards


such Hindu movements in their own countries in order to understand the changes going on in Western popular religion. It is by no means unusual for Westerners to practice yoga, believe in karma and at the same time have their children baptized in the local church. Hindu traditions like yoga and Hindu ideas like karma and reincarnation have for long been import products along with Ayurvedic therapy and Buddhist inspired Mindfulness. There can be no doubt, however, that over time the influences created by long time globalization processes between Western and Indian religion and thinking have worked both ways.

To be sure Hinduism is a remarkably diverse religious and cultural phenomenon, with many local and regional manifestations. However, within this universe of beliefs several important themes emerge that are to be considered as key teachings for the environmental issues at global level in the 21st century: • The earth can be seen as a manifestation of the goddess, and must be treated with

respect, in a way supporting the Gaia theory. Many Hindu rituals recognize that human beings benefit from the earth and offer gratitude and protection in response.

• The five elements (pancha-mahabhutas), space, air, fire, water, and earth are the foundation of an interconnected web of life and represent primal energy (cf. Fig. 5).

• Dharma, often translated as “moral duty,” can be reinterpreted to include our responsibility to care for the earth and service to humanity.

• Our treatment of nature directly affects our karma. Moral behavior creates good karma, and our behavior toward the environment has karmic consequences.

• Simple living is a model for the development of sustainable economies and promoting global brotherhood.

• Mahatma Gandhi exemplified many of these teachings, and his example continues to inspire contemporary social, religious, and environmental leaders in their efforts to protect the planet.

The greatest loss recorded in Hindu traditions during the colonial period was the loss

of the old ethic of eco-justice, which refers to the sanctity of life and cosmic interconnectedness (ecological cosmology) that extends to the sense of a global family or a universal brotherhood (vasudhaiva kutumbakam). This ethic helped society to maintain an order between dharma (moral code of conduct) and karma (right action). In the course of acculturation, the ideology of materialism, consumerism and individualism, which was always proscribed in traditional Hindu thought, has been accepted by contemporary society. At the other extreme, and perhaps in consequence, the movement of the revival of ancient cultural values is being turned to fundamentalism by some groups. The old principle of satyameva jayate (“Only truth triumphs”) is now replaced by arthameva jayate (“Only wealth triumphs”) (Singh, 1999, p. 59). The foreign cultural domination of India during the last 700 years and the influence of imported culture during recent globalization processes have played a major role in this form of transformation (Dwivedi, 1990, p. 210). Hinduism in India today faces several crises, among the notable ones are:

• Decline of spiritual sense (dharma) of Hinduism: lacking an understanding of nature worship, and associated meanings, messages and contexts of rituals;

• Using public show and celebrations as expression of the religion; • Predominating dogmatic orthodoxy to Hinduism, and emotionally blackmailing of

the innocent-poor masses; • The prevalence of superstitions and thereby marginalizing reasoning and

rationality in lack of insights from science; • Rising Middle class and their lust for a Western irresponsible capitalist culture;


• A lack of social consciousness, self-realization and service to sufferers, and social services, and

• The threatening pace of religious fanaticism and fundamentalism. As the impact of globalization and the new technology like television and Internet

are taking more pace the Hindu society continues to urbanize and begins to influence forms of worship, resulting to less segmentation in Hinduism. In a way, and maybe for the first time in history, Hinduism is turning into a unified religion through acceptance of pan-India level festivals and popularization of several regional festivals like Karwa Chauth and Chhatha, in a more standard form in big cities like New Delhi and Mumbai. Also the caste-affinity and related conservative rule are loosening, and newer sects like Swaminarayan coming as a grand show pieces through their architectural grandeurs (cf. Luce, 2011, pp. 312-313). Quite naturally technology helped in speeding up the nationalization of Hindu practices and the acquaintance the mythological stories of Hindu gods. The wide acceptance and popularization of pilgrimage-tourism is also supported by Hindu consciousness of their identity, globalization and propagation by the media (cf. Singh & Haigh, 2015, also Singh 2013). Nevertheless, in the passage of time Hinduism today has been unable to check the negative consequences like the break-up of joint families, disrespect of elders, excessive consumerism and materialism, individualism, abandonment of moral values (dharma) and lust for money. The sense of self-retrospection is slowly being replaced by blaming colonialism and westernization; traditional values of the ancient past are uncritically accepted as worthy frame for the future; ritual scenario of Hindu traditions are used as tools for political support; and secular democracy is narrated through religious vision, and so on. 100.3. Conclusion Perhaps, when the forces of globalization have spent themselves, the arboreal shoots will take root again and spring into other stable tree trunks (in the Banyan) through which the same life force will continue to flow. In India, religion is currently used as a tool for ‘secular democracy’ with the support of ‘secularization of religious ideas’. The Indologist Gerald Larson (1995, p. x) opines that the post independence ‘secular state of India’ is to a ‘significant degree a forward caste Neo Hindu state, or, in other words, that the “secular state” in the Indian context has a number of religious aspects and may even represent in some respects a religious entity.’ The philosopher S. Radhakrishnan (1959, pp. vii-viii), who was the second president of India, argued that the Indian idea of secularism ‘does not mean irreligion or atheism or even material comforts. It proclaims that it lays stress on universality of spiritual values which may be attained in a variety of ways. ... This is the meaning of a secular conception of the state though it is not generally understood.’ In maintaining secular democracy, the Hindu sense of tolerance, a living tradition, ‘has contributed vitally. ... More important, is the attitude of “live and let live” toward all manifestations of religious diversity (Smith, 1963, p. 149). During the last decades there have been recorded several incidences of Hindu-Muslim riots and religious contestations. However, it is hoped that in time Hinduism, with its inherent virtues of tolerance, ethical values, and concept of dharma linked to the four ends of life, will resuscitate itself and rise from own ashes like the phoenix and that one of the world’s oldest religions will live on (Bhela, 2010-11, p. 100). Frawley (2008) remarked that “The Hindu tradition embraces both spiritual and scientific knowledge, both religion and culture, not dividing them up such as has occurred in the West. Such an integral Hindu vision is quite in harmony with the dawning planetary age. But it is not as yet articulated in a practical


manner. Nor do Hindus understand the threats to their culture that globalization brings.” He has rightly mentioned that “The Hindu response to planetary concerns, particularly of an environmental and ecological nature, has been rather weak. India has already been devastated in terms of its ecology and this trend is increasing at an alarming rate. But there is little organized Hindu effort to counter this, the great Hindu tradition of Bhumi Puja (worshipping the earth) and love for Mother Earth notwithstanding” (ibid.). Nevertheless the Western criticism that Hinduism suffers from moral relativism, expressed in millions of gods, lots of scriptures, many gurus, total freedom, etc. is still true in different ways and varying degrees. However, the majority of Hindus never accepts such hard realities and believes that Sanskrit is a divine language and the ancient texts are the voices of gods (cf. Malhotra, 2011, pp. 211-215).

Hinduism has already been comfortable historically and culturally in accepting, absorbing and getting transformed whatever taboos and traditions came in contact ― resulting into constantly expanding its belief systems. Hindus are taking solace in the fact that Hinduism always has been at ease or comfortable with plurality; so nothing is surprisingly new in the modern plurality created by globalization. Hindu traditions are a complex web of multiplicity ― multiple Gods, multiple practices, multiple ways, multiple means and also simultaneous multiple ontological structures of monotheisms, monisms, polytheisms, and panentheisms ― altogether that converges into multiple wholes of mosaicness (cf. Biernacki, 2010, p. 1). Hinduism around the world absorbs facets of modernity (coping with science and technology) and post-modernity (the erosion of traditional values mostly due to globalization and cross-cultural influences). However, due to its open-minded theology, and the Hindu penchant for absorbing and reinterpreting new innovations, contemporary researches into cosmology and landscape ecology do not threaten the tenets of the belief systems as is the case for the prophetic monotheisms that rely upon the Genesis narrative (cf. Chapple, 2010). Cybernetic and automation technology have been embraced as a new worship tool, with rituals available online and with live webcam and television broadcasts from India’s most holy sites that have helped in shrinking the worlds of Hindus otherwise scattered all over the globe.

Abstract

Hinduism, a unified religious entity that boast an extraordinary diversity in its beliefs and customs claims ca. 1.08 billion (2007) adherents, almost 15% of the world’s people. Its diversity has promoted its traditional liberality and the freedom allowed for individuals to follow many different paths in their quest for the divine. In India, Hinduism inhabits three spaces: “Village Hinduism” prevails in rural India (68 per cent of the population), a set of “Little traditions” combining ritual and shamanism; “Sanskrit, Vedic Hinduism”, the “Great Tradition” preserved by Brahmin priests, pandits, and monastic orders, that propagates the ancient scriptures and mythology; and “Renaissance Hinduism”, which is popular among the new urban middle class and associated with the teachings of saints in missionary programs within India and worldwide. Hinduism is a diverse religious and cultural phenomenon; however, it contains several key teachings of value for the modern world. These include: a living belief in the sacredness of the Earth; fundamental belief in the interconnectedness of all life; commitment to dharma, a moral duty for service to the Earth and humanity; belief in karma, the law of consequences; and deep commitment to simple lifestyles and the greater benefit of spiritual than material wealth. Of course, Hinduism also faces many challenges caused by the Globalized values of materialism, consumerism and individualism and by the legacies of 700 years of Indian subjugation. Hinduism is also defended from many of Globalization’s adverse effects by its open-minded theology and its penchant for absorption and reinterpretation.


Keywords. Hinduism and globalisation, Sanatan Dharma, Varna system, Village Hinduism, Vedic Hinduism, Renaissance Hinduism, ritual mandala.

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The authors

Prof. Rana P. B. Singh (b. 15 December 1950) Professor of Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies, Head, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University (Home): # New F - 7, Jodhpur Colony, B.H.U., Varanasi, UP 221005. I N D I A Tel. Cell: [+091]-(0)-9838 119474. Email: [email protected]

Dr. Mikael Aktor Associate Professor, Institute of Philosophy, Education and the Study of Religions, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M. DENMARK Tel.+45 6550 3318. Mobile : +45 2830 7394. Fax : +45 6593 2375. § Email: [email protected]

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