Highlights from Highlights from Educational Research: Its Educational Research: Its

Nature and Rules of Nature and Rules of OperationOperation

Charles and Mertler (2002)Charles and Mertler (2002)

The Scientific Method: The Scientific Method: “A “A Procedure for thinking more Procedure for thinking more objectively” –Dewey, 1938 objectively” –Dewey, 1938

His steps:His steps:

1.) Clarify the main question1.) Clarify the main question

2.) State a hypothesis2.) State a hypothesis

3.) Collect, analyze, and interpret information 3.) Collect, analyze, and interpret information related to the question and hypothesisrelated to the question and hypothesis

4.) Form conclusions based on data analysis4.) Form conclusions based on data analysis

5.) Use the conclusions to accept or reject the 5.) Use the conclusions to accept or reject the hypothesishypothesis

*Some exceptions to this order exist*Some exceptions to this order exist

The scientific method The scientific method is…is…

CarefulCareful SystematicSystematic PatientPatient

Based on impartial observation…Based on impartial observation…

Terms from the research Terms from the research processprocess

Information collected to address the Information collected to address the research question: research question:

Description of the methods used to Description of the methods used to collect, organize, and analyze this collect, organize, and analyze this information:information:

The results of the data analysis: The results of the data analysis: The researcher’s interpretations of The researcher’s interpretations of

the results: the results:

data

proceduresfinding

sconclusions

Rules of Operation in Rules of Operation in Educational Research:Educational Research:

““There must be respect for evidence and a There must be respect for evidence and a ban on ‘cooking’ or distorting it; there ban on ‘cooking’ or distorting it; there must be a willingness to admit that one must be a willingness to admit that one is mistaken…” is mistaken…”

-Peters, 1973-Peters, 1973 Evidence is the most important factor for Evidence is the most important factor for

drawing conclusionsdrawing conclusions Disrespect for attempts to alter the evidenceDisrespect for attempts to alter the evidence Humbleness in the face of counter-evidence & Humbleness in the face of counter-evidence &

mistakesmistakes

Operating Rules of Operating Rules of ResearchResearch

****Learn these rules and follow them ****Learn these rules and follow them strictly****strictly****

4 Groupings:4 Groupings:

1.) Legal1.) Legal

2.) Ethical2.) Ethical

3.) Philosophical3.) Philosophical

4.) Procedural4.) Procedural

Created for the study of human Created for the study of human participantsparticipants

Legal Legal Operating Rules of Operating Rules of Research:Research:

1.) Protection: Protection: It is illegal to harm It is illegal to harm participants physically, participants physically, emotionally, or mentallyemotionally, or mentally Advised ConsentAdvised Consent is required to ask is required to ask

questions about sensitive issuesquestions about sensitive issues

What isWhat is advised consentadvised consent? ? The participant’s agreement to take part in the study after he/she understands what the study is about

LegalLegal Operating Rules of Operating Rules of ResearchResearch

2.) 2.) ConfidentialityConfidentiality:: It is illegal to use It is illegal to use participants’ names in association participants’ names in association with a given study; their identities with a given study; their identities must remain secret. This rule can must remain secret. This rule can only be broken if participants say it only be broken if participants say it is OK to do so (in a very clear way.)is OK to do so (in a very clear way.)

Institutional Review Boards play an Institutional Review Boards play an important role…What are they and important role…What are they and what do they do?what do they do?They are committees formed at

universities and colleges to check proposed research studies to make sure that they follow ethical and legal rules for research.

EthicalEthical Operating Rules Operating Rules of Researchof Research

3.) 3.) Beneficience:Beneficience: The goal of The goal of research is to improve the field’s research is to improve the field’s knowledge of a given topic and to knowledge of a given topic and to contribute to the population in contribute to the population in general.general.

It is not to do harm, find fault, or to It is not to do harm, find fault, or to slow down progressslow down progress

Ethical Ethical Operating Rules Operating Rules of Researchof Research

4.) 4.) Honesty:Honesty: The reported results must The reported results must represent the exact results found in the represent the exact results found in the study. In addition, the data that study. In addition, the data that contributes to these results must not be contributes to these results must not be manipulated in any way.manipulated in any way.

Pressure to find certain results exist:Pressure to find certain results exist: It is easier to publish a paper that makes a It is easier to publish a paper that makes a

major finding…major finding… Funding sources may want the results to Funding sources may want the results to

appear a certain way…appear a certain way…But the researcher must RESIST these But the researcher must RESIST these temptations!temptations!

EthicalEthical Operating Rules Operating Rules of Researchof Research

5.) 5.) Accurate Disclosure:Accurate Disclosure: Before Before conducting an experiment, the conducting an experiment, the researcher needs to explain the researcher needs to explain the experiment clearly and accurately to experiment clearly and accurately to the participant (or to the principal the participant (or to the principal and/or parents if the study involves and/or parents if the study involves children.)children.)

Accurate DisclosureAccurate Disclosure doesn’t mean doesn’t mean full full disclosuredisclosure...What is full disclosure? Why might it ...What is full disclosure? Why might it not be beneficial?not be beneficial?

Full disclosure means that the researcher provides all of the details of the study. It might not be beneficial to tell participants everything about the study because it would make them act differently in the study.

Ethical and Legal Ethical and Legal PrinciplesPrinciples

ProtectionProtection ConfidentialityConfidentiality BeneficienceBeneficience HonestyHonesty Accurate DisclosureAccurate Disclosure

The syphilis article discusses cases The syphilis article discusses cases that violate which principles?that violate which principles?

PhilosophicalPhilosophical Operating Operating Rules of ResearchRules of Research

6.) 6.) Importance:Importance: The researcher needs to The researcher needs to make it clear that study is worth the time, make it clear that study is worth the time, effort, and/or money that it requires.effort, and/or money that it requires.

Achieve this by:Achieve this by:

1.) Explaining its importance to education1.) Explaining its importance to education

2.) Explaining the need for information about 2.) Explaining the need for information about itit

3.) Explaining the way that the study fills a 3.) Explaining the way that the study fills a research vacuumresearch vacuum

PhilosophicalPhilosophical Operating Operating Rules of ResearchRules of Research

7.) 7.) GeneralizabilityGeneralizability: It is possible to : It is possible to apply the study’s findings to other apply the study’s findings to other similar contextssimilar contexts

This can be helped by making sure that the This can be helped by making sure that the sample represents the population (i.e. The sample represents the population (i.e. The people selected for the study accurately people selected for the study accurately represent the larger group they come represent the larger group they come from.)from.)

Generalizability is not always an issue.Generalizability is not always an issue. It is It is irrelevant in which two types of research?irrelevant in which two types of research?Historical research and action research

PhilosophicalPhilosophical Operating Operating Rules of ResearchRules of Research

8.) 8.) Replicability:Replicability: The researcher The researcher describes his/her methods in such a describes his/her methods in such a clear way that other researchers can clear way that other researchers can conduct the same study later on with conduct the same study later on with a different group of participants.a different group of participants. Why are replication studies important?Why are replication studies important?Replication studies, if they find the Replication studies, if they find the same results as the original study, same results as the original study, help to strengthen belief in the help to strengthen belief in the results found in the original study results found in the original study

PhilosophicalPhilosophical Operating Operating Rules of ResearchRules of Research

9.) 9.) Probability:Probability: Results from research Results from research studies are not hard answers or truths; data studies are not hard answers or truths; data does not does not proveprove anything. Instead, anything. Instead, conclusions focus on the conclusions focus on the probabilityprobability that a that a finding exists.finding exists.

[If the study is replicated, there is a high [If the study is replicated, there is a high probability of finding the same results.]probability of finding the same results.]

The researcher assumes a certain The researcher assumes a certain margin margin of errorof error (natural variation of results) (natural variation of results) especially if sample sizes are smallespecially if sample sizes are small

ProceduralProcedural Operating Operating Rules of ResearchRules of Research

10.) 10.) ResearchabilityResearchability: : relies on three factors:relies on three factors:

The researcher can address the research The researcher can address the research

question using established research question using established research procedures.procedures.

It is possible to access the data for the It is possible to access the data for the research studyresearch study

It is possible to address the research It is possible to address the research question within the given limitations of time question within the given limitations of time and resources.and resources.

ProceduralProcedural Operating Operating Rules of ResearchRules of Research

11.) 11.) ParsimonyParsimony: The simpler a theory : The simpler a theory is, the better it is (if it adequately is, the better it is (if it adequately explains the given topic.)explains the given topic.)

Research methods should be Research methods should be efficient and simpleefficient and simple

Data analysis should get to the Data analysis should get to the point immediatelypoint immediately

ProceduralProcedural Operating Operating Rules of ResearchRules of Research

12.) A study’s 12.) A study’s CredibilityCredibility is Measured by: is Measured by: Its ability to research a significant topicIts ability to research a significant topic The degree to which it follows the rules discussed The degree to which it follows the rules discussed

herehere The The validityvalidity and and reliabilityreliability of its data of its data Its use of appropriate methodsIts use of appropriate methods The degree to which the data supports the The degree to which the data supports the

findingsfindings Its clear, accurate, logical, and persuasive Its clear, accurate, logical, and persuasive

conclusionsconclusions What are validity and reliability?What are validity and reliability?Something is valid if it accurately reflects/measures

what it claims to reflect/measure.

Something is reliable if it produces the same results each time it is used.

ProceduralProcedural Operating Operating Rules of ResearchRules of Research

13.) 13.) Rival ExplanationsRival Explanations: The researcher : The researcher needs to assume that others might find needs to assume that others might find different conclusions based on his/her different conclusions based on his/her results.results.

Therefore, it is necessary to…Therefore, it is necessary to… Follow proceduresFollow procedures Identify variables (besides the dependent variable) that Identify variables (besides the dependent variable) that

may have influenced the resultsmay have influenced the results Explore the possibility of biasExplore the possibility of bias Look into other possible interpretations and state reasons Look into other possible interpretations and state reasons

for which the researcher believes his/her conclusions to be for which the researcher believes his/her conclusions to be more likelymore likely

Educators as Educators as ResearchersResearchers

From current research into educational From current research into educational research…research…

Research that is done by the teachers Research that is done by the teachers themselves often leads to greater changes themselves often leads to greater changes in the classroom.in the classroom.

……..So, educational research is relevant to ..So, educational research is relevant to you as both a university student AND as a you as both a university student AND as a teacher. Use it as the important tool for teacher. Use it as the important tool for change that it is!change that it is!