HIGH-PRESSURE SYNCHROTRON INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY · PDF fileCarnegie Institution HIGH-PRESSURE...
Transcript of HIGH-PRESSURE SYNCHROTRON INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY · PDF fileCarnegie Institution HIGH-PRESSURE...
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HIGHHIGH--PRESSURE SYNCHROTRON PRESSURE SYNCHROTRON INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY:INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY:New Light on Materials under Extreme New Light on Materials under Extreme ConditionsConditions
Russell J. HemleyRussell J. Hemley
Geophysical Laboratory Geophysical Laboratory Carnegie InstitutionCarnegie InstitutionWashington, DCWashington, DC
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CollaboratorsCARNEGIE INSTITUTIONCARNEGIE INSTITUTIONZhenxian LiuHo-kwang Mao Daniel HausermannJinghzu Hu Quanzhong Guo Yingwei Fei Sarah StewartViktor Struzhkin M. SomayazuluJinfu Shu Eugene Gregoryanz Wesley Huntress Yue MengJian Xu
OTHER INSTITUTIONSLarry Carr (NSLS)Dennis Klug (NRC)Mikhail Eremets (Mainz)Alexander Goncharov (LLNL)Wendy Mao (Chicago)Dudley Herschbach (Harvard)Henry Scott (Indiana SB)James Badro (Paris)T. Lin (Scripps)Michael Kruger (UMKC)Lisa Miller (NSLS)Chi-chang Kao (NSLS)Anurag Sharma (RPI)Yusheng Zhao (LANL)Joe Zaug (LLNL)
Financial SupportDOE/BES Carnegie InstitutionNSF (COMPRES)
Carnegie InstitutionCarnegie Institution
OUTLINE
I. Introduction STATIC HIGH-PRESSURE SCIENCE UNIQUE ADVANTAGES OF SYNCHROTRON INFRARED
II. Highlights: A Decade of New Findings SELECTED APPLICATIONS:
Physics, Chemistry, Materials Science, Earth and Planetary Science, Biology and Soft Matter
III. New Opportunities and ChallengesSELECTED GRAND CHALLENGES A NEW OF HIGH-PRESSURE DEVICESPOSSIBLITIES FOR NSLS-II
Synchrotron infrared and high pressureSynchrotron infrared and high pressure-- an extraordinary matchan extraordinary match
Synchrotron IR/xSynchrotron IR/x--ray probesray probes-- unique capabilities of the NSLS
Full integration ofFull integration of techniques techniques -- future facilities
THEMESTHEMES
future facilities
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10-32
10-24
10-16
10-8
1
108
1016
1024
1032
10-8
10-6
10-4
10-2
1
102
104
106
108
RANGE OF PRESSURE IN THE UNIVERSERANGE OF PRESSURE IN THE UNIVERSEPr
essu
re (A
tmos
pher
es)
Pres
sure
(Atm
osph
eres
)
Hydrogen gas in intergalactic space
Interplanetary space
Center of neutron star
Atmosphere at 300 miles
Center of Jupiter
Center of white dwarf
Center of Sun Deepest ocean
Best mechanical pump vacuum
Water vapor at triple point
Center ofthe Earth
Atmospheric pressure (sea level)
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ADVANCES IN STATIC HIGH PRESSUREADVANCES IN STATIC HIGH PRESSURE
PRESSURE UNITS
103 atm ≈ kbar106 atm ≈ Mbar10 kbar = 1 GPa1 Mbar = 100 GPa
1 Gigapascal = 109 N/m2
13524
335363
P (GPa)
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Free Energy Changes and Chemical BondingFree Energy Changes and Chemical Bonding
• P-V work can exceed binding energies
• Dramatic changes in bondingand electronic states
• Stored energy in metastablephases
[Hemley and Ashcroft, Physics Today 51, 26 (1998)]
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2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-Log(
I/I
0)
160140120100806040
Energy (keV)
2 x 2.5 mmdiamonds
Radial
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Energy(k V)
Axial
2 mm Be
-Log(I/Io)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
diamonds
beryllium
REE L
TransE Kα
α
Supportingseats
20 0m m
HIGHHIGH--PRESSURE TECHNOLOGYPRESSURE TECHNOLOGYPlethora of New InstrumentsPlethora of New Instruments
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50 GPa ~200 µm 300 GPa <10 µm
P dd
Synchrotron Infrared Spectroscopy and High PressureSynchrotron Infrared Spectroscopy and High Pressure
10000 1000 100 10 1108
109
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
2000K Black Body
U4IR
NSLS U2B Mk.2 40 mrads hor40 mrads vert.
NSLS U2B 12 mrads hor8 mrads vert.
Pho
tons
/sec
/0.1
%bw
/mm
2 sr
Wavelength (microns)
NInfrared Brightness
U4IR: 1990-1992• First megabar synchrotron IR measurementsU2B: 1992-1998• PRT with NSLS, Northrup Grumman• Nicolet 750; custom built microscopesU2A: 1998-• PRT with NSLS• Integrated optical/IR spectroscopy facilityU2A: 2004-• Improved beam delivery• Far-IR enhancement
High-Pressure Beam lines
IR
X-RAY
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U2A Beamline Upgrade: IMPROVED FAR-IR AND BEAM DELIVERY
M2M1
Detector
VacuumBench
N2 purgedBruker IRscope II
Diamond cell in the cryostat
Ø10mmdiamondwindow
Vacuum box
Vacuumpipe
VacuumMicroscope
MCT DetectorBolometer
DACMCT Detector
KBr window
FS
FSN2 purged Low-T
Far/Mid-IR MICROSCOPE
MCT 1
MCT 2
Bolometer
Laser FS Microscope 2
Microscope 1
Microscope 3
Visible spectrograph
CCD detector
notch filters
• Near IR through far IR spectral range
• Reflectivity and absorptionmeasurements
• Low-temperature measurements• Mapping of the samples• In situ Raman and fluorescence
measurements• Diamond lens• Small diamonds
NSLSVUV
Bruker IFS66v/sFTIR Spectrometer
Ø10mmdiamondwindow
eyepiece
Diamond lens
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1. Condensed Matter PhysicsA WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
- HYDROGEN AT MEGABAR PRESSURES
Pressure (GPa)
100 120 140 160 180 200
Tem
pera
ture
(K)
0
50
100
150
200
250
III
II
ITriple point
p-H2
n-H2p-H2Lorenzana et al.
ANOMAlOUSCHARGE TRANSFER STATE
[Hemley et al., Nature 369, 384 (1994)]
UNEXPECTED PHASE DIAGRAM
NO “MOLECULAR”METALLIZATION (to 230 GPa)[Hemley et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 76,
1667 (1996); Chen et al. Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 1667 (1996) ]
IR Absorption
Wavenumbers (cm-1)
4300 4400 4500 4600 4700
Abs
orba
nce
181166156
14812369
P(GPa)
85 K
H2
151
Infrared Absorption
0.5
[Mazin et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 1066 (1997);Goncharov et al., ibid. 75, 2514 (1996); Lorenzana et al., ibid., 63, 2080 (1989)]
→
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[Goncharov et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 98, 14234 (2001)]
[Kohanoff et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 4097 (1999)]
Wavenumber (cm-1)
4600 4800 5000 6000 6200 6400
Abs
orba
nce
0.05
4000 4200 4400
0.5
VibronCombination bands
248 GPa
205 GPa20 K
H2140 K
• Molecules stable to 300 GPa in solid• Constraints on the crystal structure
1. Condensed Matter PhysicsA WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
MultimegabarMultimegabar VibrationalVibrational SpectroscopySpectroscopy
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1. Condensed Matter PhysicsA WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
[Chen et al. Phys. Rev. B64, 20040 (2002)]
600 700 800 900 10001100100 200 300 400 500 600
1 atm
Mid-IR
pressure released
4.0
2.6
2.01.71.10.60.4
0.2
1 atmAbso
rban
ce (a
rb. u
nit)
Far-IRHfW2O8
1 atm
4.0
2.62.01.71.10.60.4
0.2 GPa
Wavenumber (cm-1)Pressure-induced amorphization of HfW2O8
[Struzhkin et al., Phys. Rev. B 62, 3895 (2000)]
- NOVEL TRANSFORMATIONS
Pressure (GPa)
0 5 10 15 20 25
ω/ω
0-1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Col 1 vs Col 2 2-Magnon Raman, 300 K RegrCol 30 vs Col 31 2-Magnon IR, 300 K RegrCol 30 vs Col 34
Sr2CuCl2O2 magnon excitations IR, NaCl medium
Wavenumber (cm-1)
4000 6000
Abs
orba
nce
2-M 4-M
Inte
nsity
(a. u
.)
2.2
3.9
5.4
7.0
9.1P, GPa
- MAGNON EXCITATIONS
- INFRARED EXCITATIONS IN HIGH-Tc SUPERCONDUCTORS
[Struzhkin et al. J. Phys. Condens. Matter, in press]
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HH22OO--ICE UNDER PRESSURE ICE UNDER PRESSURE 200
150
100
50
0
Pre
ssur
e (G
Pa)
181614121086
Volume (cm3
/ mol)
Ice VI
Water
Ice VII
Volume (cm3/mol)
Pres
sure
(GPa
)
Compression of HCompression of H22OO(300 K)(300 K)
200
0
50
100
150
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Ice VIWater
Ice X
Ice VII
[Hemley and Mao, J. Phys . Condens , Matter 49, 11157 (1998)]
• bcc-like oxygen for ice VII and X• No other major phase transitions to at least 210 GPa
[Goncharov et al., Science273, 218 (1996)]
HIGH PRESSURE SPECTRAHIGH PRESSURE SPECTRASynchrotron Infrared Reflectivity
T1u T1u
• Non-molecular ice identified by IR reflectivity above 60 GPa• X-ray Confirms spectroscopic data: bcc-based structure
2. ChemistryA WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
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A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:2. Chemistry- ANOMALOUS
TRANSITIONS IN ICE VIII
100 200 300 400 500
6.514.71
2.08
0.14
1.48
2.83
4.12
6.18
7.98 GPa
D2O 85 K
Abs
orba
nce
(arb
. uni
t)
Wavenumber (cm-1)0 2 4 6 8
150
200
250
300
350
400
450D2O 85K
decompression
compression
Wav
enum
ber (
cm-1)
Pressure (GPa)
?
Pressure dependence of IR translational and rotational mode frequencies in D2O No transition
[Klug et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., submitted]
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A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:2. Chemistry
- NOVEL MOLECULAR PHASES
Raman Shift (cm-1)
2350 2400 2450200 400 600
Ram
an In
tens
ity (
arb.
uni
ts)
N2
ζ
ι
θ
Wavenumber (cm-1)
2400 2450
Ab
sorb
ance
θ
ι
ζ
0.2
2400 2420
θ
x10•• Quenchable to 300 KQuenchable to 300 K• Polynitrogen: e.g., N5
+ N5-
IR
- VAN DER WAALS COMPOUNDS
[Loubeyre et al. (1994); Datchi et al. (1997);Hemley (2000); Ulivi et al. (2001)]
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X-ray
• NO+-NO3-: an unusual ionic
phase probed by far-IR and x-ray
A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:2. Chemistry
- NOVEL MOLECULAR PHASES
NO+-NO3-β-N2O
→
Far-IR
[Somayazuluet al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 87, 135504 (2001); Songet al. 119,2232 (2003)]
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- VIBRATIONAL PROPERTIES(Transition mechanisms and thermodynamic properties)
- INSULATOR-METAL TRANSITIONS - MICROSPECTROSCOPY OF INCLUSIONS- DENSE SILICATES IN THE MANTLE
0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 0
1 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
7 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
T h e o r y
S h o c k W a v e
S t a t i cδ
εγ
α
Tem
pera
ture
(K)
P r e s s u r e ( G P a )
3. Earth and Planetary ScienceA WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
Phase D
Superhydrous B
Lawsonite
Phase B Phase E
Phase A
HYDROUS PHASES IN THE DEEP MANTLE:HYDROUS PHASES IN THE DEEP MANTLE:Hydrogen Incorporation in Dense Silicates
In SituIn Situ Measurements:Measurements:MULTIPLE CRYSTALSMULTIPLE CRYSTALS
200 µmDisplacive transformation in cummingtonite
[Yang et al., Am. Mineral. 83, 288 (1998)]
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3. Earth and Planetary ScienceA WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
High-Pressure Behavior of K1.54Mg1.93Si1.89O7H1.04
• H disordering above ~15 GPa• Crystalline-crystalline transformation
3000 3500
ν3 ν2
ν1powder
8.0
20.5
16.7
12.1
4.9 GPa
1 atmsingle crystal
Abs
orba
nce
(arb
. uni
t)
Wavenumber (cm-1)1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
Å
(112
)
(008
)
(204
) (114
)
(113
)
(111
) (110
)
(104
)
Imte
nsity
(arb
. uni
t)
Ar
Ar
20.5
16.7
12.1
8.0
4.9 GPa1atm
d-spacing ( )
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
c/c0
a/a0
V/V0
Com
pressibility
P (GPa)
IRIR XX--rayray
[Liu et al. J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 14, 1064 (2003)]
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3. Earth and Planetary ScienceA WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
• Hydrocarbon stability tomegabar pressure300 K compression
• Consistent with powderand single-crystal diffraction
• New physics (H-rich alloy)?
~ 2000 K~10 GPa
~ 5000 K ~300 GPa
~ 7000 K ~800 GPa
~ 70 K~0.1 MPa
Wavenumber (cm-1)
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Abso
rban
ce
127 GPa
107
87
69
52
ν3
0.2
ν4 Methane 300 K
IR AbsorptionIR Absorption
- PLANETARY GASES AND ICES
[Badro et al., to be published]
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100 200 3000
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
92.5
56.6 cm-1
HEME C-12
sample size: d=810 µm t=280 µmscan: 20 minutes
Mylar6
Mylar23
Abs
orpt
ion
coef
ficie
nt (m
m-1)
Wavenumber (cm-1)
HEME DOMINGHEME DOMING--MODEMODE
0 2 4 6 850
60
70
decrease P
HEME C-12
P (kbar)
increase P
Wav
enum
ber (
cm-1)
• Doming mode found at 57 cm-1
• Far-IR at high pressure
[Klug et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 99, 12526 (2002)]
4. Biology and Soft Matter
- BIOMOLECULE VIBRATIONAL DYNAMICS
- BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN HYDROTHERMA FLUIDS
- LIFE IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS(>1600 MPa)
[Sharma et al., Science 295, 1514 (2002)]
A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
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- SUPERHARD MATERIALS- HYDROGEN STORAGE MATERIALS
5. Materials Science and TechnologyA WEALTH OF FINDINGS:A WEALTH OF FINDINGS:
[Zhao et al., J. Mat. Sci., in press]
[Goncharov et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 1262 (2000); Eremets et al. Nature 411, 170 (2001)]NITROGEN DISSOCIATION
Novel H2-H2O structure II clathrateStable at ambient pressure to 145 K5.3 % hydrogen (4.5 % DOE 2005 target)
- HIGH ENERGY DENSITY MATERIALS
[W. Mao et al. Science 297, 2247 (2002)]
Wavenumber (cm-1)
2400 2450 2500
Abso
rban
ce
60 GPa
170 GPa
160 GPa
151 GPa
140 GPa
134 GPa
115 GPa
97 GPa
80 GPa
N2 0.1
SEMICONDUCTING BEHAVIOR
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OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGESOPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES
• Higher pressures and temperatures- physics/chemistry/astrophysics/planetary science
• Higher precision/acccuracy/sensitivity- all pressure ranges
• Broader wavelength range- far-IR, THz
• Time resolution- transition kinetics to chemical dynamics
• Integration of techniques- diffraction, inelastic scattering, imaging
• New generation of instrumentation- large volume, smart anvil cell designs
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4100 4150 4200 4250 43000
100
200
300
400
500
Inte
nsity
(ar
b. u
nits
)
300 K
570 K
755 K
923 K
1114 K
Raman shift (cm )−1
• Liquid ground state? • High-Tc superconductor?• Higher P-T needed• Infrared combined with x-ray inelastic
scattering phonons/electrons
Raman72 GPa
FLUID
SOLID
[Gregoryanz et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 90, 175701 (2003)]
Pressure (GPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Tem
pera
ture
(K)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
SOLID
LIQUID LIQUID (METAL)
I
II
III
Shock wave, Weir et al.
Theory (Scandolo et al.)
Datchi et al.
Our data
Hydrogen
Kechin extrapolation
Grand Challenge of Hydrogen at Extreme P-T
FLUID
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:
?
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OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:Electronic Structure, Bonding, Synthesis of Novel Materials
[Struzhkin et al. (2002)]
[Gao et al. (1994)]
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+d
- HIGHEST TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY Tc = 164 K at 30 GPa
- EXCITONIC INSULATOR STATES?
0 1 2 3
1,544
1,546
Temperature, K
0,936
0,938
155 GPa
141 GPa
ElectricalResistivity to
27 mKand 160 GPa
Xe
[Eremets et al. (2000)]
-NOVEL SUPERCONDUCTORS(e.g., 23 elements; O, S, B, Fe, Li)
• Integrated studies to >300 GPa and to millikelvin temperatures
• Far-IR to optical range • Combined with x-ray inelastic
scattering phonons/electrons• Recovery to ambient
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OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:Spectroscopy of Earth Materials at Extreme P-T
- NATURE OF THE CORE FROM IN SITU OPTICAL STUDIES- CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN THE DEEP EARTH- HYDROCARBON STABILITY AND ENERGY RESOURCES- IN SITU HIGH P-T STUDIES OF
PLANETARY GASES AND ICES
~ 2000 K~10 GPa
~ 5000 K ~300 GPa
~ 7000 K ~800 GPa
~ 70 K~0.1 MPa
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OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:Life in Extreme Environments and Origin of Life
• IR/optical/x-ray imaging with P-T-t
• Single cells under stress
• “Test-tube” study of microbial evolution and adaptation
• Combined with otherprobes in new instrumentation
- BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS - HIGH-PRESSURE MICROBIOLOGY
[Sharma et al., Science 295, 1514 (2002)]
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OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:
Growth of Diamond Anvils by Homoepitaxial Chemical Vapor Deposition
Towards TPa Pressures with Large Volume Anvil Cells
0.025 ct 0.25 ct 2.5 ct 25 ct
7.5mm 16.2mm3.5mm1.7mm
CVD homoepitaxial growth
[Yan et al. PNAS 99, 12523 (2002)]
Diamond Growing in a Plasma Reactor
GOALS:
• Higher pressures (1 TPaor 10 Mbar) and temperatures (>1 eV)
• Larger sample volumes needed (e.g., diffraction limited far-IR)
• Accuracy/precision compromised
• Applications of several simultaneous probes limited
•• 2.45 mm high• 0.28 carats• 0.45 mm seed• Grown in 1 day[Yan et al. Phys. Stat. Sol.
201, R27 (2004)]
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OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:
Growth of Diamond Anvils by Homoepitaxial Chemical Vapor Deposition
Towards TPa Pressures with Large Volume Anvil Cells
0.025 ct 0.25 ct 2.5 ct 25 ct
7.5mm 16.2mm3.5mm1.7mm
CVD homoepitaxial growth
[Yan et al. PNAS 99, 12523 (2002)]
Diamond Growing in a Plasma Reactor
GOALS:
• Higher pressures (1 TPaor 10 Mbar) and temperatures (>1 eV)
• Larger sample volumes needed (e.g., diffraction limited far-IR)
• Accuracy/precision compromised
• Applications of several simultaneous probes limited
•• 2.45 mm high• 0.28 carats• 0.45 mm seed• Grown in 1 day[Yan et al. Phys. Stat. Sol.
201, R27 (2004)]
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OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:
0
50
100
150
200
6 7 8 9 10 11
Volume (cm3/mol)
Pre
ssur
e (G
Pa)
Re
Ta
SingleSingle--crystal CVD anvils can crystal CVD anvils can generate generate multimegabarmultimegabar pressurespressures
X-RAY EOS
• Two runs: NSLS (EDX) APS (ADX)
• Beveled, A=100 µm B= 300 µm;θ =10º (CVD)
[W. Mao et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 5190 (2003)]
CVD single crystals are CVD single crystals are utratoughutratough and/or and/or ultrahardultrahard
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:Towards TPa Pressures with Large Volume Anvil Cells
[Yan et al. Phys. Stat. Sol. 201, R27(2004)]
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OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:Towards TPa Pressures with Large Volume Anvil Cells
2800 3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000
CVD
CVD anneal
Abs
orba
nce
Wavenumber (cm-1)
C-H stretching
• Unusual hydrogen impurity structure • Largely homogeneous based on IR mapping• Enhanced far-IR transparency on annealling• X-ray topography (X19) in progress
100 200 300 400 500 600 7000
5
10
IIa
Ib
Ib anneal
CVD
CVD anneal
Abs
orpt
ion
coef
ficie
nt (c
m-1)
Wavenumber (cm-1)
3 mm
Characterization of CVD diamond single crystals by synchrotron ICharacterization of CVD diamond single crystals by synchrotron IRR
IR Map 3000 cm-1
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CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS11. High pressure: a superb application of synchrotron IR . High pressure: a superb application of synchrotron IR
techniques, complementing hard xtechniques, complementing hard x--rays and other rays and other methods.methods.
2.2. An essential tool for uncovering new physics and An essential tool for uncovering new physics and chemistry of materials under extreme conditions.chemistry of materials under extreme conditions.
3. Numerous problems in Earth and planetary science can 3. Numerous problems in Earth and planetary science can now be addressed.now be addressed.
4. Particularly important are the new far4. Particularly important are the new far--IR developments IR developments and integrated multiand integrated multi--probe approaches.probe approaches.
5.5. Numerous new highNumerous new high--pressure technique developments pressure technique developments are coming on line to complement the new generation are coming on line to complement the new generation of synchrotron facilities: NSLSof synchrotron facilities: NSLS--IIII
6. The pressure parameter should be an integral part of 6. The pressure parameter should be an integral part of sample environments at beamlines throughout NSLSsample environments at beamlines throughout NSLS--II. II.