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HIE 208A Canadian Military History From Confederation to the Present: Lesson 3 1867-1885

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Introduction

� Canadian geographic expansion

� Growth of Cdn military

� Zouaves

� Red River Rebellion

� Nile Expedition

� Northwest Rebellion

Introduction

The period 1867-1885 was one of nation-building in Canada. During these yearsthe new nation greatly expanded its borders and pursueda national policydesigned to populate the still-largely empty land and unify the country througheconomic growth and prosperity. Government interest in defence policy wasinitially rather limited. Still enamoured with a “militia myth” (which dated back to the War of 1812), Canadian politicians favoured a home defence force of untrained volunteers. The withdrawal of British forces and the challenges of internal rebellion and dissent ultimately forced the Canadian government to rethink this policy.

This lesson first outlines the growth of the Canadian nation during the 1867-1885 period, emphasizing geographic expansion, national policies and regional discontent. The second part of the lesson focuses more specifically on the growthof the Canadian military during this era. Particular attention will be paid to the role of citizen soldiers, the growth of a standing army and the education and training of officers. The role of British and Canadian forces in the Red River Resistance/Rebellion and the Northwest Rebellion willalso be examined.

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Lesson Objectives

� describe the role played by British and Canadian troops in the Red River Rebellion of 1870

� explain and assess the organization of Canada’s military after the last British regimentleft North America in 1871

� outline the functions performed by Canadian militias in the last quarter of the nineteenth century and assess their capabilities

� describe relations between the civil authority and the military during this period� explain why the North West Mounted Police was created in 1873� explain why the Royal Military College of Canada was created in 1876� identify external and internal threats faced by Canada during this era� identify the factors leading to the Northwest Rebellion of 1885� outline the Canadian military’s role in the Northwest Rebellion� describe the strategy and tactics employed by British/Canadian officers and the Métis

and Native leaders in the Northwest Campaign� explain why the hanging of Louis Riel so divided Canadians

Lesson Objectives

describe the role played by British and Canadian troops in the Red River Rebellion of 1870

explain and assess the organization of Canada’s military after the last British regiment left North America in 1871

outline the functions performed by Canadian militias in the last quarter of the nineteenth century and assess their capabilities

describe relations between the civil authority and the military during this period

explain why the North West Mounted Police was created in 1873

explain why the Royal Military College of Canada was created in 1876

identify external and internal threats faced by Canada during this era

identify the factors leading to the Northwest Rebellion of 1885

outline the Canadian military’s role in the Northwest Rebellion

describe the strategy and tactics employed by British/Canadian officers and the Métis and Native leaders in the Northwest Campaign

explain why the hanging of Louis Riel so divided Canadians

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The Young Nation’s Diversity� 3.5 million population, 4 of 5 Canadian born� 1/3 French origin, 60% British� Ont 1.5 million, Quebec 1 million, 400k in

NS, 300k in NB� 1st nations, 30,000

Part I: The Young Nation

Before examining Canada’s military in the 1867-1885 period, it is necessary to know something about the broader political, social and economic developments during this period.

Diversity in the New Nation: Canada in 1867

Chapter 1 of Destinies provides a good snapshot of the new Dominion of Canada that came into existence on 1 July 1867. The authors show that Canada had a relatively small population (3.5 million) and that, although the majority of citizens were of French or English descent, there was a small but distinct minority composed of Aboriginal people, Americans and Europeans.

3.5 million population, 4 of 5 Canadian born

1/3 French origin, 60% British

Ont 1.5 million, Quebec 1 million, 400k in NS, 300k in NB

1st nations, 30,000

The authors also outline the contours of the Canadian economy, showing that while most people continued to live in rural areas and work on farms, industrialization was beginning to have an impact, especially in Ontario. By 1867 railways, factories and machinery were becoming more common, urbanization was increasing, and a working class was beginning to organize itself into trade unions. The chapter also provides a brief social history of the period, highlighting especially the experience of women and the importance of religion to late nineteenth-century society. As you read this chapter, consider the ways in which Canadians were united and divided in each of the new provinces.

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Geographic Expansion 1867-73

� BC, Manitoba, Ruperts Land, BC, PEI

Geographic Expansion, 1867-1873

Chapter 2 of Destinies describes how the new nation grew in geographical terms during the 1867-1873 period. John A. Macdonald’s Liberal-Conservative government immediately set to work at consolidating and expanding the union and, by 1873, Canada had added three new provinces (British Columbia, Prince Edward Island and Manitoba) and one massive territory (Northwest Territories). However, there were some roadblocks along the way, the most significant being a movement by Nova Scotians to get out of Confederation (the Nova Scotia Repeal Movement). Nova Scotians had prospered under a triangle trade with the West Indies. Now revenues would go to Ottawa. Better terms eventually won over NS

PEI had opposed confederation because of the uneven balance between central and eastern Canada. PEI was won over by promising better terms, the absentee landlords bought out for land made available for farmers. Also wanted a permantlink with mainland. Whole process was pushed forward by the potential collapse of the Bank of PEI over building of railways.

BC traded mostly with US but political and cultural ties were British. BCwanteda land connection of a railway but could not afford it on her own.

Manitoba formed as independent coutnry first. Canada’s Texas!

Canada buys Ruperts land from HBCo for $1.5 million

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Pontifical Zouaves

Pontifical ZouavesThe Pontifical States, with Rome as their capital, held the centre of the country and fought against the unification of Italy by the supporters of Piedmont and Garibaldi. The most fervent Catholics -the ultramontane - considered that the loss of Pope Pius IX's temporal power over his states would constitute a sacrilege. The pontifical army included a corps specially formed in 1860 for volunteers from various Catholic countries, particularly France and Belgium: the Pontifical Zouave Regiment. In November 1867 the Bishop of Montreal, Monseigneur Ignace Bourget, launched an appeal for volunteers to go and defend the Pope. The idea was taken up by other prelates and was received enthusiastically across Quebec. Bemused Canadian Militia authorities of the day never quite understood, nor really cared, what the Zouaves represented but did issue obsolete arms to some units, such as the Snider-Enfield rifles issued to the Trois-Rivièrescompany. Suggestions to raise French-Canadian Zouaveregiments within the Canadian Militia were all rejected.In only a few weeks 135 recruits were selected from among 429 volunteers. These men left Montreal on February 19, 1868, to the cheers of some 20,000 people, a fifth of the city's total and a third of its French-speaking population. Other contingents followed, and of the 500 men selected 388 were to serve in the Pontifical ZouaveRegiment. But for the strict eligibility criteria and the costs involved - it was necessary, by means of gifts and collections, to cover the cost of transportation of these Zouaves and their pay while in Rome - thousands of French Canadians would no doubt have been recruited. As it was, the operation cost at least $112,000, a considerable amount for the period. The Canadians in Rome had a peaceful time of it, their war efforts limited to chasing after guerillas in the surrounding hills. Only eight of them died, most owing to illness. In the spring of 1870 most of the Zouaves in the first contingent returned to Montreal, where they were welcomed by almost 12,000 people. After symbolic resistance, Rome surrendered on September 20, 1870, and the other Canadian Zouaves were repatriated. When they arrived in Montreal a crowd of approximately 50,000 was there to receive them. It was, until the South African War, the largest military contingent of Canadians to serve overseas. Following their repatriation, the veterans formed their own association and para-military groups of Zouavessprang up in many parishes in French Canada, acting as church guards and providing security escorts in church processions and other formal religious events

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Red River Resistance/Rebellion and the Creation of Manitoba

Red River Resistance/Rebellion and the Creation of Manitoba

The events leading to the creation of Manitoba are particularly relevant to Canadian military history. A quick glance at the map on the previous page shows that, in geographic terms, the Canada of 1867 looked very different from the Canada of today. Most noticeable is a large block of territory (indeed, almost 90% of the present country) claimed by British interests but not incorporated into the new nation. A very large portion of this land, known as the Rupert’s Land, was owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company, which had title to it for fur trading purposes. Negotiations with the company for control of this land would begin almost as soon as the ink was dry on the BNA Act in 1867 and a deal was eventually reached in 1869 and consummated in 1870. The Macdonald government was worried about American expansion into the west and felt that it was necessary to move quickly on the issue. Indeed, the United States had recently purchased Alaska from Russia — a transaction which indicated to many a larger interest in the continent. The Canadian government planned to administer this large tract of land as a territory (known as the Northwest Territory) rather than as a full-fledged province with self-government. This decision — made without consultation with the large Métis population located at Red River (near present-day Winnipeg) — precipitated the Red River Resistance of 1869-1870.

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The Red River Rebellion is the term most often used to describe the actions of a provisional government established in 1869 in the Red River Settlement in what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba. Since the provisional government was recognized by Canada, its actions were not rebellious in the strict sense of the word; it was called a rebellion only after sentiment grew in Ontario against Louis Riel's execution of Thomas Scott. The Rebellion was the first crisis the new government faced after Canadian Confederation in 1867.

The Red River Settlement was centred on Fort Garry, now modern Winnipeg, which was then owned by the Hudson's Bay Company. The Canadian government bought the area from the Company in 1869 and appointed an English-speaking governor, William McDougall, who was opposed by the French-speaking Métis inhabitants of the settlement. McDougall sent out surveyors before the land was officially transferred to Canada, and had them arrange the land according to the square township system used in Ontario. The Métis, however, had already arranged their land according to the seigneurial system of their French ancestors that was also used in Quebec. In many cases, government surveyors attempted to lay out survey markers arbitrarily across existing farms and properties. Property maps of Manitoba to this day show the two-mile long seigneurial lots perpendicular to rivers, surrounded by the square townships lots.

The Métis, led by Riel, created a provisional government and renamed the territory Assiniboia. Riel attempted to negotiate directly with the Canadian government to establish Assiniboia as a province, and prevented McDougall from entering the territory. Meanwhile, Riel's men arrested a prominent Orangeman named Thomas Scott, one of the English Canadians who had been held prisoner in the Fort but had escaped. Scott was put on trial and executed by firing squad for offences usually considered non-capital at the time – fighting with his guards, defying the authority of the provisional government, and insulting Riel. Typically Riel would commute capital sentences, but in this case he worried about alienating his supporters in the uprising. The execution of Thomas Scott, a member of the Protestant Orange Order, by Riel’s provisional government during the uprising served to exacerbate tensions between the large Protestant population in Ontario and French Catholics in Quebec.

Canada and the provisional government soon negotiated an agreement. In 1870, the Manitoba Act was passed, allowing the Red Riversettlement to enter Confederation as the province of Manitoba. The Act also incorporated some of Riel's demands, such as separate French schools for Metis children and protection of Catholicism.

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Sir Garnet Wolseley

The Red River Expedition Route

After the agreement was settled, Canada sent a military expedition (1044 men) consisting of Canadian militia and British regular soldiers led by Colonel Garnet Wolseley to Manitoba to enforce federal authority. As the expedition headed west, outrage grew in Ontario over Scott's execution, and many Ontarians demanded that Wolseley's expedition be used to arrest Riel and suppress what they considered to be rebellion. Riel fled before the expedition reached Fort Garry.

In 1875, Riel was formally exiled from Canada for five years, but under pressure from Quebec the government of Sir John A. Macdonaldtook no more vigorous action. Riel was elected to the Canadian parliament three times while in exile, but never took his seat. He returned to Canada in 1875 to lead the North-West Rebellion or North-West Resistance.

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The Provisional Battalion of Infantry

� Formed in 1869 (from Ont and Que)

� First Permanent Force unit

Sergeants of the Provisional Battalion of Infantry at Fort Garry, Manitoba. 1872

Provisional Battalion of Infantry in Manitoba.

Raised in Ontario and Quebec, the battalion was created to establish Canadian law in the North-West Territories (lands purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company) and respond to the 1869 Métis uprising in the region. This unit, comprised of men enrolled for one-year, renewable engagements, was effectively the first Canadian permanent force unit. The battalion was reinforced following the Fenian incursion into Manitoba in 1871. It was disbanded by 1877 but not before it assisted in the training of the first drafts of the North-West Mounted Police (N-WMP), the predecessor of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), in 1873.

L-R back row: Colonel Sergeant Beruke; Sergeant Patrick; Colonel Sergeant O'Callaghan; Sergeant Marchand; Sergeant Grant; Q. M. S. Pribbon; Sergeant Huges; Sergeant Coombs.L-R middle row: Sergeant Hodson; Sergeant King; Sergeant Major Abbott; Sergeant Major Collins; Sergeant Walker; Colonel Sergeant Somerville; Colonel Sergeant Rolph.L-R front row: Sergeant Young; Sergeant Chapman; Sergeant Watson.Under command of Major A. G. Irvine.

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Nation Building, 1870-1885By 1873 Canada was composed of seven provinces and one territory encompassing the northern part of North America, from sea to sea. The country’s political boundaries had expanded tremendously during the first six years of confederation. Moreover, its claim on the northern half of the continent appeared secure; the Treaty of Washington (1871) between Canada, England and the United States recognized the 49th parallel as the Canada–United States border (see pages 42 and 109 of Destinies). However, territory alone does not make a nation. The new country had lots of real estate but few tenants. Equally important was the fact that there was no unifying vision of what the country was or what it was supposed to be. Canadians were divided along provincial, regional and ethnic/racial lines. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, Canada’s economy was dwarfed by that of its southern neighbour and there was reason to worry that the American invasion to be feared was economic rather thanmilitary. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century the government of Sir John A. Macdonald began implementing a series of policies — known collectively by historians as the “national policy” — designed to overcome national divisions by focusing on economic growth. The three prongs of this policy were a high protective tariff, the construction of a transcontinental railway and settlement of the Canadian west. Chapter 3 of Destinies explores the “national policies” pursued first by Macdonald’s Conservative government and adopted later by the Liberal government of Sir Wilfrid Laurier.[1] You should read this chapter generally to get a flavour of these nation-building policies. Pay particular attention to the construction of the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway and the government’s plans to settle the newly acquiredlands in the west. The latter initiative brought the Canadian government into conflict with the region’s principal inhabitants, the western First Nations. The Red River Uprising had demonstrated to the federal government the necessity of resolving questions of land title with Native peoples before actually moving settlers to the region. Throughout the 1870s the federal government entered into treaties with the western First Nations designed to extinguish aboriginal claims to large portions of western Canada. As you read this section, consider why the First Nations were willing to enter these treaties. Did the federal government and the First Nations have similar understandings regarding the meaning of the treaties? No. The First Nations thought they would be leftalone but receive soime support from the government. The government thought they nwere « getting rid of » a problem and allowing settlers free access to the land. Under the treaties what were the obligations of the federalgovernment to the First Nations? Food, clothing, medicine, agricultural implements, construction equipment. The chapter also considers other elements of the Canadian “Indian policy” during the 1870s and 1880s. First nations upset at being unable to choose their own lands. First nations starving becasue buffalo disappeared so quickly. Pay particular attention to the Indian Act and the government’s cultural and agricultural policies regardingNative people. What were the goals of these policies?Toassimilate the Frist Nations by making them farmers. This would tie them to one spot and prevent them from roaming across « private property ». What were theireffects? It destroyed the First Nations way of life. Demoralized them. The Canadian government’s “Indian Policies” and the gradual western movement of non-Native settlers would be a contributing factor to the Northwest Rebellion of 1885, described by some historians as “Canada’s First War.” The context and details of this event are explored briefly on pages 88-97 of Destinies. After 1870 the area known today as the Prairie provinces was referred to as the “Northwest.” With the exception of Manitoba (which, at the time, was not much bigger than a postage stamp), these lands were all under federal control as the Northwest Territories (see map on page 43 of Destinies). In the early 1880s, the Métis and Native population of thisregion became increasingly discontented with the federalgovernment’s settlement policies. Native peoples wereunhappy with the federal government’s failure to honourkey components of treaties while the Métis — many of whom had moved to the Batoche and Prince Albert areas of present-day Saskatchewan — feared that the federalgovernment would not recognize their claims to land as settlement proceeded westward. The Métis subsequentlyinvited Louis Riel back from the United States to lead a movement demanding that the federal government protect and recognize Métis rights in the area. The authors show how these grievances eventually led to the Northwest Rebellion in 1885. As you read this section, consider the causes of the rebellion, the role of Native and Métis peoples in the rebellion, and the response of the federal government. After putting down the rebellion, Riel was tried for treason and eventually hanged. How did Riel defend himself? He said he was sent by God Why did the federal government not commute his sentence? It could not stand the pressure from English Canada. English Canada rememberd Riel haning Thomas Scott 15 yearsearlier. . He was seen as treasonous. Why and how did the execution of Riel exacerbate tensions between English and French Canadians? Quebec thought him a hero. Ontario a outlaw. Finally, why is the Northwest Rebellion considered a crucial transition point in the development of the West? It ended the « wild west » portion of itshistory. It also showed how easily it was to travel in the west via Railway.

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Other National Problems� Renewed secession

� Education

� Language

Numerous National Problems

The important point to take away from this chapter is that there were a number of fault lines in Canada in the 1880s and 1890s. In addition to the increasing tensions between French and English Canadians over the Riel hanging, there were a number of examples of regional discontent. Dissatisfied with federal policies, Nova Scotia threatened secession in 1885. Ontario and Quebec were also unhappy with Ottawa, but their object was to limit federal incursions into provincial jurisdiction. The details of these developments are beyond the scope of this course; however, it is important to recognize the regional and ethnic cleavages in Canada in the late nineteenth century in order to better understand future conflicts over defence and military policy.[1 Macdonald’s Conservative Party was in power from 1867 until 1873, when Macdonald was forced to resign after the Pacific Scandal (see page 55 of Destinies). The Liberal Party, under the dour Alexander Mackenzie, remained in government until the 1878 election, when the Macdonald Conservatives returnedto power, in part on the strength of their platform of National Policy tariffs. Macdonald would remain in power until his death in 1891, after which the Conservative government had four leaders over five years. In 1896, the Liberal Party returned to power under Sir Wilfrid Laurier.

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The Canadian Militia

Military DevelopmentsQuestions of national defence and internal security became increasingly important throughout the period 1867-1885. This growing concern reflected a number of issues, including the withdrawal of British regulars from Canada, changing perceptions of the American threat, and the Red River and Northwest Rebellions.In the period 1867-1885 witnessed the withdrawal of British regular forces from Canada; in their place the new country turned to a volunteer militiasystem. Morton argues that there were two key components to Canadian defence policy in this period. The first was the maintenance of peace with the United States, something that was accomplished, in part, by the Treaty of Washington of 1871. The Treaty settled outstanding issues from the Fenian Raids and the Civil war. The US received 15 million dollars from Britian. Canada received assurances by MAcDonalds presence that Canada wouldbe at the table in the future. Articles specifically prohibited the use of eithers ports by warring thrid parties. Also, customs details were outlined.The other component of Canadian defence in the post-1870 period was the reliance on citizen soldiers in the wake of the British withdrawal from Canada. Morton describes in some detail Canada’s militiasystem during the 1870-1885 period. [The militia was the hub of the local community as all prominent locals joine it. It was the political hub because these same people wanted to exertinflunece on public policy or monies. The militia becasme a way to mobilize the voters. Militia Cos were often MLAs or MPs; ¼ to 1/6th of the H of Commons were militia officers. The militia debate day wasoften called « Coloonls Day and non military MPs stayed away. What kinds of people joined the militia? [The officers were the economic elite and the NCMS were often farmers, tradespeople and the service sector (especially in the city)] Who became officers? {Often the well to do were officiers, but those wishing to become better known would« buy » their way in by providinguniforms or some other necessity.] How were soldiers and officers trained? The officers were supposed to take militia course but these ofteninterferered with their normal lives, so their training was skcetchy. The NCMs could also attend specialized schools but often didn’t for the samereason. Their training occurred mostly during drill nights and the 10 day summer camps.] Note also the strong British influence in the customs and training of Canada’s militia and its impact on recruitment in Quebec. Morton also describes how the militia was used during this era. The militia wascalled out to aid the civil power frequently during this period. Under what kinds of circumstances was the militia called out during this period? [The militia was often called out whenever there was a labor disturbance becasue at this time the local justice of the peace had the authority to call out the militia. They also played the role of police at hangings, separate Orangemen from CatholicsHowever, the local community had to fit the bill, sosoldiers often went years before being paid for call outs.] What factors led to the creation of the North West Mounted Police in 1873? [The need for Ottawa to exert influence in the North West. The American influence and lawlessness. The trade in whiskey by Amercians. The Cypress HillsMassacre of 1873]More about the NWMP…Modeled on the Royal Irish Constabulary, the Northwest Mounted Police (NWMP) was to be more than a local police force, but certainly less than a military one. Because Ottawa wanted a highly mobile force, the force would be mounted and trained in cavalry tactics. It would wear the red tunic common to British soldiers as a highly visible sign of the English crown, which was of great symbolic significance to Native Peoples. The first commissioner was Lt. Col. George Arthur French, a former British artillery officer who commanded the gunnery school at Kingston and the force recruited heavily from former British soldiers, the Canadian militia and Royal Military College graduates. In 1873, the first 150-man detachment headed west on its fabled trek to Fort Whoop-up. It was supplemented by a second 150-man detachment sent west the following year. For most of its first twenty-five years, the NWMP proved to be a stabilizing force in the west among Natives and settlers.

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Nile River Expedition 1884-5

Nile River Expedition 1884-1885 Canadian Boatmen Challenge the Nile On August 20, 1884, a telegram from Britain’s Colonial Secretary to Canada’s Governor General, Lord Lansdowne, made an unusual request. It asked that 300 “voyageurs” be recruited as steersmen for boats on a military expedition up the Nile River for the relief of Khartoum where Sir Charles (“Chinese”) Gordon, Governor General of the Sudan, was being besieged by a fanatical leader known as “The Mahdi” and his followers. Initially, Britain’s Prime Minister Gladstone and his cabinet had debated whether to send relief, but worldwide press and public pressure resolved the issue, and General Garnet Wolseley was appointed to rescue Gordon. Wolseley, a British Army officer who had taken part in quelling the 1870 Manitoba uprising, recalled the skills of the voyageurs handling the boats on that difficult expedition and believed they could be an essential factor in moving troops and supplies up the treacherous rapids and cataracts of the Nile River. The telegram, probably written by Wolseley, offered the volunteers $40 a month for six months, a suit of work clothes, free travel and rations. It also suggested that they be under the command of three Canadian officers and accompanied by a priest. Lansdowne forwarded the wire to Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald who, to avoid political reaction, suggested that Britain carry out and pay for the recruiting. As a result, Lansdowne’s military secretary, Lord Melgund (later Fourth Earl of Minto and a future Canadian Governor General), was put in charge of recruiting. In less than a month, 386 Canadian voyageurs boarded a British steamer at Quebec City bound for Alexandria. While called voyageurs, they were not veteran canoeists of the fur trade but mostly raftsmen of the lumber trade, skilled at riding timber rafts and logs down turbulent rivers to the sawmills each spring. There were French, English, first nation peoples, and Métis recruits in the group that came mainly from the Ottawa and Peterborough areas of Ontario, the Caughnawagna reserve, and Trois Rivières in Quebec. The 92 from Winnipeg included not only Indians and expert canoeists but lawyers, teachers, and other men merely seeking adventure. Accompanying them were four officers, a regular Canadian army doctor, and a priest. The priest, Father Arthur Bouchard, who had earlier served as a missionary in the Sudan, spoke Arabic and was thus a great help to both the men and officers under the command of Major Frederick Denison. Denison, a Toronto lawyer, alderman, and militia officer, won, with his tact and understanding, the respect of the tough and boisterous voyageur recruits. At Quebec City, the Governor General saw them off and skilfully reminded them, in both French and English, that, even though they were not going to serve as soldiers, they nevertheless should display “many of the best qualities of a soldier” in their work on the Nile. After stops in Sydney, Nova Scotia — where three decided to quit and one Nova Scotian was recruited — and Gibraltar to fuel the ship, they arrived at Alexandria and boarded 40 whalers towed behind the Khedive’s yacht for a pleasant voyage up the Nile River to Wadi Halfa. There they were welcomed by General Wolseley who noted privately that they “were a rough looking lot.”This was an opinion shared by many British officers and journalists, one writing that they were mutinous, another reporting that many carried bowie knives and were drunk upon arrival at Wadi Halfa. The criticisms prompted Denison to write: “I hear some lying accounts of my men have been telegraphed out from Assuan, saying they were mutinous etc. It is all manufactured.” About their arrival at Wadi Halfa he wrote, “I rather fancy the man must be a fool,” pointing out that the story was written the day before they even arrived there.

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Nile Voyageurs at the Second Cataract

At Wadi Halfa the Canadians soon won respect rather than scorn. Working from dawn to dusk — a 13- to 14-hour day —they skilfully guided the 30-foot whalers carrying three to four tons of supplies and as many as 12 fully equipped soldiers through rapids and cataracts. Their British commandant wrote, “It is extraordinary to see the rapidity with which the expedition travels since the Canadians have arrived.”Progress, however, remained frustratingly slow despite the skills of the Canadians. Some of the cataracts became so swift and dangerous that the soldiers, normally equipped with oars to row the boats, went ashore to tow them with only the voyageurs remaining on board to manoeuvre the loaded vessels around treacherous rocks often hidden in muddy water. Six voyageurs were drowned, two were killed in an accident, and eight died of smallpox or typhoid fever. The slow progress also created another problem: the six-month contract was running out and, despite an increase in pay to $60 a month and new clothing to those whom Denison wished to retain, fewer than 100 agreed to stay. The need for boatmen, however, lessened considerably when Wolseley sent half his forces across the desert. Late in January 1885, those electing to return to Canada left Wadi Halfa for Cairo where they were given a grand tour of the city and the pyramids. A British General inspected them and praised their work. This was one of several commendations they received. Lord Wolseley wrote to Lord Lansdowne at Ottawa, exclaiming that “the services of these voyageurs has been of the greatest possible value.” Another senior officer “doubted whether the boats would have got up at all ... and if they had ... the loss of life would have been much greater than has been the case.”One soldier wrote, “These imported voyageurs, greatly discredited by some of the commentators on this campaign, were absolutely indispensable.”The returning voyageurs sailed on a troopship bound for Ireland where some stopped over, leaving 260 for the trip to Halifax. There they made a colourful scene on March 4, sporting turbans and pith helmets, and carrying spears, shields, and other African souvenirs that included cockatoos and monkeys. Two days later they were cheered by Ottawa crowds as they paraded to an armoury for a welcome home banquet. A local paper headlined its story: “Hurrah stout hearts, well and bravely have you done your duty.”The voyageurs remaining in Egypt pushed further up the Nile until February when it was learned that Khartoum had fallen and that General Gordon had been among those massacred. By early April it became clear there was no further need for the boatmen. They then sailed from Wadi Halfa on a steamer to Cairo, where another tour of the city was arranged before they boarded a ship for England. Denison, promoted to Lieutenant Colonel, was not with them as he had been hospitalized on arriving in Cairo with typhoid fever. Two others died of smallpox in London: a Peterborough boatman and William N. Kennedy, an officer who had enlisted and accompanied the Winnipeg volunteers. The smallpox outbreak prevented a planned inspection by Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle but she sent a message expressing how pleased she was “by the reports of the energy and devotion they had shown in the arduous duties performed by them on the Nile.”The British war office also showed its appreciation by assigning a guide to show them “some places of interest and amusement” in London before the majority embarked on a Montreal-bound ship on May 15. Late in June, Denison arrived home in Toronto where he resumed his law practice and learned he was awarded the C.M.G. for his service in Egypt. AbbéBouchard became a parish priest in Quebec and Trinidad, dying on the Caribbean island in 1896 at age 51 — the same year Denison also died of cancer at age 49, after serving as Federal Member of Parliament for a Toronto riding.

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The Northwest Rebellion: 1885

� Métis North-West Resistance video

Middleton

Gabriel Dumont

Louis Riel

Poundmaker

The NorthWest Rebellion

This uprising pitted the Canadian militia, under the command of Major General Frederick Middleton, against a Métis and Native population unhappy with their treatment by the Canadian government. As you read these selections, payattention to the key battles of this rebellion (Cutknife Hill and Fish Creek), and the strategy and tactics employed by both the Canadian militia and the Métis and Natives. Note also how the backgrounds of Dumont and Middleton shaped theirrespective strategies and approaches to leadership. How would you assess the performance of both sides? The Northwest Rebellion revealed the Canadian government’s willingness to use military force to quell dissent. It also revealed a number of strengths and weaknesses within the Canadian militia system. Whatwere these, according to Morton? Finally, it bears mentioning again that perhapsthe most important impact of the Canadian government’s military actions in the Northwest arose not from the battles themselves but from the arrest and executionof Louis Riel. The decision to execute Riel contributed greatly to the growingdivisions between French and English Canadians. This was, ultimately, a political, not a military, decision; however, for many French Canadians the military and political issues were conflated and the whole messy affaircontributed to a growing distrust by some French Canadians of Canada’s militarysystem.

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Middletons troops travelled by rail from Ontario in the late winter. Some parts of the CPR were unfinished, so transport by steamer was necessary. The necessity of getting the troops out west gave reason for more subsidies for the CPR.

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Middleton's force was split in two requiring to go overland by cart. General Strange of Calgary, raised a local force and advnaced north to Edmonton and then east to Frog Lake.

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Battle of Fish Creek, 24 April 1885

Battle of Fish Creek 24 April 1885

The main column of the Northwest Field Force, under General Middleton, left Fort Qu'Appelle on April 6, 1885, on their march to confront the Metisat Batoche. At Clarke's Crossing (located near the present-day Clarkboro ferry, east of Warman), Middleton decided to divide his forces and advance along both sides of the river.Fish Creek, known to the Metis as Tourond's Coulee, is approximately 27 kilometres (17 miles) south of Batoche. This was considered to be the southern boundary of the Metis settlement. Knowing that the militia was approaching, Gabriel Dumont took about 200 Metis and Indians to Fish Creek, intending to ambush the troops as they crossed the ravine on their way to Batoche.

Early on the morning of April 24, Dumont and about 20 horsemen hid in a bluff near the trail the soldiers would be using. However, when Middleton's scouts discovered fresh tracks and campfires, the element of surprise was lost. Shooting broke out and the battle of Fish Creek began.

The soldiers advanced to the edge of the ravine, but as they tried to shoot, they became easy targets for Dumont's marksmen who were concealed below in dense brush. Militia cannons did not do much damage, as the shells flew over the ravine and exploded, but buildings on the nearby Tourond farm were hit. The Metis tried to distract and confuse the troops by setting fire to thegrass, but the militia quickly put out the blaze. In the afternoon, troops arrived from the west side of the river, but Middleton did not risk another advance.

The outcome of the battle was not decisive. The militia counted six dead and over 40 wounded. Metis casualties were much lower, but many of their horses were killed.

The Metis retired to Batoche. Middleton set up camp near the river, buried the dead, and sent several wounded men upriver to Saskatoon.

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Battle of Cut Knife Hill, May 2 1885

Battle at Cut Knife Hill(May 2, 1885) Poundmaker's men, frustrated and angry, loot the town's Hudson's Bay Company store and some private homes.Poundmaker leads his band of Plains Cree into Battleford, Saskatchewan. The band is short of food and farming tools. Battleford settlers, reacting to news of recent pillages and killings by native people, fear Poundmaker and barricade themselves inside the Northwest Mounted Police fort. Poundmaker seeks out the local Indian Agent to get the supplies he needs. The Indian Agent refuses to see him. Poundmaker's men, frustrated and angry, loot the town's Hudson's Bay Company store and some private homes. The band realizes the Canadian government will retaliate. A troop of Canadian militia is already in the area to put down the Métis resistance. Poundmaker's warriors set up a war lodge. War Chief Fine Day replaces Poundmaker as leader of the band. Poundmaker still retains a good deal of moral authority over his people. But, because the band is at war, Poundmaker must obey Chief Fine Day's orders like everybody else.Battle at Cut Knife Fine Day moves the Cree camp to Cut Knife Hill. On May 2, at dawn, 350 militia under Lieutenant-Colonel Otter attack the camp. The Cree are surprised, but quickly rally and charge the troopers repeatedly, forcing them to retreat. Fine Day and his warriors are eager to pursue the fleeing soldiers. Poundmaker tells them it is acceptable to defend their women and children, but not to go on the attack. The warriors listen and let the soldiers go. Many historians believe that if Poundmaker had not stopped the warriors, Otter's retreat would have turned into a disaster because of his troops' vulnerable position as they were fording Cut Knife Creek. When he finds out the Canadian militia defeated the Métis at Batoche, Poundmaker surrenders to Canadian authorities. A Canadian court convicts him on four counts of treason-felony, including one count related to the sacking of Battleford and another for the Battle of Cut Knife Hill. The judge sentences him to three years' hard labour.

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Battle of Cut Knife Creek

View is from east or right of map on previous page.

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Battle of Batoche 9 May 1885

The Battle of BatocheThe Battle of Batoche was fought over four days from May 9 to May 12, 1885. Less than 300 Métis and First Nations people led by Louis Riel and Gabriel Dumont defended Batoche from a series of rifle pits which they had dug along the edge of the bush surrounding the village. The North West Field Force, commanded by Major General Frederick Middleton and numbering 800, attacked the defences directly as well as embarking on manoeuvres intended to distract the Métis and First Nations away from the North-West Field Force's numerical source of strength. On the first day of fighting, Major General Middleton had planned to attack the Métis and Indians on two fronts. The steamer Northcote, fortified by sandbags and staffed by militiamen, was to proceed down river while Middleton would lead the remainder of his men. The strategy failed when the Métis lowered a ferry cable which decapitated the smokestacks of the Northcote, leaving it to float harmlessly downstream. The land forces also ran into significant resistance from the Métis who effectively held their positions. When the Field Force withdrew into their zareba the Indians and Métis harassed them with gunfire until daybreak. The Métis and Indians believed they had won a victory on this first day of fighting. They next two days changed little. The North-West Field Force bombarded the Métis positions with their four nine-pounders and harassed the riflemen with their rapid fire Gatlinggun. In defending their position through the first three days, the Métis and Indians seriously depleted their supply of ammunition. May 12 was the decisive day of the battle. It began when Middleton, equipped with one nine-pounder, the Gatling gun and 130 men, reconnoitred to the north of the church and rectory, and began to advance on the Métis rifle pits. This feinting action was intended to draw the Métis out of their rifle pits around the church to the north where the Gatling gun was positioned. On hearing the guns to the north, Lieutenant Colonel Van Straubenzie was to open fire and move against the defence lines around the church. Due to the strong wind, however, Van Straubenzie was unable to hear Middleton's guns open fire and he failed to co-ordinate his attack with Middleton's action. Middleton withdrew to his camp furious that the co-ordinated attack had not come off. Unknown to Middleton, his manoeuver had served its purpose - the Métis had in fact been drawn to the north anticipating a major offensive there. As Middleton sat down to lunch minutes later, the Midlanders, under Lieutenant Colonel Williams, broke through the weakened Métis lines near the church. The battle was over in minutes as the Field Force swept down the slopes to Batoche, past rifle pits where by now the Métis were firing nails and stones from their rifles. Riel and Dumont escaped. Riel gave himself up later and Dumont fled to the United States. Those who had not dispersed were captured and held for later trial in the courts. When the battle ended, there were more than 25 dead from both sides.Total Milita casualties amounted to 26 dead and 103 wounded during the campaign. The cost was 4.4 million and 3 million in damage claims. The force was lucky most of the First Nations stayed out of the fray. The success of the campaigns was based on the logistics supplied by the HB Company since there were no militia depots. The US also allowed arms, ammunition and supplies to go through the US to Winnepeg.

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Yukon Field Force 1898-1900

The Yukon Field Force

Leaving Ottawa 6 May 1898 , the Yukon Field Force, nearly 200 strong, (12 officers and 191 men , mostly RCR) arrived in Fort Selkirk. This military body was established to monitor the Klondike stampede and to enforce Canadian sovereignty over its largely American population. The soldiers could not, without permission, travel through American territory, so they had taken the "all-Canadian route." This took them up the Stikine River, overland along the Telegraph Trail to Teslin Lake, then down the Teslinand Yukon Rivers. Their substantial supplies, however, did travel the more traditional American route through Skagway and the Chilkoot trail.

For almost a year, Fort Selkirk was used as headquarters; it was even considered briefly as a capital for the Yukon Territory because of its central location. The influx of soldiers, and the six women who came with them (4 Victoria Order of Nurses, 1 Toronto journalist and Inspector Starnes’wife, Marie) had a great impact on the small settlement.

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A Miniscule Professional Army

In “Beginnings: The Militia schools and the creation of the permanent force, 1860-1883,” Stephen Harris provides a more detailed description and analysis of military training and education in the 1860-1883 period.

Harris focuses on the slow movement towards formal training of Canadian militias and, ultimately, the creation of a professionalCanadian military during these years. He attributesthe “amateur” nature of the Canadian military during these years to the “militiamyth.” The militia myth was that a large unpaid militia was sufficent for call out duties. The British were moving to a professionalofficer corps and ending the volunteer battalions. The US, with its recent civil war experience, was an army of 10,000 long service professionals fighting mainly Indians.

The very term “professional army” suggests a well-trained standing army. Harris charts the gradual introduction — in fits and starts —of formal training in Canada during the 1860-1883 period. As you read this article, pay attention to the key developments in the growth of military education in Canada. Milita schools were introduced to raise the competency of the militia.However, few could attend them for the length of courses needed to develop competency, therefore the course got shorter and became and exercise of memorization of lists with no filed training. Infantry, cavalry and artillery schools were opened. (RCR [Infantry School Corps] 21 Dec 1883 with Coy at London, Fredericton, St Jean; RCD [Cavalry School Corps then Royal School of Cavalry in 1887 until 1892 - RCD] Toronto, Quebec City). Artillery was especially important because of the increasing scientific nature of artillery. Artillery courses tended to be twice as long. There were few courses offered in French. The British staffed the initial schools and gave equipment

RMC opened in 1876 to provide the same sort of education Sandhurst and West Point did. Early cadets had to pay tuition and were not guaranteed a full time commission. The objective was to train useful leader/citizens versed in the military art and engineering. The first class of Cadets, eighteen in number, entered the College on 1 June 1876. They dubbed themselves the "Old Eighteen". A tradition of RMC is that every new Cadet must learn the names of the original class.

1.AGG Wurtele, 2. HC Freer, 3. HE Wise, 4. WM Davis, 5. TL Reed, 6. SJA Denison, 7. LH Irving, 8. F Davis,9. CA DesBrisay, 10. VS Rivers, 11. J Spelman, 12. CO Fairbank, 13. AB Perry, 14. JB Cochrane, 15. FJ Dixon, 16. GE Perley, 17. HW Keefer, 18. D MacPherson

The first regular force was A and B batteries of the artillery in Quebec and Kingston formed in 1873.

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Expenditures on Army: 1867-1905� Yr $ % of % of Per Capita

millions Revenue expenditure ($)� 1867 .8 5.8 5.8 .23� 1868 .9 6.2 6.2 .25� 1869 1.2 7.8 6.7 .34� 1870 .9 4.6 4.8 .25� 1871 1.7 8.2 6.7 .46� 1872 1.3 6.2 3.9 .35� 1873 1.3 5.3 3.9 .34� 1874 1.1 4.4 3.4 .27� 1875 1.1 4.8 3.5 .27� 1876 .6 2.6 1.9 .15� 1877 .6 2.7 2.0 .15� 1878 .8 2.9 2.7 .19� 1879 .8 3.4 2.4 .19� 1880 .8 2.7 2.5 .19� 1881 .9 2.6 2.7 .21� 1882 .8 2.2 1.9 .18� 1883 1.1 3.4 1.9 .25� 1884 2.8 8.4 5.9 .62

� 1885 4.5 13.5 7.5 .99� 1886 1.6 4.5 4.0 .35� 1887 1.9 5.3 4.4 .41� 1888 1.4 3.6 3.4 .30� 1889 1.4 3.5 3.5 .30� 1890 1.4 3.6 3.5 .29� 1891 1.4 3.8 3.5 .29� 1892 1.5 3.9 3.7 .31� 1893 1.4 3.9 3.6 .28� 1894 1.7 5.0 4.2 .34� 1895 2.2 6.0 5.2 .44� 1896 2.6 6.9 6.4 .51� 1897 1.8 4.5 4.2 .35� 1898 2.6 5.6 5.3 .50� 1899 3.6 7.0 7.2 .69� 1900 3.2 6.1 5.7 .60� 1901 2.8 4.5 4.6 .52� 1902 2.6 3.7 4.4 .47� 1903 3.7 5.2 5.3 .66� 1904 4.2 5.9 5.5 .72� 1905 5.7 7.1 7.0 1.00

Expenditures on Army 1867-1905Note periods of retrenchment: 1870, 1876-1883 (depression)Note periods of extra expenditure: 1871(Red River Rebellion), 1885 (NorthWest Rebellion), 1895-6 (Rifle Expenditure), 1899-1902 (Boer War), 1905 (Borden’s Reforms and growth in personnel.

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0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1867 72 77 82 87 92 97 2

Millions $

% ofRevenue

% ofExpenditure

Per Capita($)

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Changes in Militia Organization: # of Coy sized units 1875-1904

691614611622CoyInf

4304155CoyEngr

32304155Bty or Coy

GrsnArty

16171813BtyFdArty

32444140TroopCav

1903189518851875Sub-unit

Arm

Trends:

Less Cavalry and more infantry.

More Fd Arty

Less Garrison Artillery

Drastically less engineers

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0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1875 1885 1895 1903

Cav Troop

Fd Arty Bty

Grsn ArtyBty

Engr Coy

Inf Coy

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Conclusion

Conclusion

While there were proponents of a more professional army in Canada during this period, the “militia myth” continued to hold sway at the political level. The composition and activities of the militia (in particular, their involvement in the Northwest Rebellion), increasingly alienated many French Canadians. This alienation would become stronger in the Age of the New Imperialism.

Uniforms 1898

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Questions� Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Middleton’s and

Dumont’s tactics in the Métis conflicts.� Describe why a frontier police force of mounted riflemen

was deemed necessary during this period. (Note: the answer to this question is provided at the end of this Module.)

� What initiatives were taken in the field of military education in the 1878-1883 period?

� Why was the Northwest Rebellion such a divisive issue in Canada’s history?

Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Middleton’s and Dumont’s tactics in the Métis conflicts.

Middletons troops and logistics precluded a fast deployment.

Dumonts tactics were effective. Ie rifle pits. A Shortage of ammo the main problem.

Describe why a frontier police force of mounted riflemen was deemed necessaryduring this period. (Note: the answer to this question is provided at the end of thisModule.)

The large lay of the land and dispersed settlement meant a mounted force of riflemen because lawbreakers tended to act in groups.

What initiatives were taken in the field of military education in the 1878-1883 period?

RMC, establishment of Schools

Why was the Northwest Rebellion such a divisive issue in Canada’s history?

Pitted French versus English, First nations versus whites, Catholics vs Protestants.