Hellesdon High School

GCSE Case Study Booklet

Edexcel B 9-1

Name:_________________

Paper 1 – Global Geographical Issues

Unit 1 – Hazardous Earth

Unit 2 – Development Dynamics*

Unit 3 – Challenges of an Urbanising World**

Paper 2 – UK Geographical Issues

Unit 4 – The UK’s evolving physical landscape

Unit 5 – The UK’s evolving human landscape***

Unit 6 – Geographical investigations

Paper 3 – People and Environment Issues: Making Geographical Decisions

Unit 7 – People and the Biosphere

Unit 8 – Forests Under Threat

Unit 9 – Consuming Energy Resources

Major Case Studies will almost definitely be 8/12 mark questions relating to these *

India

**Mumbai

***London

Unit 1 –Hazardous Earth

Atmospheric hazards - Hurricanes/cyclones

Hurricane Matthew - comparison of ‘effectiveness of preparation and response’ in one developing/emerging and one developed country

Location Haiti USA (Florida)

Category 4 3

Date 3rd-5th October 6th-9th October

Deaths Over 1000 33

Economic costs

$1bn $4-6bn

Life

expectancy

Haiti - 64 USA - 79

GDP Haiti - $1,710 per year USA - $52,000 per year

Prediction and

Preparation

• Very fragile and vulnerable to

disasters

• Evacuations for some very high risk areas.

• Poor rural areas did not receive warnings.

• Poor infrastructure (low quality

mud roads damaged by rainfall)

and low car ownership

prevented effective evacuation.

• Has been hit by earthquakes, drought, famine and hurricanes in the last ten years. It keeps struggling to repair the damage before the next disaster hits.

• National Hurricane Centre in Florida

tracks and predicts hurricanes using satellite images and planes

• Early warnings went out on radio and TV.

• People owned US ‘red cross’ weather radios.

• Residents stocked up on food, water and petrol

• Houses were improved with shutters and plywood boards– lessened destruction.

• Mass evacuations of coastal areas – saved lives.

• Traffic re-routed by army to allow people to escape.

• Storm surge broke through some levees to flood many homes

Rescue problems

• Emergency rescue team struggle

to reach the hardest hit areas

• Number of people in shelters increased from 2700 to 4000 in one day

• 600,000 people without power

• 15,000 emergency energy employees

sent to respond

• 147 shelters for 22,300 people

Impacts on people

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Over 1000 died. Cholera epidemic due to lack of clean water supplies. 30 000 houses destroyed in ‘Sud’

province

80% buildings destroyed in some areas. Long term unemployment. Massive loss of trade in exports. Storm wiped out many crops – Haiti’s government does not have the funds to stockpile more food.

$1bn economic costs.

• •

• •

•

•

33 died 100, 000s lost power for a few days

to a week.

10,000 homes destroyed. Many businesses closed for weeks. Most properties insured. $4-6bn economic costs.

Government response

•

•

•

Very slow to respond. Much rescue was by charity NGO’s (Non-governmental organisations). No access to the most rural locations.

•

•

Barack Obama declared a state of emergency and released billions of federal dollars that the USA keeps in reserve for dealing with disasters. Disaster relief from US agencies and the National Guard.

• Helicopters used to get into the more difficult locations.

Natural (Past) Climate change

Sunspots The sun has black spots on it that give off solar radiation, the more sunspots the warmer the temperature. They gave a lifecycle of around 11 years.

Volcanic eruption theory Volcanic eruptions emit ash and sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere, these particles can block incoming solar radiation, and cause short term cooling to temperature. Temperatures can drop by 1-3 degrees.

Orbital theory The Earth’s orbit changes from a circular to elliptical (oval) orbit. In a circular orbit temperatures are warmer (Interglacial) and in an elliptical orbit the temperature is cooler (glacial periods). These changes in orbit occur approximately every 100,000 years

Climate change hazards – flooding, sea level rise, drought, increased hurricanes

Tectonic Hazards

Comparison of ‘impacts and management’of a tectonic hazard (earthquake) in one developing/emerging and one developed country

Location Haiti, Port-au Prince Japan, Sendai

Primary Impacts

• 316,00 people killed

• 300,000 injured

• 1.3 million people displaced (homeless)

• 8 hospitals and healthcare centres in the capital Port-auPrince collapsed

• Presidential palace collapsed

• Shipping port and airport badly damaged

• Roads blocked by falling buildings-

therefore aid was difficult to bring

in.

• US$11.5 billion worth of damage.

• Thousands of buildings damaged

• Earthquake caused liquefaction (causes the ground to act like water) causing buildings to tilt and sink into the ground

• 1 dam collapsed

• 2 nuclear power plants fractured and an oil refinery set on fire by damaged gas pipes.

• US$235 billion worth of damage- the costliest in history.

Secondary impacts • Over 2 million people were left

without access to clean safe water and food

• Looting became a serious problem

• Outbreaks of diseases like Cholera due to lack of sanitation – outbreak killed 8000 people

• Homeless people had to live in temporary shelters and tents

• Tourist industry declined

• Police force collapsed as a result of presidential buildings being destroyed

• Frequent power cuts

• 1 in 5 jobs lost as Haiti’s clothing factories were destroyed- this made up 60% of exports.

• Earthquake trigged a tsumani, which killed 15,900 people.

• 2600 people missing

• 350,000 made homeless as homes destroyed by tsunami

• 93% of deaths caused by drowning

• Tsunami cut of power supplies to the Fukushima Power Plant causing a melt down- local people evacuated and still not returned.

• Road and rail networks suffered severe damage; 325km of railway tracks were washed away and the Tohoku motorway was badly damaged.

• Businesses disrupted by damage, clearance and rebuilding

Management – short term relief

• Aid

• EU gave £3million in emergency aid

• Aid

• International aid - search and rescue teams were brought it.

•

• •

• •

•

•

1000’s of military personnel sent to help the clean-up and care for wounded. Short term responses Field hospitals created Safe zones set up Collasped building searched for survivors. Most residents had to assist in the rescue effort as emergency services could not cope. Roads cleared Clean water and food distributed

•

• •

•

Rescue workers and soldiers sent to help. Short term responses Transport and communicationrestored after 2 weeks. Power supplies were restored in the weeks following the earthquake.

Management – long term planning response

• •

•

•

Temporary schools set up Water and sanitation provided for 1.8million people Support for people without jobs, which equates to nearly 70% of the population, through cash/food-for-work projects. Limited response due to government poverty.

•

•

Japans populations are educated on being prepared- Every year Japan has earthquake drills on Disaster Prevention day. Emergency services practice rescuing people people keep emergency kits (water, food, a torch and a radio) at home

• Many buildings are earthquake proof e.g deep foundations and cross bracing. Additionally, gas supplies shut off automatically, reducing fire risk

• Tsunami walls have been designed to protect the coast

• Land-use zoning is implemented, whereby the most important buildings e.g schools and hospitals are build away from the highest risk locations.

•

People living in coastal communities practice getting to higher ground or emergency bunkers in the event of a tsunami

Unit 2 – Development Dynamics

Barriers to development in Sub-Saharan Africa – Malawi

Stuck in a cycle of poverty. 1.2 million people facing hunger. Malwai is stuck is a cycle of economic

poverty.

Landlocked:

Malawi has no coastline- no ports to import/export goods. Nearest port 800km away via single track

railway in Nacala in Mozambique (increases cost of trade)

HIV/AIDS:

1 in 5 people has HIV in Malawi- low life expectancy. Many dying in 20’s/30’s- therefore fewer people

going out to work, so income falls negative impacts on the economy. Strains on healthcare.

Climate:

Frequent droughts- crops wont grow, lack of income, can lead to famine, no money for investment.

Climate change is causing water shortages as temperatures rise and increase evaporation. Rainfall

has been decreasing. since 2000and the rainy season has been much shorter.

Trade:

Malawi exports primary products such as raw Tobacco (53% of exports) raw coffee beans and tea.

Malawi could earn more processing these raw products e.g roasting coffee beans- However the EU

and USA places higher tariffs (taxes) of 7.5% on processed goods- making it unprofitable for Malawi

to complete this process.

Infrastructure:

85% of Malawi’s population live in rural areas with poor infrastructure.

Roads are mostly dirt roads so it can take several hours to travel 20km during the rainy season.

Electricity supplies and technology are also poor this makes it hard to develop.

Frank’s dependency Model

*India – large case study - How is ONE of the world’s emerging countries managing to

develop?

Capital City New Dehli

Population 1.3 billion

Largest City Mumbai

Main religion Hindu (80%)

GDP per Capita $7,000

HDI 0.609

Birth rate 21

Death rate 7

Fertility rate 2.2

Unemployment 7%

Employed in agriculture

49%

Agriculture as GDP 18%

Literacy rate 76%

India’s economy has grown 7% per year since 1997. The UK’s has only grown an

average of 2%!

Where is India?

• located in the continent of Asia

• Is surrounded to the East, South

and West by the Indian Ocean

• A tropical country

• North of the equator

• Shares a boarder with Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar,

Bhutan and Afghanistan

The site, situation and regional importance of India – national/regional/global levels

• Coastal location with deep harbours allowing for development of ports such as Mumbai give access to container ships to increase trade.

• Access to Europe through the Suez Canal

• Diverse culture including a large film industry, Bollywood. They produce 1200 movies each year for an international market.

• Varied landscape – mountains, deserts, plains and a large coastline make Inida a popular tourist destination – Goa (beach resort), the Himalaya Mountains

• India is a member of the G20 group – an international meeting of 20 large economies

(countries) that meets to discuss global trade. As such, India is able to influence trade deals

that benefit itself. • India was a founding member of the United Nations (UN) and takes part in meetings to

discuss global security, helping to maintain peace.

India’s key economic trends – FDI, economic sectors, GDP, average income (GNI per capita), imports and exports

• India’s GDP (the total value of ALL goods and services produced) has grown 7% per year since 1997.

• India’s GDP has gone from US$0.3 trillion in 1990 to US$2.1 trillion in 2015

• Average income (GNI per capita) has gone from US$390 in 1990 to US$1600 in 2015.

• Employment in the primary sector (agriculture, fishing, mining) has gone down

• Employment in the quaternary sector (knowledge, finance, research) has increased and now accounts for 45% of GDP but only 11% of employment.

• Traditionally India exported low value manufactured goods such as clothing and primary products like tea. India imported machinery.

• Today India exports machinery and pharmaceutical products and imports oil.

• Foreign direct investment into India has increased. Some examples of FDI projects in India include some of their largest railway projects.

• Reduced unemployment

The role of Globalisation toward India’s development – transport and communications

Transport and communications

• Containerisation has allowed increased imports and exports due to speed and lower cost of transport

• Improved telecommunications have meant that services such as call centres can be outsourced to India in places like Bangalore

• More than 50% of all Indians now own a mobile phone, allowing them to start their own

businesses and leading to larger incomes.

TNCs

Trans-National Corporations are companies that operate in multiple countries. TNCs are investing

more in India because:

• cheap, large labour force

• Lots of people speak English

• Companies outsource individual elements like call centres

• Labour force becoming skilled

• Aviva outsourced over 2000 jobs to India over the last 5 years

The role of government policies toward India’s development - FDI, aid policies

• India’s government have had a policy of ‘economic liberalisation’ since 1991 where the government took less control over what industries produced. This was an agreement made in return for aid from the IMF.

• The government have reduced import tariffs so that more foreign products can be imported more cheaply.

• The government have encouraged FDI by setting up ‘Special economic zones’ (SEZs) where taxes are reduced on company profits. Therefore TNCs are more likely to invest in India and open up factories, offices and branches there.

• The government made primary education free in 2009. A more educated workforce is likely to encourage more investment. The aim is to improve incomes, which will lead to more tax revenue earned by the government.

• Large railway/air/road investment projects make it possible to travel to India easier. For businesses and tourists.

Impacts of development on the population structure (demographic structure)

• Death rates have fallenand infant mortality have fallen due to improved medical care.

• Life expectancy has increased from 58 to 68 years since 1990.

• Fertility rates have begun to fall as women have become more educated and choose to work more.

• The fall in fertility may also be due to lower infant mortality as more children survive.

• Urban areas have seen increased birth rates due to large numbers of young migrants from rural areas.

Impacts of development on the different groups of people

• ALL age groups have improved health.

• Children have improved education due to free primary education.

• Average incomes have increased in real terms.

• Gender equality rates have improved with improved female literacy, improved access to contraception and improved family planning.

Rural periphery regions, e.g. Bihar

• HDI is much lower than urban parts of India

• Migration of young people often leaves the elderly behind to do manual labour

• Money is often sent home from urban areas by migrants but often is not, or money stops.

• Children are more likely to have to work, reducing literacy rates.

• Cycle of poverty and lack of investment

Urban core regions, e.g. Maharashtra (region containing Mumbai)

• HDI is much higher in urban regions

• Migration of young people has led to a large workforce, leading to high rates of investment and therefore employment opportunities.

• Higher literacy rates lead to higher incomes.

• Better standards of medical care and higher proportions of qualified doctors. Other relevant groups that can be discussed

• Slum dwellers, migrants in informal industries, educated middle classes, females

Impacts of development on the environment

• Increased energy consumption = more greenhouse gases

• Air pollution from industry has led to smog which causes increased levels of asthma, breathing problems and lung diseases

• Urbanisation has led to land and water pollution as sewage flows untreated into many rivers.

• Increased use of technology on farms such as pesticides and fertilisers have leaked into rivers, harming aquatic life.

Impact of economic growth on India’s geopolitical influence and relationships with the EU and USA

• Powerful player in ASEAN – a regional trading bloc in Asia. • Improving relationship with the USA has led to increased trade. • Negotiations for a free trade agreement with the EU (removal of tariffs and other barriers to

trade).

• Increased aid and investment from the EU into infrastructure is leading to continued development.

The costs and benefits of foreign influences on India

Costs

• Resentment from many developing nations about India’s role in outsourcing of services and manufacture – this has led to deindustrialisation in developed countries.

• Environmental impacts of increased industry. • Concern that TNCs may withdraw investments. • Many jobs with TNCs erode local cultures as they work for western/developed companies,

e.g. in call centres Benefits

• Increased job opportunities • Investment in infrastructure • Increased global influence

Top down vs Bottom up

Top Down characteristics Bottom up characteristics

• Large scale • Economic focus • Government/TNC funded • Expensive • High-Tech and energy intensive • Do not involve local people in decision

making

• Trickle-down effect

• Small scale • NGO funded • Focus on improving quality of life • Cheaper • Use intermediate technology • Local people are involved in

decision making

Top-Down project- Savadar Dam

Provides HEP and 3.5 billion litres of clean drinking water daily

Advantages Disadvantages

• India’s cities- clean drinking water and electricity

• Jobs • Farmers can use the water to irrigate

crops to increase yields

• Local residents- 234 villages flooded, 320,000 people displaced

• Local farmers- farmland flooded to make way for the dam

• Religious sites flooded • Disruption to habitats and

ecosystems

Bottom up project- Biogas

Using cow manure to produce methane, which can be used as a cooking gas rather than

relying on wood

Advantages Disadvantages

• Provides power through generators so that refrigerators can be used to store medicine.

• Energy for lighting for study/work • Source of fuel to cook and boil water in

order to reduce spread of disease.

• Sustainable - Appropriate to skill level of local people

• Incidences of lung disease decreased in those burning less wood

• Less deforestation • Women can go out to work instead of

collecting fuel wood

• Children can go to school instead of collecting fuel wood

• Waste product can be used as a fertiliser to increase crop yields

Methane is a greenhouse gas

Unit 3 –Challenges of an urbanising world

**Mumbai – large case study - Why does quality of life vary so much within ONE megacity

in a developing country OR emerging country?

How important is the site, situation and connectivity of Mumbai?

• Largest city in India (emerging country). • Site: Number of islands next to a safe harbour. Low

lying. Tropical climate (incl. monsoon)

• Situation: Surrounded by mangrove swamps. Small fishing villages created. Good access to the port and industry could thrive in the naturally deep harbour. Links to coastal oil transportation.

• Connectivity: Naturally deep harbour. Good access for container ships. Good location for trade with Europe as it is on the west coast of India (Suez Canal accessible). Good air connections with flights all around the globe means high levels of tourism.

• Regional: Good railways connecting the outskirts of Mumbai to the centre. • National: Good road and rail network connects Mumbai to the port and rest of the country,

allowing goods from around the country to be transported there for export.

• Global importance: Historically, Mumbai exported cotton. Strong economy, creative industries. Mumbai generates more than 1/6 of India’s GDP.

• Bollywood is also based in Mumbai, producing over 1200 films a year. • Mumbai has two stock exchanges which both connect Mumbai globally as capital can be moved

around the world from here.

How is the structure of Mumbai connected to it’s Physical Geography?

• All shaped by the coastline before being forced to move inland. • The old historical colonial region and CBD are located close the port region, near the deep

harbour.

• Rapid growth, influx of migrants – new migrants live on the outskirts of the city. • Mumbai had to expand back inland, away from the coast. • Conditions were overcrowded and unsanitary. • As a result, the new suburb of ‘New Mumbai’ was developed. New Mumbai then also expanded

rapidly, relieving the pressure on Mumbai. Mostly home to middle classes.

• Land too high and steep to build on is a National Park – it attracts nearly 2 million people/year. Locals refer to it as the ‘lungs of Mumbai.’

What are the reasons for past and present population growth?

Rapid population growth since India’s independence from the British Empire in 1947. Size of population: 12.5 million (megacity as population is over 10 million) Natural increase: High birth rates.

National migration: People move from rural areas to urban Mumbai, for employment. International migration: Migrants to work in finance and IT services. Economic investment: Investment from foreign companies. Mumbai is India’s top location for FDI. Investment has been greatest in: Services, manufacturing, construction and entertainment. Economic growth:

• 19th century = cotton.

• 19th and 20th century = textiles

• Late 20th century = decline of factories

• However, banking, globally important financial centre, many company HQ’s in Mumbai, quaternary industries, ‘Bollywood’.

How has population growth affected land use and the function of the city?

Pattern of growth of the city:

• Railway developed to export cotton to Britain.. • People live around railway lines. • Textile factories in Mumbai in late 19th century attracted workers

from all over India.

• High population density (over 20,000 people per km2. Urban function and land use:

• The old port is still used – thousands work there, 25,000 in slums nearby.

• Expensive property and land. • Slum areas right next to employment opps. • Slum areas on marginal land – near railway lines and marshland.

Function Building age

CBD: Not in centre, on coast. Many company HQ’s – e.g Walt Disney. Shopping malls. Old factories regenerated to expensive housing. Port

Oldest parts of Mumbai at southern tip. Regenerate apartments. Port still used.

Inner-suburbs: Much of this area is slum. Buildings were built to house textile workers.

Outer -Suburbs: Commuters use railway. Industry has developed along the train line.

Post 1970’s built along the railway line.

Urban-rural fringe:

Hard to find as Mumbai is so spread out. Conurbation. Rural areas only where land can’t be developed.

What are the opportunities of living in a megacity like Mumbai?

• Access to resources

• Employment – manufacturing (first cotton, then cars etc), engineering, media, IT industries

Informal sector employment: taxi drivers, hairdresser, waiters etc. • Education – Mumbai has 10 universities and 96% literacy rate. • Healthcare • Wages are higher compared to the countryside. • Access to TV and other infrastructure (even in slums) • The government tries to attract business by offering ‘tax free’ opportunities. • One of the highest rates of recycling in the world through informal slum work – many people work

as ‘ragpickers’ recycling waste.

What are the Challenges of living in a city like Mumbai where population grows rapidly?

• Cramped slum housing, e.g. Dharavi: 1 million people in 1.5 km2. • Many people are unskilled and finding work is difficult. • Housing shortages and lack of affordable housing • Squatter and slum settlements with poor sewage - over 500 people share each public latrine in

Dharavi.

• Inadequate water supply – water may be rationed • Inadequate waste disposal • Poor employment conditions • Limited service provision • Traffic congestion – trains can be overcrowded and dangerous. 636 people were killed falling from

trains in 2013.

• Poor working conditions – dangerous, unregulated. • Informal workers don't pay tax = lack of taxable revenue for government to reinvest.

What are the differences between extreme poverty and extreme wealth in Mumbai?

Reasons to explain such differences.

• Mumbai has some of the world’s most expensive apartments.

• Some people are too poor to even rent a room.

• 40% of Mumbai’s population live in slums.

• 60% of the population work in the informal sector.

• Over half the population live in poor conditions without a decent water supply

• A lack of space has meant that people live in crowded and congested conditions.

• It is very hard to find an affordable, legal living space.

• Government slow to make improvements in deprived areas

• Lack of incentive for landlords to improve housing

• Lack of government control over rapid expansion

• Lack of development regulations

• Lack of decent services to poor areas

• Tax collection is unregulated. Therefore, there is a lack of money to invest in Mumbai for everybody.

Advantages of city-wide government (top-down) strategies for making the megacity more sustainable – all part of ‘Vision Mumbai’

Disadvantages of city-wide government (topdown) strategies for making the megacity more sustainable – all part of ‘Vision Mumbai’

• The Goraii Garbage Site Closure Project – 20 hectare rubbish site

• 2007 – government put a plan in place to improve the site.

• Rubbish dump reshaped • Covered in material to prevent leaching • Planted grass • Methane-capture technology – generate

power

• Air quality improved • Property prices improved

Before improvements, the site was smelly and dangerous.

• The Mumbai Monorail • 2005 – government planned a monorail • Takes passengers off roads and onto monorail • Reduces congestion • Built off of street level, high up • Can go up and down hills

• Deadlines missed • Extremely expensive to build • Passenger numbers much lower than expected • Route might not suit what commuters want • Used mostly by tourists • Argued not to be the most suitable solution to

the problems in Mumbai

• Improving water quality • Government provided toilet blocks for family

to pay to use

• Toilets were too expensive for families to use • Lack of running water in toilet blocks • Government employees failed to clean the

toilet blocks

• DHARAVI slum clearance • Government wants to clear land and sell it to

developers

• Aim to provide free housing to slum dwellers who can prove they have lived in Dharavi since 2000

• Tower blocks • Water and sanitation will be provided • Education and healthcare part of plan

• Dharavi residents against the plan – many cannot prove that they have lived there so long.

• Dharavi residents do not feel that the plan caters for the many businesses in Dharavi.

• Concern that sense of community would be destroyed

• Concern about social problems and crime • Suggestion that local people become more

involved in the plan

Advantages of community and NGO-led bottomup strategies for making the megacity more sustainable

Disadvantages of community and NGO-led bottom-up strategies for making the megacity more sustainable

SPARC (NGO) - community toilet blocks

• Built new toilet blocks • Connected to main sewers and water supply • Local community helped with constructions • Families pay for monthly permit to use toilet

blocks

• Electric lighting – safer at night • Separate children’s toilets • SPARC have provided over 800 community

toilet blocks, each with 8 toilets.

This should really be the responsibility of the government

Hamara Foundation

• Provide social-work services (support) to homeless children

• Health care • Education • Skills – computer training, mechanics,

hospitality

• This should really be the responsibility of the government

• There are too many children who need help

Agora Microfinance India

• A service to help slum residents get a bank account

• Provide loans • Education loans • Group loans

• High interest rates of 25% a week

•

LSS – leprosy charity

• Raises its own funds and employs local people as volunteers.

• Surveys slum communities for skin diseases. Helps to set up skin clinics.

• Runs kindergartens to assist working parents in the community.

• Educates local communities about symptoms of skin diseases through awareness campaigns and local meetings.

• Treats skin conditions through close work with local people including check-ups.

• Treated 28,000 people. • Number of new cases of leprosy is now 1/20th

of what it was in the 1980s.

• Just one project in one community. • Focuses only on two diseases and community

education.

• Not country wide or city wide.

Paper 2 – UK Geographical Issues

Unit 4 – The UK’s evolving physical landscape

Upland Landscapes

Upland areas in the UK consist of resistant igneous rock, metamorphic and some

sedimentary rocks. The Lake District is an upland landscape. The current shape of the

landscape of the Lake District is due to it’s geology and the processes that act on the

landscape both today and in the past.

Past processes:

Glaciers are frozen rivers of ice which flow through the landscape. As they move they scrape

(abrasion) and pull (plucking) at rocks and leave behind distinctive landscapes

Weathering Processes:

• Freeze-thaw weathering – happens in freezing conditions. Water gets into cracks,

freezes and expands and breaks rocks. The pieces of rock that break off are called scree.

• Scree slopes – where lots of scree falls/slides downslope. These are often unstable and

build up over time, when rain is added rockfalls can happen. As The Lake District is the

wettest region the rain adds to the weight of the rock so rockfalls are more common.

Picture How is it made? How does it look on a map?

These are wide, flat valleys with steep sides. They were formed as a glacier moved

through the valleys, making them wider through abrasion

and plucking

This is a hollow on a mountain which gets wider and deeper as snow compacts into ice.

Freeze-thaw weathering causes rock to break away

from the sides and when there is too much ice the glacier then

moves downslope

This is a narrow knife-edged

ridge It happens when two corries

form either side of a mountain

The glaciers in the corrie erode

the rock around them and the flow downslope, as they do so

they leave a ridge between them

This is a small valley that hangs

above a larger one. This is where a much smaller

glacier would move downslope and join a larger one in the

bottom of the valley Lowland Landscapes

Lowland areas in the UK consist of younger and less resistant sedimentary rocks. The Weald

is an lowland landscape. The current shape of the landscape of The Weald is due to it’s

geology and the processes that act on the landscape both today and in the past.

Past processes of glacial deposition:

The landforms found in the south of the UK were formed by moraines (a mass of rock and

sediment which has been transported by a glacier and dropped when the glacier melts)

during glacial times.

Geology:

The Weald was once a dome folded rocks, forming an

arch. It used to be continuous however, as erosion

and weathering has happened it has exposed the

rock underneath leaving scarp and vale landscape.

Weathering Processes:

• Chemical weathering – rainwater mixes with gases in the atmosphere and forms weak

acids which dissolve rocks like limestone

• Biological weathering – tree and plant roots break rocks apart as they get into cracks in

search of water and nutrients - this is easy as the geology of the rocks are soft

Slope Processes:

Slope processes are much slower than in The Lake District. The most common is soil creep

which is when rainwater dislodges soil particles, moving materials slowly downslope causing

trees, posts and walls to lean over

Picture How is it made? How does it look on a map?

These are formed when there are alternative bands of hard rock (chalk)

and soft rock (clay). As the clay is eroded it exposes the chalk cliff as

this is more resistant to erosion

These form the opposite sides of enscarpments. The gentler slope is

called the dip slope whilst the steep side is called the scarp slope

These are made of clay and are the

valleys between the chalk enscarpments. Clay vales are flat and are lower than dip slopes and scarp

slopes

Human and physical causes of coastal change – Christchurch Bay

South coast of England, near Southampton

Problems

• People have built on and developed the coastal region.

• Cliffs erode by 2m a year

• Mass movement is a major problem caused by weathering

• Cliff foot erosion also a problem

• Atlantic fetch brings large destructive waves

Impacts of erosion

• Homeowners lose their homes to the sea. House values fall, and insurance is

impossible to get.

• Rapid cliff collapse are dangerous for the

people on the cliff top, and on the beach

• Roads and other infrastructure is

destroyed

• Erosion makes the area unattractive

The issue

• Whether to defend Christchurch Bay or

not. Some people argue it needs sea

defences, some argue these are too

expensive

• There’s no agreement about what

defences work best

• Groynes at Hengistbury head have

prevented sediment building up further along the coast, leaving it exposed.

The management choices - Hard or soft engineering

• Hard engineering – using concrete and steel structures, such as sea walls to stop

waves

• Soft engineering - using smaller structures, often built from natural materials, to

reduce wave energy

SMPs

The holistic approach involves deciding

where to defend and where not to. The area

has a shoreline management plan which

consists of three options.

• Hold the line

• Strategic retreat

• Do nothing

Norfolk’s shoreline management plan is

below.

Rivers - What are the human and physical causes of flooding?

Sheffield summer 2007. River Don- Hillsborough area.

Natural (physical) Causes

Prolonged rainfall- extreme wet weather hit north England. 15th June 90mm of Rain fell over

Sheffield; more than a months rainfall in one day. Further 100mm fell on June 25th.

Soli saturation – long rainfall meant that no more water could be infiltrated (absorbed) by the

ground.

Hard Engineering Solutions

Type of defence

Cost Benefits and problems

Sea Wall £2000 per metre

Reflects waves back out to sea Can prevent easy access to the beach Suffers from wave scour, where plunging destructive waves erode the beach and attack the wall’s foundations

Sea wall with steps and bullnose

£5000 per metre

Steps help to dissipate (reduce) wave energy Bullnose helps to throw waves back up

Revetments £1000 per metre

Breaks up incoming waves Restricts beach access and looks ugly Can be destroyed by big storms

Gabions £100 per metre

A cheap type of sea wall Absorbs wave energy as they are permeable Not very strong

Rock armour (riprap)

£300 per metre

Easy to build More expensive if built in the sea Dissipates wave energy and looks natural

Groynes £2000 per metre

Prevents longshore drift, trapping sand and shingle Larger beach dissipates wave energy, reducing erosion May increase erosion downdrift (further down the beach)

Soft Engineering Solutions

Type of defence

Cost Benefits and problems

Planting vegetation

£20-50 per squaremetre

Environmentally friendly Supports the cliff through roots

Offshore breakwaters

£2000 per metre

Forces waves to break before the cliffline. Expensive

No nothing n/a Loss of some land.

Soil became saturated therefore any additional water became surface run-off and ran straight into

rivers.

Confluence of several rivers- River Loxley, Rivein and Don all meet in one area.

Physical landscape- Sheffield lies at the foot of the Pennines where 3 rivers meet. Slopes near

Sheffield are steep- increased surface run-off.

Human Causes

Urbanisation- urban areas increasing in size. increased amounts of impermeable material (concrete

and roads) means less infiltration of water and increases surface run-off.

Climate change caused by the enhanced greenhouse effect has led to a marked increase in stormy

weather and flooding in the last decade.

Impacts

• 2 people drowned

• Over 1200 homes flooded and 1000 businesses affected.

• Roads damaged and bridges collapsed affecting travel

• 13,000 people were without power for 2 days

• Hillsbourgh Football stadium flooded up to 8meters deep

• People had to move out of homes for months to wait for repairs

• Health risks from raw sewage in water

• Meadowhall shopping centre was flooded- loss of stock and damage to buildings

• M1 motorway closed for 2 days

COST MILLIONS TO REPAIR DAMAGE

Management of Flooding in Sheffield

Hard engineering - Expensive, man made structures that alter the course of the river and

defend areas from flood water. Sheffield – River Don has invested in these:

Method How it works How effective is it?

Build flood banks (embankments)

Raise the banks of a river to increase its capacity

Fairy cheap, one-off costs. However disperse water quickly and increases flood risk downstream

Increase the size of the river channel

Dredge the river to increase its capacity, or line with concrete to speed up the flow of water

Lining with concrete expensive, dredging needs to be done annually to be effective. Speeding up river increases flood risk downstream

Divert river channel away from city centre

Create a diversion for excess water away from economy of city centre

Done in Rotherham, 2008 (diverted river channel 10km away from city centre.) Cost £14millions per KM. protects city centre- increases flood risk elsewhere

Increase drain size

Dig up every major road into Sheffield and enlarge major drains

Gets surface run-off water away from city. Drains can still reach capacity in heavy rainfall and cause flooding

Increase maintenance budget

Clear rivers, drains and sewers to remove debris and vegetation

Needs to be done annually, can be costly.

Soft engineering: Adapt to flood risk, cheaper alternatives, more natural and sustainable

and do not alter the course of the river. These methods are not used in Sheffield (yet).

Instead being used on River Skerne in Darlington

Method How it works How effective it is

Flood Abatement

Change land use upstream. E.g planting trees (afforestation)

Increased interception and transpiration of water- less in river channel

Flood Proofing Design new buildings or alter existing ones to reduce flood risk

Only affects new buildings- very expensive to alter existing buildings

Flood Plain Zoning

Refuse planning permission where flood risk is high

It phases out development in high risk areas- Schools and hospitals will be build far away from river where flood risk is lower

Flood Prediction and warning

The environment agency monitors rivers and uses forecasts from MET office

They provide accurate predications to help reduce flood damage and evacuate people saving lives

Unit 5 – The UK’s evolving human landscape London Case Study***

How have the site, situation and connectivity of London helped it to grow?

Site:

• Located on the Thames River, the land is flat as it

is on the flood plain.

• Located on the Thames as this was a ‘bridging

point’ during Roman times. Economically this

meant that businesses started in the area and

trade soon started.

• The Thames has also allowed for large ships to port there – increasing regional trade.

Situation:

• London is a very well connected city. It is situated

in the south east of England, in Western Europe.

• The M25 runs around London. A number of other motorways lead to London. These include the M1, M11 and M23 meaning quick access to other cities across UK.

• There are 5 airports meaning tourists and trade are easily attracted- London can be considered a global hub for air travel. Ferries and Eurotunnel allow for further increase in trade which helps to boost FDI.

London’s structure - (CBD), inner city, suburbs, urban-rural fringe)

London’s structure is more complex than both the Burgess model and the Hoyt model. It’s main economic function has shifted to the Docklands and now includes world famous building like Canary Wharf. In some ways you could say London has 2 CBDs, many businesses and tourists are attracted to

Central London

As with the Burgess model the city because more suburban in its function as you get further out. Housing age decreases and in many areas we are seeing new development in residential areas. With the

internet and transport businesses are starting to move

out of town for cheaper rent, they are ‘footloose’.

Environmental qualityimproves as you get further out, there is less traffic and pollution and population density decreases.

The causes of national and international migration that influence growth and character of different parts of the city

• Pull factors (jobs, culture, infrastructure, education, health play a huge role in attracting migrants (both national and international to London).

• Clusters of migrant populations occur as culture develops. New immigrants can be supported by friends and family with settling and language barriers.

• Chelsea is an example of migrants clustering together as many rich Russians live there to be close to the Russian embassy.

The reasons for different levels of inequality, in employment and services, education, health in the different parts of the city

• The Index of multiple deprivation (IMD)

measures inequalities across cities.

• In London inequality is highest is East London. Traditionally the London docks were in this area, transport links were poor to reduce potential for robbery as a result few businesses were located here.

• The means a negative multiplier effect where people don’t have jobs, there is less tax paid, councils have less to invest in education and services so people get worse jobs.

How parts of the city have experienced decline (de- industrialisation, de-population)

• London Docklands were the hub of commerce,

importing and exporting goods to and from the

colonies/ empire.

• Since WWII the area has face decline.

• Larger container ships were unable to travel so

far up the river so a new dock was built at Tilbury,

• Containerisation meant fewer people were

required in docks jobs as machines did most of

the work

• Competition from abroad in manufacturing • A move from secondary industries to tertiary and

quaternary

Impacts:

• 30000 jobs were lost during the 1960’s.

• Outmigration occurred – people left the area to move to new areas with more opportunities.

How parts of the city have experienced economic and population growth (financial and business, gentrification, cultural change

More recently (during the 1980s)the Docklands + East London have experienced regeneration. Government investment in attracting business (Special economic zones – low taxes). More transport links (Jubilee line, East London line, DLR). This has had a positive multiplier effect. More job opportunities attracts more people which means more income and facilities are created.

Gentrification (the movement of wealthier people into the area) means that the culture of the area changes, there are more cafes, restaurants and shops which can be unaffordable for the ‘locals’. As the area becomes more popular house prices increase and ‘local’s are ‘forced out’.

How regeneration and rebranding of the city has positive and negative impacts on people

Stratford has also undergone regeneration through the Olympics. This has changed people’s perception of

the area ‘rebranding’ and is attracting people from into

the area.

• The area has global connections (City airport) and fast links to the Eurostar. This makes the area more attractive to people and businesses.

Gentrification has also occurred here with many people opposition the developments. Some apartments are going for as much as £600000 for one bed flat.

• Olympics authorities argue positive impacts:

• increased transport links (cycle lanes, ‘Javelin’

train link to King’s Cross, East London line)

more housing much of which is affordable

(Olympic village is now mixed housing, some

council owned, some private and some ‘help to

buy)

• better environment (biggest urban park in

Europe)

• Investment from businesses

• Legacy of sport (many venues are hosting events and are open to the public)

Strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving quality of life in the city

Key strategies in London:

• Air pollution control: preventing large polluting

vehicles from entering at certain times)

• Congestion charge: Electric cars enter free but

other pay to drive in central London

• Cycle lanes: Promotes health and reduces car use

The city and accessible rural areas are interdependent (flows of goods, services and labour), which leads to economic, social and environmental costs and benefits for both

• London relies heavily on the surrounding rural

areas.

• Goods: Food is farmed in the rural areas

surrounding London and is sold in centre both in

Markets or in shops.

• Labour: 650000 people commute to central

London. These commuters live in dormitory

towns/villages (during the day empty,

commuters return to sleep and eat).

• Services: ICT companies based in rural areas provide services to people and companies in the city

Why a rural area has experienced economic and social changes (counter-urbanisation, pressure on housing, increased leisure and recreation and population change

Counter-urbanisation: The movement of people from

urban areas to rural areas has meant a change in the

character of the area. Rural areas have traditionally

been more affordable with bigger houses, places like

Sevenoaks have 80% of the population commuting to

London and is one of the most expensive places to

buy now. Increased wealth has meant house prices

have increased and locals struggle to afford to buy.

Many houses in some rural areas are ‘2nd homes’ and

are empty for much of the year.

Population change: People moving to more rural locations tend to be older, the environment is more attractive to them, it is less busy, cleaner and quieter.

The challenges of availability and affordability of housing, decline in primary employment, provision of healthcare and education and how they affect quality of life

Commuters who work in London earn far more than people outside of London. This means that they can afford to pay much higher prices for housing in commuter towns outside of London like Terling and services.

Population change: More elderly puts pressure on services such as healthcare as they need to be cared for.

Local services have declined as most new residents

use the shops and doctors etc. in London. Therefore

the elderly residents of rural areas around London

struggle to find services to meet their needs.

‘Traditional locals’ who have worked in primary industries such as farming and mining have seen a decrease in demand and the amount of money they make as a result of competition. Dairy farming has decreased by 60% in the last 15 years. Fishing has seen increased competition from Europe and as a result smaller fishing villages have gone into decline.

New income and economic opportunities are create d by rural diversification - Cornwall

Decline is being combatted through diversification. Rural areas are producing more specialised goods such as Ostrich meat. They are also offering a range of different services e.g. camping and running B+Bs. This means that they have more disposable income as well as attracting more people into the area.

• Eden project

• Farm shops

• Tourism

Paper 3 –People and Environment Issues: Making Geographical Decisions

You will not need to know any case studies for this paper BUT most of the paper will

definitely be about the destruction of a forest biome related to an energy project. So we

have given you a detailed example to give ideas for how to engage with the longer decision

making question.

The following are essential concepts to consider when reading through the example: Sustainability

-

involved -

Different opinions and the way different groups are impacted by decisions. Common groups are likely

to include:

• The government

• Local residents

• Indigenous people to an area

• Environmentalists

• TNCs

• The global community (everyone else)

Differing views of groups

Theories on relationship between resources and population - Malthus and Boserup –

E

xample of Paper 3 scenario resources – energy from a forest biome

Issues/ideas to be discussed, explained, justified (using evidence) and connected to the

example in the exam –

Environmental impacts

Local biodiversity

Water, air and land pollution

Local goods and services

Global services

Global warming and the enhanced greenhouse effect

Sustainable employment

Food webs (disruption of)

Taxable revenue for government

The hydrological cycle

Theories of resource consumption

Animal and plant adaptations – needs long time period

Renewable vs non-renewable

Traditional and alternative fossil fuels – tar sands and fracking

Recyclable energy – biofuels and nuclear

Renewable – solar, wind and HEP

Ecotourism

Sustainable farming

Selective logging

Wilderness and national park areas

Access to fuels – depth, geology, climate, landscape

Relationship between supply, demand and price

Uneven global demand – connected to development

Rising global demand – especially in emerging countries