Hay, 2000 - Functions of Humor in Converstionas of Men and w

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ELSEVIER

Journal of Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

jonrnal of

www.elsevier.nl/locate/pragma

F u n c t i o n s o f h u m o r in

t h e c o n v e r s a t io n s o f m e n a n d w o m e n

Jennifer Hay

Departm ent o f Linguisties, Northwestern University,

2016 Sheridan Rd, Evanston, IL 60208-4090, USA

Received 30 June 1997; revised version 27 May 1999

A b s t r a c t

Humor can serve numerous functions in discourse. This paper provides a tool for catego-

rizing functions of humor, and uses this tool to highlight statistically some interesting patterns

in the humor of New Zealand men and women.

The humor occurring in 18 New Zealand friendship groups was analyzed according to

function and these functions were organized into a taxonomy. Functions of humor occurring

in such groups can be classified under the three broad labels of solidarity-based, power-based

and psychological functions . Further distinctions within these labels are also made.

The distr ibution of these functions within the friendship groups was analyzed. The sample

consisted of both mixed groups and male and female s ingle-sex groups. Log-linear modelling

revealed the women much more likely to share funny personal stories to create solidarity,

whereas the men used other strategies to achieve the same goal. They were more likely to

reminisce about shared experiences or highlight similarities to create solidarity within the

group. While teasing was used in single-sex groups both to create power and solidarity, this

behavior reduced markedly in mixed groups. © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights

reserved.

K e y w o r d s :

Humor; Gender; New Zealand; Conversation; Teasing; Jokes

1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n

The following is an extract from a conversation between four young w omen (for

transcript ion conventions see A ppendix A):

This paper is based on chapter 5 of my Master's Thesis (Hay, 1995a). It has benefitted from the com-

ments of Janet Holmes, Gary Johnson, Rae Moses, Bernadette Vine, and two anonymous reviewers.

0378-2166/00/ - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII: S0378-2166(99)00069-7



710

J. Hay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 2000) 709-742

( 1 ) 1 J F & N F : [ la u g h ]

2

S F : w h a t ' s t h is g o i n g o n

3 JF : [ l a u g h s] : n o t h i n g + j u s t g o o d h u m o r :

H e r e , J F a n d N F a r e s h a ri n g a p r iv a t e j o k e . W h e n q u e s t i o n e d a b o u t i t b y S F , t h e y

c l a i m t h at n o th i n g i s g o i n g o n , j u s t ' g o o d h u m o r ' . H u m o r , t h o u g h , c a n h a v e n u m e r -

o u s f u n c t i o n s , a n d u s u a l l y s e r v e s a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n b e y o n d s i m p l y m a k i n g

p e o p l e la u g h . W h e n J F a n d N F s h a r e a p r i v a t e j o k e w i t h o u t i n c l u d i n g o t h e r p a rt i c i-

p a n t s o f th e c o n v e r s a t i o n , t h is b o t h r e f l e c t s a n d a f f e c t s g r o u p d y n a m i c s . I t re i n f o r c e s

s o l id a r it y b e t w e e n t h e t w o j o k e r s , w h i l e m a r k i n g a s o c i al b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m

a n d t h e o t h e r p a r t i c ip a n t s .

I n c r e a si n g a t t e n ti o n h a s b e e n p a i d t o h u m o r o v e r th e l a st f e w d e c a d e s . H o w e v e r

t h e d i s c i p l i n e i s s t i l l y o u n g an d , a s G r ah am e t a l . p o i n t o u t :

"W e are lacking a substantial bo dy of research that focuses on the use o f hum or in conversational set-

tings. Such research is nece ssary for the d evelopm entof a single, unified functional model o f humor."

(Graham et al., 1 992: 177)

M a n y a r e a s o f h u m o r r e s e a r c h h a v e p r o g r e s s e d s t e a d il y , b u t l i tt le r e s e a r c h h a s

b e e n d o n e o n s p o n t a n e o u s s p o k e n h u m o r . C o l l e c t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e d a t a a n d i d e n t i f y -

i n g a n d a n a l y s i n g s p o k e n h u m o r i s n o t w i t h o u t i t s c h a l l e n g e s . A s o n e b e g i n s t o w o r k

w i t h n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n , th e a p p e a l o f t h e w r i t t e n j o k e a s a s u b j e c t

b e c o m e s a l l t h e m o r e a p p a r e n t .

T h i s p a p e r e x p l o r e s th e f u n c t i o n s o f h u m o r i n fr i e n d s h i p g r o u p s , a n d h o w t h e s e x

c o m p o s i t i o n o f s u c h g r o u p s a f f e c t s h u m o r u s a g e . T h e d i s c u ss i o n i s b a se d o n a

d e t a il e d s t u d y o f h u m o r o c c u r r i n g a m o n g 1 8 g r o u p s o f f ri e n d s. T a p e s o f m i x e d a n d

s i n g le - s e x g r o u p s w e r e u s e d t o c o n s tr u c t a t a x o n o m y o f f u n c t io n s o f h u m o r . T h i s

t a x o n o m y w a s t h e n u s e d to e x p l o r e th e w a y h u m o r t e n d s to b e u s e d b y m e n a n d

w o m e n i n m i x e d a n d s i n g le - s e x g ro u p s .

S e c t i o n 2 b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e s l a n g u a g e a n d g e n d e r r e s e a r c h a n d o u t l i n e s re c e n t

r e s e a r c h o n g e n d e r a n d h u m o r . T h e c o r p u s i s b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d i n s e c ti o n 3 , a n d i n

s e c ti o n s 4 a n d 5 a t a x o n o m y o f f u n c ti o n s o f h u m o r i s d e v e l o p e d , a n d t h e c a t e g o r i es

d e f i n e d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e p a p e r d i s c u s s e s t h e re s u l ts o f u s in g t h i s f r a m e w o r k t o

i n v e s t i g a t e h u m o r i n m i x e d a n d s i n g l e - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s .

2 . L a n g u a g e a n d ge n d e r r es e a r c h

T h e l i t e r a t u r e o n g e n d e r a n d l a n g u a g e h a s g r o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r t h e l a s t

t w e n t y - f i v e y ea r s, a n d n o w c o v e r s m a n y d i f f e re n t as p e c ts o f la n g u a g e u s e. M a n y

r e s e a r c h e r s c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s t y le .

P r o b a b l y t h e m o s t c o n s i s t e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h a t w o m e n t e n d t o b e s u p p o r t i v e i n

t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s t y le , a n d m e n c o m p e t i t i v e (s e e A r i e s , 1 9 7 6 ; E d e l s k y , 1 9 8 1 ;

F i s h m a n , 1 9 8 3 ; M a l t z a n d B o r k e r , 1 9 8 3 ; C o a t e s , 1 9 8 6 ; P r e i s le r , 1 9 8 6 , a m o n g

o t h e r s ) .



J. Hay /Journal of Pragmatics 2000) 709-742 711

M u c h o f th e w o r k o n w h i c h o b s e r v a t i o n i s b a s e d i s q u a n t i ta t i v e , a n a p p r o a c h o f

w h i c h r e s e a r c h e r s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y c r i t i c a l . D e b o r a h C a m e r o n c o m m e n t s :

"Merely to say that 'men do x and w omen do y ' is inherently problematic: it fits comfortably into a tra-

dition of prescriptive and sexist comment about what 'normal' masculinity and femininity entail."

(Cameron, 19 92: 21)

I n s t e a d , th e r e h a s b e e n a m o v e t o w a r d s a v i e w o f g e n d e r a s si t u at e d a n d d y n a m i c .

E c k e r t a n d M c C o n n e l l - G i n e t ( 1 9 9 2 ) a d v o c a t e t he s t u dy o f ' c o m m u n i t i e s o f p r a c-

t i c e ' , w h i c h c a n r e v e a l m u c h a b o u t i d e n t i t y f o r m a t i o n , a n d h e l p r e f i n e t h e c o n c e p t u -

a l i sa t i o n o f g e n d e r. T h e y n o t e t h a t c o r r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n l in g u i s t ic f o r m s a n d s e x a r e

u s e f u l, b u t o n l y i n th a t t h e y i n d i c a te a r e a s w h e r e f u t u re i n v e s t i g a t i o n m a y p o t e n t i a ll y

r e v e a l th e p r a c ti c e s e n t e r in g i n to g e n d e r d y n a m i c s w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y .

I n m a n y a r e as t h is g r o u n d w o r k h a s n o w b e e n l a id , a n d r e se a r c h e r s a r e e q u i p p e d

t o m o v e o n t o d e ta i le d i n v e s ti g a ti o n o f v a ri o u s a s p e c ts o f g e n d e r d y n a m i c s . H u m o r

r e s e a r c h i s a n a re a w h e r e t h e r e a r e f e w g r o u n d s t u d i e s . T h e l i t e ra t u r e i n d i c a t e s s o m e

t r e n d s , b u t m u c h o f i t r e l ie s u p o n i n t r o s p e c t i o n o r a r ti f i c ia l l y e l i c it e d d a t a .

2.1. Gender and Hum or

I n h e r i n f lu e n t i a l b u t m u c h d i s p u t e d p a p e r L a k o f f ( 1 9 7 5 ) l i st s th e f o r m s c o m p r i s -

i n g ' w o m e n ' s l a n g u a g e ' . O n e o f h er o b s e r v a ti o n s i s t h at ' [ w ] o m e n d o n ' t te ll j o k e s "

( L a k o f f , 1 9 7 5 : 5 6 ) .

"It is axiomatic in middle-class American society that, first, wom en can 't tell jokes - they are bound to

ruin the punchline, they mix up the order of things and so on. Mo reover, they do n't 'ge t' jokes. In short,

women have no sense of humor." (Lakoff , 1 975: 56)

S o m e r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o ex p l a i n t h e ' f a c t ' t h at w o m e n d o n o t u s e

h u m o r . F r e u d ( 1 9 0 5 ) c l a i m e d w o m e n d o n o t n e e d a s en s e o f h u m o r b e c a u s e t h e y

h a v e f e w e r s t ro n g f e e l in g s t o r e p re s s . G r o t j a h n ( 1 9 5 7 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t w o m e n d o n o t

t e ll j o k e s b e c a u s e j o k e - t e l l i n g i s a n a g g r e s s i v e a c t .

G o o d m a n , i n a p a p e r p r i m a r i l y a b o u t s t a n d - u p c o m e d y , p o i n ts o u t :

"There is a lingering perception that wo men are n ot best suited to telling jokes but rather to being the

punchlines." (Goodm an, 199 2: 286)

T h i s p e r c e p t i o n h a s a p p l i e d , n o t o n l y t o j o k e - t e ll i n g , b u t t o h u m o r i n g e n e ra l . T h e

a t ti t u d e i s s l o w l y c h a n g i n g , a s r e se a r c h e r s b e g i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c o l l e c t in g a n d d o c u -

m e n t i n g h u m o r u s e d b y b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n i n a v a r ie t y o f c o n te x ts .

K r a m a r a e ( 1 9 8 1 ) p o i n ts o u t t h a t m e n a n d w o m e n h a v e d i f f er e n t p e rc e p t io n s o f t h e

w o r l d a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y p r o b a b l y h a v e d i f f e r e n t j o k i n g i n t e re s ts . S o c i e t y i s s u c h t h a t

w o m e n h a v e t o w o r k w i t h in t h e s oc i al s y m b o l s o f th e d o m i n a n t g r o u p , s o i t is m o r e

l i k e ly t h a t w o m e n w i l l r e c o g n i z e t h e j o k i n g i n t e r e st s o f m a l e s t h a n v i c e - v e r s a . K r a -

m a r a e b e l i e v e s t h is is t h e b as i s o f t h e c o m m o n a s s e r ti o n t h a t w o m e n h a v e n o s e n s e

o f h u m o r . I n s ho r t, w o m e n h a v e t o u n d e r s t a n d m a l e h u m o r , m e n d o n o t h a v e t o



712

J. Ha y /Jou rna l o f Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

u n d e r s t a n d w o m e n ' s . T h i s is re i n f o rc e d b y J e n k i n s ( 1 9 8 5 ) w h o n o t e s t hi s a s y m -

m e t r y :

"I wondered why it was that when a man tells a joke and women don't laugh, we are told we have no

sense of humo r, but when a w oman tells a joke an d men d on 't laug h, we are told we are not funny."

(Jenkins, 1 985 : 135)

M a n y r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t h u m o r i s a n i n h e r e n t l y p o w e r f u l a c t . I n

o r d e r to g a i n a c c e p t a n c e a s a ' t r u e ' w o m a n , i t i s t h e r e f o re u n a c c e p t a b l e f o r w o m e n

t o d i s p la y h u m o r i n m i x e d c o m p a n y . M a r l o w e ( 1 9 8 9 ) o b s e rv e s :

"When women produce and present humor they reverse conventional social situations by putting them-

selves in the foreground, threatening the most basic social gender arrangemen ts." (Marlowe, 19 89 : 150)

W o m e n a r e sa i d t o h a v e a se n s e o f h u m o r , n o t i f t h e y p r o d u c e h u m o r , b u t i f t h e y

r e s p o n d t o a n d a p p r e c i a te i t ( C o s e r , 1 9 6 0 ; M c G h e e , 1 9 7 9 ; B a r r e c a , 1 9 9 1 ).

S o m e r e s ea r c h er s h a v e f o u n d t h at w o m e n u s e h u m o r w h e n b y t h e m s e lv e s , a n d

t e n d to a v o i d i t i n m i x e d g r o u p s ( C o s e r , 1 9 6 0 ; G o o d m a n , 1 9 9 2 ).

C r a w f o r d ( 1 9 8 9 ) p o i n t s o u t th a t m a n y s tu d ie s o f g e n d e r a n d h u m o r h a v e i n v o l v e d

b i as . M a n y c o n c e n t r a t e o n h u m o r o c c u r r i n g i n th e p u b l i c s p h e r e . T h i s i s c l e a r l y e as -

i e r t o c o l l e c t t h a n p r i v a t e , s p o n t a n e o u s j o k i n g , b u t , a s t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e i s g e n e r a l l y

t h e d o m a i n o f m a le s , o b s e r v e d w o m e n ' s h u m o r i s u n l i k el y t o b e ty p i ca l . T h e r e h a s

a l s o b e e n a lo t o f re s e a r c h c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n r e s p o n s e s t o s et p i e c e j o k e s . C a n n e d

j o k e s h a v e b e e n s h o w n t o b e a m o r e t y p i c a l ly m a l e f o r m o f h u m o r ( J e n k in s , 1 9 8 5 ;

G o o d w i n , 1 9 8 2 ), a n d s o p r e d i c t a b ly , m a n y r e s u lt s s h o w m e n m o r e a p p r e c i a t i v e o f

t h e j o k e s t h a n t h e w o m e n . T h i s o f t e n l ea d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t w o m e n h a v e l e s s

o f a s e n se o f h u m o r .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y p o o r m e t h o d o l o g y h a s e v e n r e c e n t ly l e a d s o m e r e s e ar c h e rs t o m i s-

t a k e n l y c o n c l u d e t h a t i m p r e s s i o n s o f h u m o r l e s s w o m e n a r e s u b s t a n t i a te d b y fa c t.

C o x e t a l. ( 1 9 9 0 ) l o o k e d a t g e n d e r d i ff e r e n c e s i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g j o b - r e l a t e d h u m o r .

T h e s t u d y i s t r i g g e r e d b y t h e c o n c e r n t h a t :

"Abundant literature indicates the importance of humor in the workplace. Yet it is also proposed by

some au tho rs that women lack (or do n ot make use of) humo r when com municating in professional

activities." (Cox et al., 199 0: 287)

T h e i r q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n t a i n e d 1 5 h y p o t h e t i c a l s i tu a t io n s i n w h i c h t h e r e s p o n d e n t ' s

c o l l e a g u e i s p l a c e d i n a p o t e n t i a l l y e m b a r r a s s i n g s i tu a t i o n i n a j o b - r e l a t e d c i r c u m -

s t an c e . E a c h s i tu a t io n w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h r e e r ea c t io n s , o n e r e l a te d t o i g n o r i n g , o n e

t o h u m o r a n d o n e t o h e l p f u l n e s s . F o r e a c h o n e , th e i n f o r m a n t h a d t o ra t e h o w l i k e ly

i t w a s t h a t th e y w o u l d r e a c t i n t h a t w a y . T h e o n e e x a m p l e g i v e n w a s a c o l l e a g u e

w h o a c c i d e n t l y d r o p p e d a lo t o f p a p e r s , a n d t h e h u m o r r e s p o n s e w a s : ' I w o u l d t e a s e

h i m a b o u t b e i n g a m a s t e r p a p e r s h u f f l e r ' ( C o x e t a l. , 1 9 9 0 : 2 9 1 ) . S t u d e n t s w e r e

a s k e d t o r a t e s u c h s t a t e m e n t s f r o m 1 ( s t r o n g l y a g r e e ) t o 7 ( s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e ) .

W h a t t h i s a c tu a l l y te s ts i s w h e t h e r r e s p o n d e n t s h a v e t h e s a m e s e n s e o f h u m o r a s

w h o e v e r w r o t e t h e q u e s t i o n s . I f a r e s p o n d e n t r a t e d t h e h u m o r q u e s t i o n l o w , t h e n t hi s



J. Hay / Journal o f Pragmatics (2000) 709-742 713

w a s t a k e n t o m e a n t h e y w o u l d n o t u s e h u m o r i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . A l l i t r e a l l y

m e a n s i s t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t u s e t h e s t a t e m e n t p r o v i d e d . I f i t i s t h e c a s e th a t m e n

a n d w o m e n h a v e d i f f e r e n t j o k i n g s t y le s , t h e n t hi s m e t h o d o l o g y w i ll b e h e a v i l y

b i a s e d t o w a r d s t h e g e n d e r o f t h e a u t h o r o f t h e q u e s t io n s .

T h e r e s u l t s s h o w e d t h a t m e n u s e d t h e h u m o r r e s p o n s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e , a n d

w o m e n w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e l i k e l y t o r e a c t h e l p f u l l y . C o x e t a l . , t h e r e f o r e c o n -

c l u d e :

"This study seems to verify wh at most of the non -empirical literature has hyp othesized abo ut wom en's

use of hu mor, namely, that hu m or is less a part of the female's com mu nications pattern." (C ox et al.,

1990: 293)

E v e n i f t h e m e t h o d o l o g y d i d n o t l e a d u s t o q u e s t i o n t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e r e s u lt s , th i s

s t u d y c o u l d i n n o w a y l e a d u s t o s u c h a d r a m a t i c c o n c l u s i o n . F i r s t l y , t h i s q u e s t i o n -

n a i r e is c o n c e r n e d w i t h o n e t y p e o f h u m o r - h u m o r a t t h e e x p e n s e o f o th e r s. T h i s i s

a s m a l l s u b - c la s s o f th e m a n y t y p e s o f h u m o r , a n d s o w e c a n n o t c o n c l u d e o n t h e

b a s is o f th i s s t u d y t h at " h u m o r is le s s a p a r t o f t h e f e m a l e ' s c o m m u n i c a t i o n p a t t e r n " .

M o s t a s p e c t s o f h u m o r h a v e n o t b e e n d i s cu s s e d , l et a lo n e e x a m i n e d in C o x e t a l . 's

p a p e r . S e c o n d l y , t h e s t u d y s e t o u t to l o o k a t j o b - r e l a t e d h u m o r , b u t t h is c o n c l u s i o n

s e e m s t o b e m a k i n g c l a i m s a b o u t c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n g e n e r a l .

C r a w f o r d a n d G r e s s l e y ( 1 9 9 1 ) a l s o u s e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o e l i c i t t h e i r d a t a . T h e i r

f i n d i n g s a r e b o t h l e s s s p e c t a c u l a r a n d m o r e c r e d i b l e t h a n t h o s e o f C o x e t a l. T h e y

a d m i n i s t e r e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e a s k i n g s u b j e c t s t o d e s c r i b e s o m e o n e t h e y k n e w w h o

h a d a n o u t s t a n d i n g s e n s e o f h u m o r , a n d t o ra t e h o w m u c h t h e y t h e m s e l v e s p a r ti c i-

p a t e i n v a r i o u s h u m o r - r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s ( e . g . e n j o y i n g e t h n i c h u m o r ) . I n d e s c r i b i n g

s o m e o n e t h e y k n e w , m e n u s e d t h e c r e a t i v i t y d i m e n s i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e t h a n

w o m e n . O f 9 2 fe m a l e s , 6 2 w r o t e a b o u t m a l e s , a n d o f 4 9 m a l e s , 41 w r o t e a b o u t

m a l e s . W h e n w r i t in g a b o u t m a l e s , r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e s i g n i f i ca n t ly m o r e l i k e l y to u s e

t h e c r e a t i v i t y d i m e n s i o n . M a l e s r e p o r t e d t h e y e n j o y e d b o t h s l a p s t i c k a n d h o s t i l e

h u m o r ( e .g . ra c i st o r s e x is t h u m o r ) m o r e o f t e n t h a n f e m a l e s , a n d t h e y r e p o r te d m o r e

u s e o f f o r m u l a i c j o k i n g , w h e r e a s f e m a l e s r e p o r te d m o r e a n e c d o t a l h u m o r .

E r v i n - T r i p p a n d L a m p e r t ( 1 9 9 2 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d h u m o r i n n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g s i t u a -

t i o n s a n d f o u n d m e n m o r e l i k e l y t o i n i t i a t e a h u m o r o u s k e y . W o m e n m a i n t a i n e d a

h u m o r o u s k e y a c r o s s p a r ti c ip a n t s s o t h e re w a s a l ar g e r a m o u n t o f h u m o r e l i c it a ti o n

b y w o m e n . W o m e n w e r e m o r e c o l l a b o r a t i v e i n t h e i r h u m o r . T h e y o f t e n u s e d d u e t s

i n w o r d p l a y , a n d t h e i r s e lf - d i re c t e d h u m o r i n s i n g l e -s e x i n t e r ac t io n w a s m o r e l ik e l y

t h a n m e n ' s t o b e b u i l t o n s o m e o n e e l s e ' s r e m a r k . E r v i n T r i p p a n d L a m p e r t c a l l t h i s

' s t a c k e d h u m o r ' . W h e n m e n u s e d s e l f- d i r e ct e d h u m o r , i t w a s m o r e n o v e l a n d l es s

c o l l a b o r a t i v e . I t a l s o t e n d e d t o b e m o r e e x a g g e r a t e d o r c l e a r l y f a l s e , g i v i n g a p e r f o r -

m a n c e q u a l i ty t o m e n ' s h u m o r .

J e n k i n s ( 1 9 8 5 ) a l s o n o t e s t h a t m a l e h u m o r t e n d s t o b e m o r e p e r f o r m a n c e - b a s e d

t h a n w o m e n ' s h u m o r . J e n k i n s o b s e r v e s t h a t m e n ' s h u m o r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s s e l f -

a g g r a n d i z i n g o n e - u p m a n s h i p . T h e y m o r e o f t en u s e f o r m u l a i c j o k e s w h i c h a re

m a r k e d l y s e p a r at e f r o m th e s u r r o u n d i n g d i s c o u r s e a n d w h i c h i n v o l v e a p e r f o r m a n c e .

T h i s e s t a b l i s h e s t h e m a s c r e d i b l e p e r f o r m e r s a n d g i v e s t h e m a n a u d i e n c e . W o m e n



714

J. Hay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

t e n d t o r e ly o n t h e c o n t e x t m o r e i n th e c r e a t i o n o f th e i r h u m o r , a n d u s e h u m o r i n a

w a y t h a t i s s u p p o r t i v e a n d h e a l i n g .

G o o d m a n ( 1 9 9 2 ) p o i n t s o u t th a t j o k e t e ll in g i s le s s t y p i c a l f o r f e m a l e c o m e d i a n s

t h a n m a l e s. F e m a l e c o m e d i a n s t e n d t o p r e f e r n a r r a ti v e c o m e d y , in w h i c h h u m o r i s

d i f f u s e d o v e r t h e s i tu a t i o n r a th e r t h a n c o n t a i n e d i n a s i n g le p h r a s e . S h e q u o t e s L e d -

e r e r d e s c r i b i n g g e n d e r d i f f e re n c e s s h e p e r c e iv e s i n t h e u s e o f h u m o r b y p r o f e s s i o n a l

c o m e d i a n s .

"When a man tells a formalized joke I tend to switch off because it 's quite authoritarian: you have to

listen in order to g et the payoff, the punchline, and then you h ave to laugh. It 's q uite strict and inflexi-

ble. It 's far m ore interesting for me to ramble on, hopefully h itting the right targets, certainly w ith a

through-line, and certainly with an end, b ut not in the same formalized way . I would rather just sit and

hope that i t 's fun ny." (Helen Lederer as quoted in Goodman, 199 2: 295)

K a u f m a n ( 1 9 9 1 ) a t t e m p t s t o c h a r a c te r i z e f e m i n i s t h u m o r . S h e a l s o n o t e s a p r e f e r-

e n c e f o r s p o n t a n e i t y r a t h e r th a n f o r f o r m u l a i c h u m o r .

"[Feminists'] preferences are toward spo ntaneous w it, amusing real-life anecdotes and other forms o f

humor that are participatory. Jokes involve tellers and listeners, the teller is the active one at the centre

of attention, and the listeners are relatively passive ... spontaneous hum an interaction is largely absent."

(Kaufman, 19 91: 248)

S h e p o i n t s o u t th a t w i t ty r e m a r k s c o n t r i b u t e t o th e d i a l o g u e , w h e r e a s j o k e s t e n d t o

d i s r u p t a n d d i s t r a c t f r o m i t .

C r a w f o r d ( 1 9 8 9 ) a d m i n i s t e r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s d e s i g n e d t o e l ic i t t h e t y p e s o f h u m o r

u s e d b y w o m e n , t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t g e n d e r d i f f e re n c e s i n t h e u s e o f h u m o r , a n d

t h e ty p e s o f h u m o r t h e y v a l u e d i n o t h er s . S h e f o u n d t h a t th e t y p e s o f h u m o r t h e

w o m e n d i f fe r e n t ia l l y a t t ri b u t e d t o t h e m s e l v e s w e r e t h e s a m e a s t h e t y p e s t h e y v a l u e d

i n o t h e r s. N a m e l y , a n e c d o t e s a b o u t o n e ' s o w n , a n d o n e ' s f r i e n d s ' p e r s o n a l e x p e r i -

e n ce s . C r a w f o r d s ay s o f w o m e n ' s h u m o r :

"[I]t involves not only creative spo ntaneity but connectedness and comp assion; it invites self-disclosure

and reciprocal sharin g of perspectives; it is dependent on the immediate social context." (Crawford,

1989: 160)

A n u m b e r o f s c h o l a r s, t h e n , h a v e h a d i n t e r e s ti n g t h i n g s t o s a y a b o u t g e n d e r a n d

h u m o r . H o w e v e r , f e w o f t h e s e h a v e e m p l o y e d a n a l y t i c o r c l a s s i fi c a t o r y t o o ls i n t h e ir

a n a l y s e s , a n d e v e n f e w e r h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d n a t u r a l s p o k e n d a t a . I n t h is s t u d y , I

i n v e s t i g a te d i f f e re n c e s b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n s t at is t ic a ll y . I d o n o t i n t e n d t o p r o -

d u c e a n y s ta rt li n g o r ca t e g o ri c a l c o n c lu s i o n s a b o u t h o w m e n a n d w o m e n u s e h u m o r ,

b u t r a t h e r p r o v i d e t h e g r o u n d w o r k w h i c h h a s b e e n l a c k i n g i n th i s a re a . I p o i n t t o

s o m e i n t e re s t in g t r en d s , a n d i d e n t i f y a re a s o f h u m o r a n d g e n d e r r e s e a r c h w h i c h

c o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n .



J. Ha y / Journ al of Pragmatics (2000) 709-742 715

3. Methodology

T h e c o r p u s f o r th i s s t u d y c o n s i s t s o f 1 8 c o n v e r s a t i o n s . S i x o f t h e s e a r e c o n v e r s a -

t i o n s b e t w e e n f o u r f e m a l e f ri e n d s , s ix b e t w e e n f o u r m a l e f r i e n d s , a n d s ix a r e m i x e d

g r o u p s c o n s i s t i n g o f tw o m a l e s a n d t w o f e m a l e s . A l l o f t h e g r o u p s a r e n a t u r a l f ri e n d -

s h ip g r o u p s , a ll a re P a k e h a ( N e w Z e a l a n d e r s o f E u r o p e a n d e s c e n t) a g e d b e t w e e n 1 8

a n d 3 5 , w i t h s o m e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . T h e c o n v e r s a t i o n s w e r e t a p e d i n s e t t i n g s f a m i l -

i a r t o th e s p e a k e r s , u s u a l l y i n o n e o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' h o m e s . F o u r o f th e r e c o r d i n g s

w e r e t a k e n f r o m t h e W e l l in g t o n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w Z e a l a n d E n g l is h , o n e f r o m

t h e V i c t o r i a U n i v e r s i t y o f W e l l i n g t o n L i n g u i s t i c s L i b r a r y , a n d th r e e w e r e c o l l e c t e d

b y A n i t a E a s t o n f o r t h e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d i n E a s t o n ( 1 9 9 4 ). 1 T h e r e m a i n i n g t e n t a p e s

w e r e c o l l e c t e d b y m e a n d c o n s i s t o f c o n v e r s a t io n s b e t w e e n m y f r ie n d s a n d t h e i r

f r ie n d s . N o n e o f t h e s p e a k e r s w e r e a w a r e a t th e t i m e o f r e c o r d i n g t h a t I w a s s p e c i f -

i c a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n h u m o r .

F r o m e a c h t a p e , I t o o k a t w e n t y m i n u t e e x c e r p t a n d t r a n s c r i b e d a l l i n s t a n c e s

o f h u m o r . U n a n a l y z e d p o r t i o n s o f th e t a p e w e r e a l s o m o n i t o r e d , i n o r d e r to

e x t ra c t m a x i m u m b a c k g r o u n d i n f o rm a t i o n a n d u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e g r o u p

d y n a m i c s , w h i c h w o u l d h e l p t o in f o r m t h e a n a ly s i s . F o r th e p u r p o s e s o f th i s

p a p e r , I r e g a r d h u m o r a s b e i n g a n y t h i n g t h e s p e a k e r i n t e n d s t o b e f u n n y . T a n n e n

( 1 9 9 3 : 1 6 6 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t th e t r u e i n t e n t io n o f a n y u t t e r a n c e c a n n o t b e e s t a b -

l i s h e d f r o m t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f l i n g u i s t ic f o r m a l o n e . T h i s i s c l e a r l y a p r o b l e m . I

w a s i n t e r e s te d i n i n t e n t io n a l h u m o r , i n c l u d i n g h u m o r t h a t r e m a i n e d u n s u p p o r t e d

b y t h e a u d i e n c e . T h i s p r e c l u d e d a d e f i n i t i o n b a s e d o n a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e . W h i l e

c r i t e r i a b a s e d o n s p e a k e r i n t e n t i o n a r e c l e a r l y f r a u g h t w i t h p r o b l e m s o f i n d e t e r -

m i n a c y a n d s u b j e c t i v i t y , I d e c i d e d t o w o r k w i t h i n t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s , a n d a t t e m p t

t o u s e a s m u c h o b j e c t i v e e v i d e n c e a s w a s a v a i l a b l e i n e a c h c a s e . A s p o i n t e d o u t

b y a n a n o n y m o u s r e v i e w e r , t h is t e c h n i q u e e f f e c t i v e l y a m o u n t e d t o s it u a ti n g

m y s e l f as p a rt o f t h e a u d i e n c e , a n d a s s e s s i n g t h e u t t e r a n c e ' s f u n c t i o n b y i ts

e f f e c t o n m e .

I n i d e n ti f y in g a n d c o d i n g t h e h u m o r , n u m e r o u s c l u e s w e r e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

s p e a k e r ' s i n t e n ti o n . I d r e w o n m y k n o w l e d g e o f th e s p e a k e r s a n d t h e g r o u p s a s a

w h o l e , a n d a l s o o n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e g r o u p s g l e a n e d f r o m t h e r e m a i n i n g n o n - a n a -

l y z e d t a p e . I r e l i e d h e a v i l y o n c o n t e x t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s p e a k e r ' s i n t e n t i o n , a n d a l s o

t o o k i n t o a c c o u n t th e a u d i e n c e ' s r e s p o n s e . T h e a u d i e n c e f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e g r o u p a s

a w h o l e a n d s o p r o b a b l y s h a r e d a s i m i l a r s e n s e o f w h a t i s f u n n y w i t h t h e s p e a k e r , s o

i f s o m e t h i n g a p p e a r e d t o b e m e a n t h u m o r o u s l y , t h e n a n a m u s e d a u d i e n c e w o u l d p r o -

v i d e e v i d e n c e i n s u p p o r t o f th i s. T h e s p e a k e r ' s t o n e o f v o i c e w a s a l s o i m p o r t a n t .

S u d d e n c h a n g e s i n p a c e o r p it c h , a l a u g h i n g o r s m i l i n g v o i c e a n d o t h e r v e r b a l c l u e s

w e r e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n ( s e e C r y s ta l , 1 9 6 9 ).

T h i s p r o c e s s r e s u l t e d in a c o r p u s o f 81 5 e x a m p l e s . O f t h e s e , 3 33 e x a m p l e s w e r e

f r o m s i n g l e - s e x m a l e g r o u p s , 2 1 6 f r o m s i n g l e - s e x f e m a l e g r o u p s , 1 6 3 f r o m m a l e s in

m i x e d g r o u p s , a n d 1 03 f ro m f e m a l e s i n m i x e d g r o u p s .

Many thanks to WC SNZE and to Anita Easton for allowing me access to their data.



716 J. H ay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

I w a s i n t e re s t e d i n i n v e s t ig a t i n g v a r ia t io n i n h o w h u m o r f u n c t i o n e d w i t h i n g r o u p s .

A n i n it ia l s te p t h e n w a s t o c o n s t r u c t a s u i t a b le t a x o n o m y t o c l a s s i fy e x a m p l e s o f

h u m o r a c c o r d i n g t o f u n c t i o n . T h i s t a x o n o m y i s o u t li n e d i n s e c t io n 4 .

4 . T h e f r a m e w o r k

T h i s f r a m e w o r k w a s d e v e l o p e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r a n a l y z i n g s p o n t a n e o u s h u m o r

o c c u r r i n g a m o n g s t f r i e n d s h i p g r o u p s i n N e w Z e a l a n d . N o e x i s ti n g d e s c r i p ti o n o f th e

f u n c t i o n s o f h u m o r p r o v e d s u i t a b l e f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s . T a x o n o m i e s o f h u m o r d e v e l -

o p ed t o d e sc r i b e d i f f e r en t s e t t in g s ( fo r ex a m p l e t h e w o rk p l ac e - C o l l i n so n , 1 9 8 8 ) o r

fo r d i f f e r en t p u rp o se s (q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e s i g n - G rah am e t al ., 1 9 92 ) w e re c l ea r l y

u n su i t ab l e .

S e v e r a l a u t h o r s i d e n t i f y t h r e e o r f o u r b r o a d f u n c t i o n s t h a t h u m o r c a n s e r v e ( M a r -

t i n eau , 1 9 7 2 ; Z i v , 1 9 8 4 ; P o g reb i n an d P o o l e , 1 9 8 8 ; C o l l i n so n , 1 9 8 8 ; E rv i n -T r i p p

an d L am p er t , 1 9 9 2 , am o n g o t h e r s ) . E ach i d en t i f i e s a t l e a s t o n e so l i d a r i t y -o r i en t ed

f u n c t i o n . O t h e r f u n c t i o n s d i s c u s s e d i n c l u d e c o n t r o l l i n g o t h e r s ( M a r t i n e a u , 1 9 7 2 ;

C o l l i n so n , 1 9 8 8 ) , co n f l i c t (M ar t i n eau , 1 9 7 2 ) , ex p l o ra t i o n an d co p i n g (P o g reb i n an d

P o o l e , 1 9 8 8 ) . S e v e r a l a u t h o r s h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h e f a c t t h a t h u m o r c a n p e r f o r m a

b o u n d a ry fu n c t i o n (Dav i e s , 1 9 8 2 ; L i n s t ead , 1 9 8 5 ) . F o r t h i s s t u d y , I d r ew t o g e t h e r

t h e fu n c t i o n s i d en t i f i ed i n t h e l i t e r a t u re , an d t h en w o rk ed w i t h t h e d a t a t o co n s t ru c t

a f r a m e w o r k w h i c h s e e m e d to b e s t c ap t u r e th e w a y s i n w h i c h h u m o r w a s b e i n g u s e d .

T h e f r a m e w o r k a s s u m e s t h a t e v e r y a t te m p t a t h u m o r i s a n a tt e m p t t o b o th e x p r e s s

so l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e au d i en ce an d co n s t ru c t a p o s i t i o n o f r e sp ec t an d s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e

g r o u p . T a n n e n ( 1 9 9 3 : 1 67 ) p o i n ts o u t th a t , a l t h o u g h s o l i d a ri ty a n d p o w e r m a y o n

f i r s t co n s i d e ra t i o n ap p ea r t o b e o p p o s i t e s , e ach en t a i l s t h e o t h e r . T h i s i s p a r t i cu l a r l y

t r u e in t h e c a s e o f h u m o r . W h e n e v e r y o u a t t e m p t h u m o r a n d i t s u c c e e d s , y o u r s ta t u s

w i t h i n t h e g r o u p i s p o s i t iv e l y a f f e c te d . Y o u h a v e a m u s e d t h e a u d i e n c e a n d s o i ll u s-

t r a te d t h a t y o u s h a r e w i t h t h e m a c o m m o n i d e a o f w h a t i s f u n n y . T h i s s e r v e s to c r e -

a t e o r m a i n t a i n s o l i d a ri ty . S o m e i n s ta n c e s o f h u m o r w i ll h a v e t h i s g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n

an d n o o t h e r , b ey o n d t h e c r ea t i o n o f a p o s i t i v e s e l f - i d en t i t y .

F i g . 1 s h o w s t h e s t r u c tu r e o f th e t a x o n o m y o f h u m o r . T h e

g e n e r a l

fu n c t i o n , a s

d e sc r i b ed ab o v e , i s a t t h e h ead o f t h e t r e e . A l l h u m o r s e rv e s t h i s fu n c t i o n ( a t l e a s t

w i t h i n f r ie n d s h i p g r o u p s ) . T h e n e x t l ev e l o f th e t a x o n o m y s h o w s s p e c i f ic f u n c t i o n s

w h i c h e x a m p l e s c o u l d f u l f i l l . H u m o r n o r m a l l y s e r v e s p r i m a r i l y

s o l i d a r i t y - b a s e d ,

p o w e r - b a s e d

o r

p s y c h o l o g i c a l

n e e d s . T h o s e e x a m p l e s w h i c h c a n n o t b e c l a s s if i e d a s

s e r v i n g p r i m a r i l y s o l i d a r it y - b a s e d , p o w e r - b a s e d o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s a r e s i m -

p l y ca t eg o r i zed a s s e rv i n g t h e g en e ra l f u n c t i o n . C a t eg o r i e s w h i ch a r e p o t en t i a l f i n a l -

l ev e l l ab e l s a r e sh ad ed i n g rey .

T h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a te g o r y c o n t a i n s t h e f u n c t io n s ' t o d e f e n d ' a n d ' t o c o p e ' . C o p -

i n g h u m o r i s fu r t h e r c a t e g o r iz e d i n t o t w o m o r e s p e c i fi c f u n c t io n s . I d o n o t i d e n t i f y

s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g i e s t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s c o u l d b e f u l f i l l e d .

S t r a te g i e s s u c h a s p u t t in g o n e s e l f d o w n b e f o r e s o m e o n e e l s e d o e s , o r m a k i n g l ig h t o f

a s e r i o u s s i t u a t i o n fu l f i l l p sy ch o l o g i ca l fu n c t i o n s . A s t h e p sy ch o l o g i ca l c a t eg o r i e s

a re a l r ead y q u i t e sp ec i f i c a t t h e fu n c t i o n l ev e l , s t r a t eg y l ev e l c a t eg o r i e s w o u l d b e



J. Hay /Journal of Pragmatics 2000) 709-742

717

o

o~

J

F ig . 1 . The func t ions o f hum or .

I



718

J. Ha) / Journal o f Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

p a r t i c u l a r l y d e t a i l e d a n d c o n t a i n v e r y f e w e x a m p l e s . I t h e r e f o r e f e l t i t s u f f i c i e n t t o

c o d e s u c h e x a m p l e s o n l y b y t h e s p e c i f ic f u n c t i o n th e y s e rv e d . T h e f u n c t i o n o f f o rm -

i n g o r m a i n t a i n i n g s o l i d a r i t y , h o w e v e r , i s m u c h b r o a d e r . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e c u r r e n t

s t ra t e g i e s t h a t s p e a k e r s u s e i n o r d e r t o f u l f il l t h is f u n c t i o n . T h e s a m e i s tr u e o f h u m o r

w h i c h f u n c t i o n s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o e x e r t p o w e r .

T h e d i a g r a m m a k e s t h e i n t e r r e l a t io n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s , s t ra t e g i e s a n d f u n c -

t i o n s a p p e a r r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . T h i s i s a n a t t e m p t a t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t a x -

o n o m y g r a p h i c a l l y . I n f a c t , h o w e v e r , t h e d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n s t r a t e g y a n d f u n c t i o n

i s l e s s d i s t i n c t t h a n w a s i m p l i e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h . S t r a t e g i e s c a n b e

s e e n a s m o r e p r e c i se d e s c r ip t i o n s o f f u n c t io n s . O n e c o u l d g o c o n s i d e r a b l y f u r t h e r

p o s t u l a t i n g v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f s u c h a tr e e , a n d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f la b e l s t o e a c h o f

t h e l e v e l s , w h i l e c o n v e n i e n t , is s o m e w h a t a r t if i c ia l . T h e u s e o f th e t r e e to r e p r e -

s e n t t h e t a x o n o m y a l s o i m p l i e s t h a t e a c h e x a m p l e c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a s f i t t i n g i n t o

o n e a n d o n l y o n e o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s . I n fa c t , h o w e v e r i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r a n i n s t a n c e

o f h u m o r t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f u l fi l l s e v e r a l o f t h e i d e n t i f ie d f u n c t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e

i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e f o r a si n g l e e x a m p l e t o s e r v e b o t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d s o l i d a r i t y

f u n c t i o n s .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s I d e f i n e a n d e x e m p l i f y e a c h o f th e c a t e g o r i e s i n t h e t a x -

o n o m y .

5 . Def ining the categor ies

5 . 1 . S o l i d a r i t y

M a n y i n s t a n c e s o f h u m o r s e r v e t o c r e a t e s o l id a r i t y w i t h i n th e g r o u p o r b e t w e e n

p a r t ic u l a r m e m b e r s o f t he g r o u p . T h i s s e c t i o n o f t he t a x o n o m y i d e n t if i es a n u m b e r

o f p r i m a r y s t r a t e g ie s u s e d t o c r e a t e s o l id a r i t y a n d c o n s e n s u s . T h e r e a r e s o m e e x a m -

p i e s i n t h e c o r p u s w h i c h d o n o t f i t i n t o t h e m a i n c a t e g o r i e s i d e n t i f i e d . S u c h e x a m -

p l e s a r e l a b e l l e d a s ' o t h e r ' w i t h i n t h i s c a t e g o r y .

5 . 1 . 1 . T o s h a r e

I n ( 2) R F s h a re s a m e m o r y f r o m h e r c h i l d h o o d .

(2)

1 R F :

2

3

4

5 S F :

6 L M :

7 R F :

8

i L I K E D m y p o n c h o + e x c e p t it h a d l i tt le h o l e s

a b o u t t h e s i z e o f m y f i n g e r s s o i ' d g o t o r e a c h

f o r s o m e t h i n g [ v o c : x u n k [ h ] ] r i g h t t h r o u g h

p o n c h o a n d a n d b e s to p p e d y o u k n o w +

[ha h ha]

o h d e a [ h ] r

b u t o t h e r t h a n t h a t [ h a ] i t w a s w a r m a n d y o u

c o u l d w e a r i t o v e r a n y t h i n g

S h a r i n g c o v e r s h u m o r w h i c h r e v e a l s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t th e s p e a k e r , a n d l e ts th e a u d i -

e n c e k n o w t h e m b e t te r . M a n y a n e c d o t e s f it in t o t hi s c a te g o r y . T h e s p e a k e r a l lo w s



J. Hay / Journal of Pragmatics (2000) 709-742

719

t h e au d i en ce t o k n o w t h em b e t t e r , an d so p o s i t i v e l y a f f ec t s so l i d a r i t y . S h a r i n g s en s i -

t iv e i n f o r m a t i o n a ls o i n d i c a te s a s p e a k e r ' s t r u st o f th e a u d i e n c e , a n d s o c a n e n h a n c e

so l idar i t y .

5.1.2. To highlight similarities or capitalize on shared experiences

Z i v ( 1 9 8 4 ) d e f i n e s o n e o f t h e f u n c t io n s o f h u m o r a s ' s h a r i n g s i m i l a ri ti e s b e t w e e n

s e l f a n d o t h e r s ' . T h i s c a t e g o r y i s f o r h u m o r w h i c h i d e n t i f ie s o r c e l e b ra t e s s h a r e d

i d ea s , sh a red i n t e r e s t s an d o t h e r s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w een sp eak e r s . A l so i n t h i s c a t eg o ry

I i n c l u d e r e f e r e n c e s t o a n d r e m i n i s c e n c e s a b o u t s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s . E x a m p l e ( 3 )

i n c l u d e s h u m o r w h i c h r e fe r s to s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s a n d h u m o r w h i c h h i g h l i g h t s si m -

i l a r i t i e s . T h e g ro u p i s r em i n i sc i n g ab o u t a co u r se t h ey t o o k w h i ch w as p a r t i cu l a r l y

t o u g h , a n d d u r i n g w h i c h t h e y r e g u l a r l y s t a y e d u p a l l n i g h t in t h e u n i v e r s i t y c o m p u t e r

l ab s . M M r e c a ll s t h a t h e d r a n k a n i n c r e d ib l e a m o u n t o f C o c a C o l a o n o n e p a r t i c u l a r

n i g h t b e f o r e t h e y a l l h a d a n a s s i g n m e n t d u e , w h i c h h a s p u t h i m o f f th e d r i n k e v e r

s i n ce . H e i s c ap i t a l i z i n g o n sh a red ex p e r i en ces .

(3)

C M :

2

3 M M :

4 C M :

5 T M :

6

7 M M :

8

9 T M :

1 0 M M :

11

12

1 3 C M :

14 Al l :

y e ah t h a t ' s i t ' s a i t 's i t ' s an

/ / e x p e r i e n c e \

/ s o m e t h i n g \ \ y o u ' d w a n t t o d o o n c e

j u s t c au se i t ' s q u i t e / / q u i t e \

/ r u in \ \ y o u r b o d y b y

i n g es t i n g a l l t h a t co k e

m m i s t i l l c an ' t d r i n k co k e l i k e i u sed

a f t e r t h a t / / ep i so d e \ i t h i n k =

/ [h ha~ , \

= i d r a n k a b o u t e i g h t c an s o f c o k e a n d f o u r

co o k i e t i m e b i s cu i t s a l l o n o n e n i g h t an d i

d i d n ' t f e e l q u i t e r [ h ] ig h t e v e r s i n c e

g o d t h a t 's N O T H I N G w h e n I d i d th r e e o h n i n e

[ l augh]

C M ' s c o m m e n t a t l in e 1 3 i s a r e fe r e n c e t o a M o n t y P y t h o n s k i t. T h e g r o u p h a s b e e n

s i tt in g r o u n d e x c h a n g i n g h o r r o r s t o r ie s a b o u t t h e c o u r s e, a n d C M ' s q u i p i m p l i e s t h a t

t h e y s o u n d l ik e t h e m e n i n t h is s k i t, w h o t r y to o u t d o e a c h o t h e r w i t h h a r d l u c k s t o -

r i e s . T h ey a l l r e co g n i ze t h e r e f e r en ce , i n d i ca t i n g t h ey sh a re an ap p rec i a t i o n o f t h i s

p a r t ic u l a r s k i t, a n d h i g h l i g h t i n g a n o t h e r s i m i l a r i ty b e t w e e n t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e

g ro u p .

5.1.3. To clarify and maintain boundaries boundS)

L i n s t e a d ( 1 9 8 5 ) n o t e s t h a t h u m o r c a n b e u s e d t o r e i n f o r c e n o r m s a n d v a l u e s a n d

m a k e e x p l i c it th e b o u n d a r i e s o f a c c e p t a b il it y . I t c a n a l s o c l a r i f y w h o b e l o n g s i n d i f -

f e r e n t g r o u p s . M a k i n g f u n o f o u t s i d e r s s e r v e s a b o u n d a r y f u n c t i o n . I f t h e h u m o r

re i n fo rce s r ead i l y accep t ed an d ag reed u p o n s t an d a rd s , t h en i t w i l l i n c rea se so l i d a r -

i ty . N o t e t h a t t h e r e i s a s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n w i t h i n t h e p o w e r s e t o f f u n c t i o n s . B o u n d a r y

h u m o r c a n a l s o b e u s e d t o i m p o s e b o u n d a r i e s , o r t o c l a r i fy b o u n d a r i e s b y r i d i c u l in g



720 J. Hay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

a m e m b e r o f th e g r o u p w h o h a s u n w i t ti n g l y o v e r s t e p p e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a c c e p t-

a b i l i t y . F o r c o n v e n i e n c e , I h a v e u s e d t h e l a b e l b o u n d S f o r b o u n d a r y h u m o r w h i c h

m a i n t a i n s s o l i d a r i t y , a n d b o u n d P f o r b o u n d a r y h u m o r w h i c h i n c r e a s es o r r e i n fo r c e s

t h e s p e a k e r 's p o w e r . A n e x a m p l e o f b o u n d P h u m o r i s g i v e n i n s e c t io n 5 . 2. 3 . B o u n d S

h u m o r is h u m o r w h i c h a t t e m p t s t o c l a ri f y b o u n d a r i e s , o r s u p p o rt s b o u n d a r i e s w h i c h

a r e a l r e a d y c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d .

E x a m p l e ( 4 ) is a n e x a m p l e o f b o u n d a r y h u m o r . J F m a k e s f u n o f T e s s a D a v i e s -

a n o u t s i d e r . A l l a g r e e t h a t t h is p e r s o n i s n o t a m e m b e r o f t h e i r g r o u p , a n d t h a t s h e

h a s s o m e u n d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d s o t h e h u m o r r e i n f o r c e s s o l i d a r i t y .

(4 )

1 N F :

i s aw t e s s a d av i e s i n t h e o n t h e t r a i n l i k e

2 J F : U G H

3 S F : [ h a h a h a ]

4 J F : w h a t a g r o t t e r

5 . 1 . 4 . T o t e a s e ( S )

T e a s i n g i s a n o t h e r s t r a t e g y w h i c h c a n f u n c t i o n i n t w o w a y s . T e a s i n g i s n o t a l w a y s

a n t a g o n i s t i c , b u t r a t h e r c a n f u n c t i o n t o e x p r e s s s o l i d a r i t y a n d r a p p o r t ( s e e e . g .

S t r a h l e , 1 9 9 3 ; H a y , 1 9 9 4 ). S o m e t e a s i n g p r im a r i l y r e i n f o r c e s s o l i d a ri t y a n d

e x p r e s s e s r a p p o r t , w h e r e a s o t h e r te a s e s s e r v e p r i m a r i l y t o m a i n t a i n t h e p o w e r o f t h e

t e a s e r. A s w i t h b o u n d a r y h u m o r , I t h e r e f o r e d i s t in g u i s h b e t w e e n t e a s e S a n d t e a s e P .

A n e x a m p l e a n d d i s c u s s io n o f te a s in g w h i c h e x p r e s s e s p o w e r i s g i v e n i n s e c t io n

5 .2 .4 .

T e a s i n g c a n r e i n f o r c e s o l i d a ri ty i f it o c c u r s w i t h i n w h a t R a d c l i f f e - B r o w n ( 1 9 5 2

[ 1 9 4 0 ] ) t e r m s a ' j o k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p ' . W i t h i n s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n d i v i d u a l s r o u -

t i n e l y t e a s e a n d i n s u lt e a c h o t h e r . T h i s s e r v e s a n u m b e r o f f u n c t i o n s , a n d i s p r i m a r -

i l y a s t r a te g y f o r e x p r e s s i n g s o l i d a r it y ( s e e H a y , 1 9 9 4 ) .

C F a n d D F h a v e s u c h a re l a t i o n s h i p , a n d ( 5) s h o w s a n e x c e r p t f r o m a d i s c u s s io n

i n w h i c h t h e y a r e p a r ti c i p a n t s. C F h a s j u s t m e n t i o n e d t h a t s h e t e n d s t o s le e p w i t h h e r

e l e c t r i c b l a n k e t o n . W h e n i t g e t s t o o h o t, s h e r o ll s o v e r h e r p a r t n e r ( w i t h w h o m s h e

l i v e s ) a n d s l e e p s o n t h e c o l d s i d e o f t h e b e d . D F c a l l s C F a w a n t o n w o m a n f o r l i v -

i n g w i t h a m a n b e f o r e s h e i s m a r r i e d . D F , h e r s e l f , h o w e v e r , a l s o l i v e s w i t h h e r p a r t-

n e r , a n d C F k n o w s t h a t s h e h a s n o o b j e c t i o n s t o s u c h b e h a v i o r . W h i l e t e a s i n g C F ,

t h e n , D F i n d i r e c t l y i m p l i c a t e s h e r s e l f i n t h e ' w a n t o n n e s s ' , a n d s o t h e c o m m e n t is

c l e a r l y m e a n t i n j e s t.

(5)

1 C F :

2

3 A F :

4 D F :

5 B F :

6 D F :

7 B F :

8 D F :

9 C F :

i d o n ' t i r o l l o v e r a l e x o n t o t h e c o l d s id e

a n d s h o v e h i m o n t o i t

[ o h h a ]

w e l l c h r i s t h a t / / ju s t sh o w s t h a t \ y o u ' r e a =

/ g o o d o n y o u \ \

= w a n t o n / / w o m a n \

/ in i t i a t ivek \

l i v i n g w i t h s o m e o n e b e f o r e y o u ' r e m a r r i e d

[ s ni ff s ] [ h a ] y e a h w e l l y o u c a n t a l k



J. Hay /Journal of Pragmatics (2000) 709-742

721

T e a s i n g i s n o t a l w a y s v e r b a l . I n ( 6 ), a s i m p l e , m e a n i n g f u l l o o k i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r J F

t o r e a li z e s h e is b e i n g t e a s e d . N F i s th e o n l y m e m b e r o f th e g r o u p t h a t k n o w s t h a t

E v a n h a s a c r u s h o n J F . A n d s h e h a s f r e q u e n t l y t e a s e d J F a b o u t t h i s f a c t . W h i l e I

w a s n o t p r e s e n t a t th e t i m e o f th i s r e c o rd i n g , I a m f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e d y n a m i c b e t w e e n

J F a n d N F , a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d s t o r y i n v o l v i n g E v a n . S e v e r a l t im e s d u r i n g t h e p r e -

c e d i n g w e e k s I h a d b e e n p r e s e n t w i t h t h e t w o s p e a k e r s w h e n E v a n ' s n a m e a r o s e i n

c o n v e r s a t i o n , a n d N F h a d e i t h e r v e r b a l l y t e a s e d J F , o r d i re c t e d a p o i n t e d l o o k a t N F ,

w i t h a s s o c i a t e d e y e b r o w w i g g l i n g . T a k i n g t h i s i n to a c c o u n t , th e m o s t l i k e l y a n a l y s i s

of (6) i s as a t ease .

(6) 1 SF:

2 T F :

3 S F :

4 T F :

5

6

7 J F & N F :

8

S F :

9 JF :

e v a n r e a l ly c h a n g e d e h

s h it y e a h m e g a

h e w e n t r e a l l y a r ty

h e a n d y e a h h e w e n t to d u n e d i n a n d t h e n h e

c a m e b a c k a n d n o w o h i d o n ' t k n o w w h e r e h e is

n o w

[laugh]

w h a t ' s t h i s g o i n g o n

[ la u g h s ] : n o t h i n g + j u s t g o o d h u m o r :

T h e f ac t t h a t E v an ' s c ru sh i s s ec re t, u n i t e s JF an d N F , a n d so t h e t e a se c l ea r l y s e rv e s

t o m a i n t a i n so l i d a r i t y b e t w ee n t h em . A t ea se ca n a l so r e i n fo rce so l i d a r i t y i f i t i s

ab o u t so m e t h i n g t h a t is c l e a r l y f a l s e o r t r i v ia l .

T h i s ex a m p l e s e rv e s a s a n i l lu s t r a t io n o f t h e ex t en t to w h i ch t h e an a l y se s p re sen t ed

h e r e d r a w h e a v i l y o n c o n t e x t u a l k n o w l e d g e . A s n o t e d b y S t r a h le ( 1 9 9 3 : 2 2 7 ) , te a s i n g

a n d t h e e m e r g i n g a l i g n m e n t s b e t w e e n p a r t i c i p a n t s " c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d o n l y w i t h

reg a rd t o t h e p a r t ic i p an t s ' sp ec i f i c r e l a t i o n sh i p s " . T h e ad v an t ag e o f ex p l o i t in g su ch

i n fo rm a t i o n i s so c i a l l y r e l ev an t an d co n t ex t u a l l y i n fo rm ed ca t eg o r i za t i o n . T h e d i s ad -

v an t ag e , h o w ev e r , i s t h a t f o r so m e ca t eg o r i e s , t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f ex am p l e s w o u l d

n o t n ece s sa r i l y b e r ep l i c a t ed b y an a l y s t s l e s s f am i l i a r w i t h t h e sp eak e r s an d co n t ex t .

5 . 2 . P o w e r

F a r f e w e r e x a m p l e s f a l l i n t o th e c a t e g o r y o f p o w e r . A s m y d a t a s t e m s f r o m n a t -

u ra l f r i en d sh i p g ro u p s , i t i s n o t su rp r i s i n g t h a t a l a rg e p e rcen t ag e o f t h e i n s t an ces o f

h u m o r s e rv ed t o c r ea t e an d m a i n t a i n so l i d a r i t y . T h e re a r e a t l e a s t f o u r s t r a t eg i e s

w h i c h c a n b e u s e d t o m a i n t a i n o r c r e a t e p o w e r : f o s t e r in g c o n f l i c t, c o n t ro l l in g , t e as -

i n g an d c r ea t i n g b o u n d a r i e s . I t i s i m p o r t an t t o n o t e t h a t I am n o t c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e

e x a m p l e s i n t h is s e c t i o n i n v o l v e t h e e x p li c i t a n d c o n s c i o u s e x e r t io n o f p o w e r . W h a t

t h e s e e x a m p l e s s h a r e i s t h e i r e f f e c t : t h e c r e a t i o n o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f a n e m o t i v e l y

l o a d e d d i v i s i o n w i t h i n t h e g r o u p . S u c h d i v i s io n s a r e i n h e r e n t l y p o w e r - b a s e d .

5 . 2 . 1 . T o f o s t e r c o n f l i c t

H u m o r w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s o r f o s t e r s c o n f l i c t w i t h i n a g r o u p i s o n e o f t h r e e b r o a d

f u n c t i o n s M a r t in e a u ( 1 9 7 2) d e s c r i b e s i n h i s m o d e l o f t h e s o c i a l f u n c t io n s o f h u m o r .



722

J. H ay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

S u c h h u m o r m a y p u r p o s e f u l l y d e m e a n a n o t h e r p a rt ic i p a nt , o r t ra n s m i t a n a g g r e s s iv e

m e s s a g e . I n t h e o n e e x a m p l e l a b e l l e d ' t o f o s t e r c o n f l i c t ' i n th i s c o r p u s , t h e s p e a k e r

u s e s h u m o r t o v o i c e c l e a r d i s a g r e e m e n t w i th a m e m b e r o f th e g r o u p . W h i l e t h i s

e x a m p l e i s p e r h a p s n o t a c o m p l e t e l y t r a n s p a r e n t e x a m p l e o f ' f o s t e r i n g c o n f l i c t ' , i t i s

a c l e a r e x a m p l e o f a d v e r s a r i a l b e h a v i o r , a n d o f th e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a n a g g r e s s i v e

m e s s a g e . G i v e n t h a t i t i s t h e o n l y e x a m p l e o f it s t y p e i n th e c o r p u s , t h e p a r t i c u l a r

l a b e l a p p l i e d i s n o t c r u c i a l . T h i s s p e c i f i c la b e l w a s c h o s e n i n o r d e r t o r e m a i n a s t ru e

a s p o s s i b l e t o c a t e g o r i e s a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e l i t e ra t u r e .

T h e e x a m p l e is s h o w n i n (7 ). B M a n d D F b o t h k n o w B M ' s r e la t io n to th e c o u s i n

w h o i s t h e f o c u s o f t h e d i s c u s si o n . B M t e ll s h o w t h e c o u s i n h a d s u r g e r y , a n d D F d i s-

a g r e e s w i t h B M ' s a s s e s sm e n t t h a t t h e su r g e r y w a s m a i n l y c o s m e t i c . D F ' s c o m m e n t

i s f r a m e d i n s u c h a w a y a s t o b e a d v e r s a r i a l, a n d s h e a d o p t s a v e r y c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l

t o n e o f v o i c e .

(7 )

1

B M :

2

3

4

5 A F :

6 B M :

7 B M :

8 D F :

9 B M :

1 0 A F :

11

B M :

1 2 D F :

1 3 A F :

1 4 D F :

1 5 A F :

1 6 D F :

1 7 C M :

1 8 B M :

1 9 A F :

m y c o u s i n ' s w i f e u m + + h a s j u s t s p e n t

t h o u s a n d s a n d t h o u s a n d s i d o n ' t k n o w h o w

m u c h b u t i t 's s o m e t h i n g i n t h e o r d e r o f t e n

t h o u s a n d d o l l a r s

m m

o n h a v i n g h e r + t e e t h s t r a i g h t e n e d u p

b u t / / i t \ \ w as a co - i t w as b a s i ca l l y a=

/ y e a h \ \

= c o s m e t i c th i n g th o u g h / / + iX m e a n t h e r e =

/ y e a h \ \

= w a s n ' t a n y -

/ / [ c h a l l e n g i n g t o n e ] : w e l l =

/ ( w a s i t q u i t e ) \ \

= i t w a s \ p a r t l y ' c a u s e s h e c o u l d n ' t e a t :

/ / b u t t h a t ' s w h a t b u t t h a t ' s w h a t =

/ [ l au g h s ] i t h i n k s h e ' s ( ) \ \

/ [ l au g h s ] k \

/ ] l au g h s ] k \

= o r t h o d o n t i c s is \ i m e a n y o u k n o w

D F t a k e s t h e f l o o r f r o m B M ( l in e 1 2 ) i n o r d e r t o v o i c e d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h h i s a n a l y -

s is o f th e s i t u a ti o n . H e r v o i c e h a s a c h a l l e n g i n g t o n e , a n d p e r s i s ts t h r o u g h A F ' s

a t t e m p t e d c o n t r i b u t i o n s ( li n e s 1 3 , 1 5) . T h e h u m o r i n D F ' s c h a l l e n g e c o m e s f r o m t h e

w o r d p a r t l y ( l in e 1 4 ). I f o n e c a n n o t e a t, t h e n t h is i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d s

f i x i n g , a n d n o t j u s t a m i n o r c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r in m a k i n g a l a r g e r d e c i si o n . T h e u s e

o f h u m o r s e r v e s to c o u c h a s e ri o u s a n d a d v e r s a r i a l m e s s a g e .

5 . 2 . 2 . T o c o n t r o l

T h e c o n t r o l l i n g f u n c t i o n i s i d e n t i f i e d b y a n u m b e r o f r e s e a r c h e r s , i n c l u d i n g M a r -

t i n e a u ( 1 9 7 2 ) , C o l l i n s o n ( 1 9 8 8 ) a n d G r a h a m e t a l . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . A n y h u m o r i n t e n d e d t o



J. Hay / Journal o f Pragmatics (2000) 709-742

723

i n f l u e n c e th e b e h a v i o r o f t h e a u d i e n c e i s c l a ss i f ie d a s c o n t r o l l i n g h u m o r ; t h is c o m -

p r is e s a n y h u m o r w h i c h s e r v e s a r e g u l a to r y m e c h a n i s m . T h e i m p o r t o f t he c o n t r o l -

l in g f u n c t i o n c o u l d r a n g e f r o m d r a w i n g p e o p l e t o t h e d i n n e r t a b le , t h r o u g h r e m i n d -

i n g s o m e o n e t o s e t t h e i r a l a r m , t o c h a s t i s e m e n t f o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r o r t r y i n g

t o c o m p e l s o m e o n e t o p e r f o r m a n u n d e s i ra b l e a c t. O b v i o u s l y , th e l e v e l o f p o w e r

i n v o k e d v a r i e s a c r o s s e a c h o f t h e s e c a s e s. I n t h is s e n s e , ' c o n t r o l ' m i g h t b e s e e n a s a

s t r o n g e r t e r m t h a n i s r e q u i r e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e m o r e i n n o c u o u s e x a m p l e s o f t h is f o r m .

I n d e e d , i f f a c e d w i t h m a n y e x a m p l e s i n w h i c h h u m o r w a s u s e d t o in f l u e n c e b e h a v -

i o r, it w o u l d s e e m a p p r o p r i a t e t o e x p a n d t h is c a t e g o r y to s u b c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h m o r e

a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t e d th e r a n g e o f d e g r e e s o f c o n t r o l . I n th i s c o r p u s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e

w a s o n l y o n e r e l e v a n t e x a m p l e , a n d s o I h a v e f o l l o w e d t h e t re n d i n t h e li t e ra t u r e a n d

a d o p t e d t h e g e n e r a l c o v e r t e r m ' c o n t r o l ' .

N o t e t h a t m o s t e x a m p l e s o f b o u n d P h u m o r w o u l d b e e x a m p l e s o f t h e s p e a k e r t r y -

i n g t o c o n t r o l o r r e s t r i c t t h e a u d i e n c e ' s b e h a v i o r i n s o m e w a y , b u t I h a v e n o t

i n c l u d e d t h o s e e x a m p l e s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y .

T h e c o r p u s i n c lu d e d o n l y o n e e x a m p l e o f n o n - b o u n d a r y h u m o r w h o s e a p p a r e n t

i n t en t i o n w as t o i n f l u en c e t h e b eh av i o r o f t h e au d i en ce . T h i s , ag a i n , is l ik e l y t o b e a

r e f le c t i o n o f th e t y p e o f d a ta i n v o l v e d . O n e w o u l d e x p e c t t o f in d m u c h m o r e c o n t r o l-

l in g h u m o r i n t h e w o r k p l a c e o r s o m e o t h e r h ie r a rc h i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e o n e e x a m -

p i e , (8 ) , is f r o m o n e o f t h e t a p e s c o l l e c t e d b y t h e W e l l i n g t o n C o r p u s o f S p o k e n N e w

Z e a l a n d E n g l i s h . O n e p e r s o n p r e s e n t w a s i n c h a r g e o f c o l l e c t in g t h e ta p e , f o r w h i c h

s h e h a d i n s t ru c t i o n s t o t ry a n d c o l l e c t a c o n v e r s a t i o n w h i c h w a s a s n a tu r a l a s p o s s i-

b l e . T h e r e f o r e , w h e n t h e ta p e i s m e n t i o n e d , s h e u s e s h u m o r t o re m i n d h e r f r i e n d s th a t

t h e t a p e r e c o r d e r sh o u l d b e i g n o r e d , a n d t o s t e e r c o n v e r s a t i o n a w a y f r o m i t s p r e s e n c e .

(8 )

[ p o u r w i n e ]

1 B M : t h e s o u n d o f w i n e p o u r i n g a l w a y s s o u n d s g o o d o n

2 t ap e

3 D F : w h a t t a p e [ h a]

4 B M : [ n h h a ]

H e r e , D F u s e s h u m o r t o m o n i t o r th e c o n v e r s a t i o n to p i c. O n e r e v i e w e r d is a g r e es w i th

t h e c l a s s i fi c a t i o n o f th i s e x a m p l e a s c o n t r o l l i n g h u m o r , a r g u i n g t h a t D F i s ' a c t i n g a s

t h o u g h ' n o o n e i s a w a r e t h e t a p e - r e c o r d e r is ru n n i n g , a n d t h a t th i s is w h a t g i v e s r i s e

t o h u m o r . W h i l e i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e h u m o r a r i s e s f r o m t h e p r e t e n s e t h a t t h e p a r t i c i -

p a n t s a r e u n a w a r e o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f th e t a p e - r e c o r d e r , th i s in i t s e l f d o e s n o t p r e -

c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l it y t h a t t h e h u m o r i s i n t e n d e d t o h a v e a s p e c i f i c e ff e c t . T h i s i s o n e

e x a m p l e w h e r e t h e r o l e o f th e s p e a k e r i n t h e g r o u p c a n h a v e a s tr o n g e f f e c t o n t h e

i m p a c t o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f h u m o r . I f a n y o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t b a d m a d e t h is q u i p , t h e

a n a l y si s o f f e r e d b y t h e r e v i e w e r , in w h i c h t h e h u m o r i s a m e r e ' a c t in g a s t h o u g h ' ,

w o u l d b e a c c u r a t e a n d c o m p l e t e . H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t D F is t h e o r g a n i z e r o f t h e

e v e n i n g a n d i s c l e a r ly i n c h a r g e o f t h e t a p in g e v e n t , c a n n o t b e o v e r l o o k e d i n th e

a n a l y s i s o f th i s e x a m p l e . T h e e x a m p l e f u r t h e r il l u s tr a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t a k in g

k n o w l e d g e o f a g r o u p ' s s t ru c t u re a n d d y n a m i c s in t o a c c o u n t w h e n a n a l y z i n g a n

e x a m p l e ' s a p p a r e n t f u n c t io n w i th i n t h e w i d e r c o n v e r s a t io n a l f r a m e .



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J. H ay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

5 . 2 .3 . T o c h a l le n g e a n d s e t b o u n d a r i e s ( b o u n d P )

H u m o r c a n c h a l l e n g e e x i s t i n g b o u n d a r i e s , a t t e m p t t o s e t n e w o n e s , o r c r e a t e o r

m a i n t a i n b o u n d a r i e s b y m a k i n g a n e x a m p l e o f s o m e o n e p r e s e n t. T h i s c a t e g o r y h a s

a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d t o s o m e e x t e n t i n s e c t i o n 5 . 1 . 3 .

E x a m p l e ( 9 ) i s an e x t r a c t f r o m a c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n g e o l o g y s t u d e nt s. S F ' s

c o m m e n t i n ( 9 ) c l e a r l y d r a w s a b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n a c c e p t a b l e a n d u n a c c e p t a b l e

a p p l i c a t i o n s o f g e o l o g y . T h i s is n o t a r e a d i l y e s t a b l i s h e d b o u n d a r y w i t h i n th e g r o u p ,

a n d B F h a s a l r e a d y e x p r e s s e d a n i n t er e st i n th e t y p e o f g e o l o g y S F c o n d e m n s .

( 9 ) 1 B F :

2 A F :

3 B F :

4

5 S F :

6 A F :

7 B F :

8

A F :

9 C F :

10 SF:

11

12

1 3 B F :

1 4 A F :

1 5 C F :

1 6 S F :

i l i k e p e t r o l e u m g e o l o g y i t h i n k i t ' s c o o l

D O y o u

m m t h a t ' s w h a t i ' d l i k e t o d o i f i d o

a n y t h i n g i n g e o l o g y

f a r o u t

i t 's w h e r e t h e m o n e y i s

i ' m j u s t a ( s u c k e r f o r i t)

r e a l l y

y e a h

m h m i ' m n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n m o n e y i m o r e

i n t e r e s t e d in t h e r e s e a r c h s i d e i c o u l d n e v e r

d o / / c o a l a n d th a t \

/ o h i w a n t t o \ \ m a k e b i g b i k k i e s

[ h a h a ]

/ / li k e m e i j u s t w a n t t o m a r r y \ [h a ]

/ r ap i n g an d p i l l ag i n g t h e l an d [ h a h a ] X \

W h e n S F j o k e s t h a t p e t r o l e u m g e o l o g y is ' r a p i n g a n d p i l l a g i n g th e l a n d ' ( l in e 1 6 ),

s h e is e x p l i c i t ly c r i ti c i z i n g t h e t y p e o f w o r k B F a s p i r e s to . T h e e x a g g e r a t e d n a t u r e o f

t h i s s t a t e m e n t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e h u m o r o u s e f f e c t , a n d s o f t e n s i t s i m p a c t , b u t t h e

s t a te m e n t n o n e t h e l e s s re m a i n s a c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e n e g a t i v e s o c i a l i m p a c t o f B F ' s

c h o s e n c a r e er . S u c h c o m m e n t a r y i n v o k e s a d e l i c a t e g r o u p - in t e r n a l d iv i s io n .

5 . 2 . 4 . T o te a s e (P )

T e a s e s w h i c h a t t a c k p e r s o n a l d e t a il s , o r s e e m t o m a k e g e n u i n e c r i t i c is m s , s e r v e t o

i n c r e a s e o r m a i n t a i n t h e s p e a k e r ' s p o w e r . T h i s w i ll o f t e n o v e r l a p w i t h t h e b o u n d a r y

c a t e g o r y . In ( 1 0 ) , t h e g r o u p h a s b e e n d i s c u s s i n g f a v o r i t e e p i s o d e s o f t h e M u p p e t

S h o w . L M m e n t i o n s a s p e c i f i c e p i s o d e h e w o u l d p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e t o s e e (l i n e 1 ). T h i s

c o m m e n t is a t e a se , s p e c if i c a ll y a i m e d a t D M ( L M ' s r o o m m a t e ) , w h o h a d a g r e e d to

s e t t h e v i d e o w h e n t h i s e p i s o d e w a s s c h e d u l e d t o p l a y , b u t f o r g o t t o a c t u a l l y d o s o .

D M r e s p o n d s t o t h e te a s e d e f e n s i v e l y .

( 1 0 ) 1

2

3

4

L M : i ' d l o v e to s e e t h e j o h n c l e e s e o n e a s w e l l

D M : y e a h y e a h / /y e s i s e t t h e v i d e o w r o n g g i v e m e =

L M : / n h n h n h n h h a \ \

D M : = a b r e a k \



J. Hay / Journal of Pragmatics (2000) 709-742 725

5 . 3. P s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s

D e f e n d i n g a n d c o p i n g h u m o r s e r v e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c ti o n s . T h e s e c a t e g o r ie s a r e

d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s .

5 . 3 . 1 . T o d e f e n d

' T o d e f e n d ' i s a c a t e g o r y u se d b y E r v i n - T r i p p a n d L a m p e r t ( 1 9 9 2 ) f o r Z i v ' s

( 1 9 8 4 ) f u n c t i o n : " p r o t e c t i n g t h e s e l f b y i d e n t i f y in g a w e a k n e s s b e f o r e a n y o n e e l se

d o e s " ( 1 9 8 4 : 6 2 ) . T h e l a b e l is u s e d h e r e to a p p l y t o a n y h u m o r w h i c h i s u s e d t o p r o -

t e c t o n e s e l f . I n ( 1 1 ) , W F i s i n s e c u r e a b o u t t h e t r i f l e s h e h a s m a d e , a n d m a k e s

e x c u s e s t o p r o t e c t h e r s e l f f r o m a n y c r i ti c i sm t h a t m a y b e f o r t h c o m i n g . 2

( 1 1 )

1 P M :

2 W F :

3 T F :

4 W F :

5

6

7

8

i t w as a n i ce t r i f l e

n o r m a l l y / / y e a h w e l l i t w a s n i c e \

/ w h a t ' s t h i s \ \ W A S s h i t

[ l au g h s ] b u t i t s o r t o f t h e p r o b l e m i s i j u s t

k e p t a d d i n g m o r e a n d m o r e a n d i o n l y h ad

c e r t a i n s i z e b o w l s s o i c o u l d n ' t b a l a n c e i t a l l

u p a n d i d i d n ' t h a v e e n o u g h i n g r e d i e n t s t o j u s t

k e e p a d d i n g [ h a h u h ]

W F e x a g g e r a t e s t h e p i tf a ll s o f h e r c o o k i n g s t yl e f o r h u m o r o u s e f f ec t . A n o t h e r

i n s ta n c e o f ' d e f e n d i n g ' is u s in g h u m o r t o a v o i d r e v e a li n g p e r s o n a l i n fo r m a t i o n a b o u t

o n e s e l f .

5 . 3 . 2 . T o c o p e w i th a c o n t e x t u a l p r o b l e m

T h e c o p i n g f u n c t i o n is id e n t i f i e d b y a n u m b e r o f r e s e a r c h e r s , in c l u d i n g P o g r e b i n

a n d P o o l e ( 1 9 8 8 ) , F i n k a n d W a l k e r ( 1 9 7 7 ) a n d Z i v ( 1 9 8 4 ) . I h a v e d i v i d e d h u m o r

w h i c h i s u s e d a s a c o p i n g d e v i c e i n to t w o f u r t h e r c a t e g o r i e s - c o p i n g w i t h a c o n t e x -

t u a l p r o b l e m a n d c o p i n g w i t h a n o n - c o n t e x t u a l p r o b l e m . T h e f i r s t , c o p i n g w i t h a

c o n t e x t u a l p r o b l e m , i n c l u d e s a n y h u m o r w h i c h i s u s e d t o c o p e w i t h a p r o b l e m a r i s -

i n g i n t h e c o u r s e o f th e c o n v e r s a t i o n . T h e p r o b l e m c o u l d r a n g e f r o m a s o c ia l g a f f e

o f s o m e s o r t to a p o t b o i l in g o v e r ; t h e m a i n p o i n t i s t h a t i t a r is e s , a n d m u s t b e c o p e d

w i t h d u r i n g t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n . ( 1 2 ) i s a t y p i c a l e x a m p l e o f th i s t y p e o f h u m o r , i n

w h i c h t h e s p e a k e rs u s e h u m o r t o c o p e w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e t a p e -r e c o r d e r .

( 1 2 ) 1 C M :

2

3 A l l :

4 C M :

5 M M :

6 N M :

7 T M :

i t h o u g h t s h e w a s g o i n g t o r e s c u e u s a t f o u r

Y O U ' R E L A T E

[ laugh]

[ y e l l s ] : c o m e o n :

w e s h o u l d s t a r t w i t h t h e c r e d i t s n o w y e a h

t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n H A S f e a t u r e d

[ h a h a h a ]

2 Tr i f le:A typ e of dessert.



726

J. Hay /Journal of Pragmatics 32 2000) 709-742

H e r e t h e m e n p a r o d y a r a d i o b r o a d c a s t in o r d e r t o c o p e w i th a w k w a r d n e s s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h b e i n g r e c o r d e d .

5.3.3. To cope with a non-contextual problem

T h i s c a t e g o r y c o v e r s h u m o r u s e d t o c o p e w i t h m o r e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s s u c h a s

s i c k n e s s o r d e a t h . J o k in g a b o u t s o m e t h i n g g o r y , s c a r y o r d e p r e s s i n g i s o f te n a n

e x a m p l e o f c o p i n g h u m o r . O n e w a y o f c a p t u r in g t h e e s s e n t ia l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

c o n t e x t u a l a n d n o n - c o n t e x t u a l c o p i n g , i s t h a t t h e f ir s t c o p e s w i t h p r o b l e m s w e n e e d

t o g et th r o u g h t o s u r v i v e th e c o n v e r s a t i o n , a n d t h e s e c o n d c o p e s w i t h p r o b l e m s w e

n e e d t o g e t th r o u g h t o s u r v i v e i n l i fe , o r a p e r i o d o f o u r l i fe . I n ( 13 ) , h u m o r i s u s e d

t o c o p e w i th a p r o b l e m T F h a s . S h e h a s e m p l o y e d t r a d e s p e o p l e w h o m a d e a n in i t i a l

a p p e a r a n c e , b u t h a v e r e c e n t l y d i s a p p e a r e d i n t o t h i n a i r . 3

( 1 3 )

1

T F :

2

3 W F :

4 T F :

5 L F :

6

7 T F :

8

t h e y o b v i o u s l y t h o u g h t t h a t t h at i l o o k e d l i k e

t h e t y p e t h a t w o u l d n ' t m a k e t h e m / / r i n g \ u p i=

/ o h \ \

= # r # d i i M A g i n e

s h o u l d r i n g t h e i # r # d u p i f t h e y d o n ' t c o m e

b a c k

[ h ] if t h e y d [ h ] o n ' t c o m e b a c k [ h ] w e ju s t

w o [ h ] n ' t P A Y t h e m a n y t h i n g

T F u s e s h u m o r t o c o p e w i t h h e r s t re s s r e g a r d i n g th e m i s s i n g t r a d e s p e o p l e .

6 . S t a t i s ti c a l a n a l y s i s

T h e t a x o n o m y w a s u s e d t o c o d e a l l o f th e e x a m p l e s i n t h e c o r p u s , a n d t h is d a t a

w a s a n a l y z e d w i t h l o g - l i n e a r m o d e l l i n g , I n lo g - l i n e a r m o d e l l i n g , t h e r e s e a r c h e r

d r a w s o n t h e o r e t ic a l k n o w l e d g e t o h y p o t h e s i z e p o s s i b l e m o d e l s f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e

o b s e r v e d d a t a . 4

M y h y p o t h e s i z e d e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e s w e r e s p e a k e r se x a n d g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n .

L o g - l i n e a r m o d e l l i n g i s i d e a l fo r i n d e p e n d e n t d a t a . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e d a t a I a m

a n a l y s i n g i s f ar f r o m i n d e p e n d e n t . T h e r e a r e th r e e t y p e s o f c lu s t e r in g i n v o l v e d .

3 IRD : Inland Revenue Department. G overnment Department responsible fo r collecting income tax.

4 Gilb ert (1981 ) describes m odel building as the creation of an alternative w orld, which is theoretically

identical in all respects to the real world, and show s the relationships s pec ified in the model. In effect,

this world is the world that would exist if the model were true. The im aginary wo rld is then be com pared

to the 'real world' as reflected in the observed data. If there is no significant difference between them,

then this is evidence that the m odel is correct. The figures a nd prob abili t ies reported, then, would b e

based on the frequencies as pre dicted by the m odel, rather than the observ ed frequencies. The use o f log-

linear models is a form of explo ratory data analysis. Unlike m ore traditional approaches, i t does not

require that analysts have c arefully formulated hypotheses to be tested, but, given some notion o f the

form o f suitable models, a llows the in-depth exploration of possib le patterns in the data. As noted by

Gilbert, a hypothesis gene rally deals with just one relationship, whereas a model m ay involve a com plex

set of relationshipS.



J. Hay / Journal of Pragmatics 2000) 709-742 727

6.1. Clustering due to individual behavior

Individuals may have tendencies to use humor in certain ways. The more

instances of humor collected from any one speaker, the greater the chance that the

data will be distorted due to clustering effects.

6.2. Clustering due to conversational flow

Clustering of humor may occur within conversations. Sparring matches and ban-

ter, for example, encourage similar types of humor to occur in clusters within con-

versations.

6.3. Clustering due to complex examples

Some examples were coded for more than one function. These were very few, and

so I decided to treat them as two examples for the purposes of log-linear modelling.

The numbers were so small as to have no significant effect on the models, except in

one case. This is described in section 7.2.2.

6.4. A statistical check on clustering

One way of accounting for possible clustering effects is described by Manly

(1992: 253). 5 This adjustment was performed on the model described in this paper,

which showed no indication of possible distortion due to clustering.

6.5. The suitability of statistics for analysing conversational data

Conversations are real and dynamic. The performance of statistical analysis on

such data can be regarded as at best indicative. Such statistics should be regarded

simply as tools for indicating areas of research which may reward in-depth, qualita-

tive analysis. Conversational data is best suited to qualitative investigation. In my

analysis, I followed the data in the creation of the taxonomy, rather than constricting

and limiting the categories and trying to force my data into them. Statistical results

are interesting indications, but the most fruitful and interesting research will be that

which goes beyond numbers, and on to detailed examination of the data itself. Log-

linear modelling is a useful tool for highlighting areas where future research may

prove fruitful.

5 A heterogeneity factor is calculated by dividing the chi-square value for the fitted model by its

degrees of freedom (DF). For each predicted frequency in the model, we divide the estimated standard

error by the standard error multiplied by the square root of the heterogeneity figure. That is, we calcu-

late SE Estimate/SE* where SE* = square root of chi-square/DF. If the resulting figure is less than two,

then this indicates that clustering may have affected the model.



728 J. Hay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

7 . R e s u l t s

I f i t t e d l o g - l i n e a r m o d e l s , f i r s t l y t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f o u r m a i n

f u n c t i o n s o f h u m o r , a n d t h e n t o i n v e s t i g a t e b e h a v i o r m o r e c l o s e l y w i t h r e g a r d t o a l l

o f t h e s t r a t e g ie s a n d t h e s p e c i f i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s . I o u t l i n e t h e o v e r a l l d i st r i-

b u t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s i n s e c t i o n 7 .1 a n d t h e n m o v e o n t o d e s c r i b e t h e

m o d e l w h i c h f i ts e a c h o f t h e s t r a te g i e s s e p a r a t e l y .

7 . 1. O v e r a l l r e s u l t s

T h e f i t te d m o d e l f o r th e d i s t r ib u t i o n o f g e n e r a l , s o li d a r i ty , p o w e r a n d p s y c h o l o g i -

c a l fu n c t i o n s s h o w e d m a i n e f f e c ts fo r b o t h t he s e x o f t h e s p e a k e r a n d g r o u p c o m p o -

s it io n . T h e d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m , c h i - s q u a r e a n d p r o b a b i l i t y f i g u r e s f o r t h e v a r i o u s

o p t i o n s a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 1 .

Table 1

Results of p ossible mo dels for overall function

Mo del no. Model DF Chi-sq Prob.

A 12 13 23 3 7.93 0.0475

B 12 23 6 34.77 0.0000

C 12 13 6 48.45 0.0000

D 12 9 75.27 0.0000

G r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n a n d s p e a k e r s e x a r e e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e s a n d s o t h e 1 - 2 i n t e r -

a c t i o n is k e p t i n t h e m o d e l a t a l l t i m e s . M o d e l A s h o w s m a i n e f f e c t s f o r b o t h s p e a k e r

s e x a n d g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n . M o d e l B s a y s th a t s e x a f f e c t s t h e f u n c t i o n b u t th e f u n c -

t i o n is i n d e p e n d e n t o f g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n g i v e n s e x . M o d e l C i s t h e s a m e a s th e s e c -

o n d , w i t h g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n a n d s e x r e v e r s e d , a n d m o d e l D i s s a y i n g t h a t f u n c t i o n

is i n d e p e n d e n t b o t h o f s p e a k e r s e x a n d g r o u p c o m p o s i t io n . M o d e l A is c l e a rl y th e

b e s t m o d e l - i t h a s t h e l o w e s t c h i - s q u a r e a n d t h e h i g h e s t p r o b a b i l i ty o f t h e fo u r . W e

c a n c l a r i f y t h a t i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r o p t i o n s b y c o m p a r i n g i t w i t h

t h e c l o s e s t m o d e l - m o d e l B . W e c a n s u b t r a c t 7 . 9 3 f r o m 3 4 . 7 7 a n d c h e c k th e s i g n i f-

i c a n c e l e v e l f o r th i s t o th r e e d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m ( w e r e a c h t h r e e b y s u b t r a c t in g t h e

D F f o r m o d e l A f r o m t h e D F f o r m o d e l B ) . T h i s c a l c u la t io n s h o w s t h a t m o d e l A is

s i g n i f i c a n t ly b e t t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r m o d e l s - t o t h e . 0 01 l e v e l .

T h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s p r e d i c t e d b y t h i s m o d e l a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 . H e r e , F M s t a n d s

f o r f e m a l e s i n m i x e d - s e x g r o u p s , M M f o r m a l e s i n m i x e d - s e x g r o u p s , F S f o r f e m a l e s

i n s i n g l e -s e x g r o u p s a n d M S f o r m a l e s i n s i n g l e - s e x g r o u p s .

T h e s e p r o b a b i l i t i e s a r e c a l c u l a t e d a s c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s . S o , f o r e x a m p l e ,

t h e f i g u r e f o r t h e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n i s c o n d i t i o n a l o n t h e s e x o f th e s p e a k e r a n d t h e

g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n . T h i s i s d o n e t o a l l o w f o r d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e c e l l s iz e s f o r e a c h o f

t h e g r o u p s . T h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s f o r e a c h o f t h e f o u r g r o u p s s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e a d d t o 1 ,

a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s s o m e s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n d u e t o r o u n d i n g .




T a b l e 2

Probabi l i ty f igures for overa l l function

729

FM M M FS M S

G e n e r a l 0.25 0 .44 O. 13 0 .26

Sol idar i ty 0 . 59 0 . 36 0 . 65 0 . 45

P o w e r 0 . 10 0 . 13 0 . 12 0 . 17

P s y c h o l o g i c a l

0 . 06 0 . 07 0 . 11 0 . 13

W e c a n s p o t s o m e g e n e r a l t r e n d s f r o m i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s , b u t c a l c u l a t i o n

o f t h e r a ti o o f c o n d i t i o n a l o d d s r e v e a l s t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e s e t r e n ds . 6

F o r e a c h f u n c t i o n , I h a v e c a l c u l a t e d f o u r o d d s r a t i o s . T h e s e s h o w t h e r e l a t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e b e h a v i o r o f f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s i n b o th s i n g l e - se x a n d m ix e d - s e x c o n -

v e r s a t i o n s , a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s i n g l e - s e x a n d m i x e d - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s f o r

b o t h f e m a l e s a n d m a l es . T h e t w o g r o u p s b e i n g c o m p a r e d a r e j o i n e d b y a hy p h e n ,

w i t h t h e g r o u p m o r e l i k e l y t o u s e t ha t p a r t i cu l a r t y p e o f h u m o r f i rs t. S o I o n l y e v e r

f il l in o n e o f F M - M M a n d M M - F M , u n l e s s th e o d d s r a ti o i s o n e . T h e o d d s r a ti o s f o r

t h e f o u r o v e r a l l f u n c t i o n s a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 3 .

T a b l e 3

Odds rat ios for overa l l function

FM -M M M M -FM FM -FS FS-FM M M -M S M S-M M F S-M S M S-FS

G e n e r a l

- 2 .36 2 .23 - 2 .24 - - 2 .35

Sol idar i ty 2.5 6 - - 1.29 - 1.45 2.2 7 -

Pow er - 1.34 - 1.23 - 1.37 - 1.50

P s y c h o l o g i c a l - 1.18 - 1.94 - 1.99 - 1.21

T h e M M - F M a n d M S - F S r a t i o s a r e v i r t u a l l y e q u a l f o r t h e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n , a s a r e

t he r a ti o s f o r F M - F S a n d M M - M S . W e c a n t he r ef o r e c o l l a p s e t h e t a b l e a n d s a y t he

o d d s o f m e n u s i n g o n l y t h e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 . 3 5 t i m e s h i g h e r

t h a n fo r w o m e n , a n d t ha t t h e o d d s o f o n l y t h e g en e r a l f u n c t i o n b e i n g u s e d a r e

r o u g h l y 2 . 2 3 t i m e s h ig h e r i n m i x e d c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a n i n s i n g l e - s e x o n e s .

T h e o d d s o f f e m a l e s u s i n g h u m o r f o r a s o l i d a r i t y f u n c t i o n a r e 2 . 5 6 t i m e s h i g h e r

t h a n m a l e s w h e n i n a m i x e d g r o u p , a n d 2 . 2 7 t i m e s h i g h e r i n s i n g l e - s e x g r o u p s . S o l -

i d a r i t y m a i n t a i n i n g h u m o r i s a l s o s l i g h t l y m o r e l i k e l y t o b e u s e d i n s i n g l e - s e x t h a n

i n m i x e d - s e x g r o u p s .

6

The odds are ca lculated by

p/1-p . A

comparison o f the respect ive condit iona l odds g ives a measure

o f t h e s t r en g t h o f t h e a sso c ia t i o n . A s p o i n t e d o u t b y K e n n e d y ( 1 98 3 ) , t h e o d d s r a t io h a s b o t h a d v a n t a g es

and weaknesses . The main advantage is that the resul t ing f igure is complete ly independent o f sample

size . This a l lows for considerable comparabi l i ty with other studies using a s imi lar method. I t i s a l so

unaf fected by unequal margina l distr ibutions. I t i s important to keep in mind that the odds rat io i s not

symmetr ic . As the assoc iat ion beco mes more intense , the odds rat io appr oaches e i ther 0 or in f in i ty .



730 J. Hay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 2000) 709-742

T h e o d d s r a t io s f o r t h e p o w e r f u n c t i o n d o n o t p r o v i d e s u c h c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e .

T h e r a t i o s s h o w a n u m b e r o f sl ig h t t re n d s . M a l e s t e n d t o u s e p o w e r b a s e d s t ra t e g i e s

m o r e o f t e n t h a n f e m a l e s , a n d t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s o c c u r s l i g h t l y m o r e i n s i n g l e - s e x t h a n

i n m i x e d - s e x g r o u p s .

M a l e s s e e m m o r e l i k e l y t o u se h u m o r f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t io n s , t h o u g h w e

s h o u l d n o t p u t t o o m u c h w e i g h t o n t h i s, a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s o n l y s l ig h t . M o r e c o n -

c l u s i v e i s th e f a c t t h a t h u m o r i s m o r e l i k e l y to b e u s e d f o r t h is f u n c t i o n i n s i n g le s e x

c o n v e r s a t io n s t h a n m i x e d c o n v e r s a ti o n s .

7.2. Results o f indiv idua l s trategies

I a d o p t e d t h e s a m e m o d e l f o r l o o k i n g a t t h e d i s tr i b u t io n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s t ra t e -

g i e s a s I d i d f o r th e o v e r a l l f u n c t io n s . W h e n a p p l i e d t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t ra t e g i e s, t h e

m o d e l o f m a i n e f f e c t s f o r s p e a k e r s e x a n d g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n i s s i g n i f ic a n t l y b e t te r

t h a n a n y o t h e r v a r ia t i o n s o n t h e m o d e l , a l t h o u g h t h e m o d e l i s m a r g i n a l l y o f f r e a c h -

i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e i t s e l f . T h i s i s p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e t h e e x p a n d e d c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e i s

m u c h s p a r s e r t h a n t h e t a b l e i n w h i c h a l l t h e f u n c t i o n s a r e c o l l a p s e d i n t o f o u r o v e r a l l

c a t eg o r i e s . A s t h e co l l ap s ed t ab l e s s t i l l h o l d t h e s am e d a t a , i t i s s a f e t o a s s u m e t h a t

t h e c o r r e c t m o d e l f o r t h e i n d i v id u a l s t r a t e g ie s i s th e s a m e a s f o r th e g r o u p e d c a t e -

g o r i e s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t io n s , I o u t l i n e t h e r e s u l t s f o r e a c h o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

s t r a t eg ies .

7 .2 .1 . Resu l ts o f so l idar ity based s tra teg ies

T a b l e 4 s h o w s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y f i g u r e s f o r e a c h o f t h e s t ra t e g i e s u s e d t o c r e a t e o r

m a i n t a i n s o l i d a r i t y . C l a r i f y i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g b o u n d a r i e s i s t h e s t r a t e g y m o s t f r e -

q u en t l y u s ed t o f u l f i l l t h i s f u n c t i o n .

Table 4

Probabilities for solidari ty-based strategies

FM MM FS MS

Share 0.09 0.01 0.15 0.02

Highlight 0.08 0.12 0.09 0.16

BoundS 0.31 0.19 0.23 0.15

TeaseS 0.06 0.05 0.11 0.12

Other 0.06 0.01 0.07 0.01

I n T ab l e 5 , I p r e s en t t h e o d d s r a t i o s f o r s o l i d a r i t y b a s ed s t r a t eg i e s .

T h e r e s u l t s f o r s h a r i n g h u m o r a r e c o n c l u s i v e . T h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t t h e w o m e n

a r e m u c h m o r e l i k e ly to u s e h u m o r i n th is w a y t h a n t h e m e n . T h e m o d e l p r e d i c ts t h e

o d d s o f f e m a l e s u s i n g s h a r in g h u m o r t o b e 9 . 7 9 t im e s h i g h e r t h a n t he o d d s o f m a l e s

u s i n g s h a r i n g h u m o r i n m i x e d c o n v e r s a t i o n s , a n d i n s i n g l e - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h e

o d d s r a t i o f o r fe m a l e s t o m a l e s i s 8 . 6 5 : 1 . T h e f i g u r e s a ls o s h o w b o t h s e x e s m o r e

l i k e l y t o u s e s h a r i n g h u m o r i n s i n g l e - s e x t h a n i n m i x e d - s e x i n t e r a c t i o n .




Table 5

Odds ratios for so lidarity-b ased strategies

731

F M - M M M M - F M F M - F S F S - F M M M - M S M S - M M F S- M S M S - F S

Share 9.79 - - 1.78 - 2.02 8.65 -

Hig hlight - 1.57 - 1.14 - 1.40 - 1.93

Boun dS 1.92 - 1.50 - 1.33 - 1.69 -

TeaseS 1.21 - - 1.94 - 2.59 - 1.10

Other 6.32 - - 1.18 1.00 1.00 7.45 -

H i g h l i g h t i n g s i m i l a r it i e s a n d c a p i t a l iz i n g o n s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s a r e s t r a te g i e s

m o r e l i k e l y to b e u s e d b y m e n t h a n w o m e n . T h e r e is a ls o a v e r y s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n th a t

t h e s e s t r a t eg i e s a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o be u s e d i n s i n g le - s e x r a th e r t h a n m i x e d - s e x c o n -

v e r s a t i o n s .

N o n e o f th e o d d s r a t io s f or b o u n d S r e a c h 2 , a n d s o th e p a t t e r n s s h o w n c a n o n l y

b e r e g a r d e d a s p o s s i b l e t re n d s . T h e f i g u r e s s h o w t h a t m a i n t e n a n c e a n d c l a r i f ic a t i o n

o f b o u n d a r i e s i s m o r e l i k e l y t o b e u s e d b y w o m e n t h a n m e n , a n d i n m i x e d c o n v e r -

s a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n s i n g l e - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s .

T e a s i n g i n a m a n n e r t h a t e n f o r c e s s o l i d a r i t y i s m o r e l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n s i n g l e - s e x

c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a n m i x e d - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t ru e i n t h e c a s e o f

m a l e s p e a k e r s .

T h e o d d s r a t io s s h o w w o m e n 6 - 7 t i m e s m o r e l i k e l y t o u s e an a l t e r n a ti v e s o li d a r -

i t y b u i l d i n g s t r a t e g y t h a n m e n . A s t h e p a r t i c u l a r n a t u r e o f th e s e s t r a t e g i e s i s v a r i e d ,

t h is c a t e g o r y i s n o t s o i n t e r e s t i n g b y i t se l f , b u t p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n c o n t r i b u t -

i n g t o t h e o v e r a l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s o l i d a r i t y f u n c t i o n a s d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 7 .1 .

7 . 2 .2 . R e s u l t s o f p o w e r - b a s e d s t r a te g i e s

T a b l e 6 s h o w s t h e s t ra t e g i e s t h a t s e r v e t o m a i n t a i n o r c r e a t e p o w e r , a n d t h e p r o b -

a b i l i t i e s t h a t a s p e a k e r i n e a c h o f th e g r o u p s u s e t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s .

Table 6

Probabili t ies for power-based strategies

F M M M F S M S

BoundP 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.06

TeaseP 0.07 0.06 0.12 0.11

Other 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00

W h e n c a l c u l a t in g th e l o g - l i n e a r m o d e l s , e x a m p l e s w h i c h e m p l o y e d m o r e t h a n o n e

s t r a t e g y w e r e c o d e d f o r b o th . I t h e n c h e c k e d t h e m o d e l s , u s i n g a c a l c u l a t i o n d i s c u s s e d

i n s e c t i o n 6 . 4 , w h i c h a d j u s t s f o r r e s u l t i n g c l u s t e r i n g e f f e c t s. I n m o s t c a s e s , t h i s d id n o t

a f f e ct t h in g s s i g n if i c a n t l y , a s o n l y a v e r y s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f e x a m p l e s w e r e c o d e d

f o r m o r e t h a n o n e s t r a t e g y . A n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n t o t h is , h o w e v e r , w a s t h e c o - o c c u r -

r e n c e o f p o w e r - b a s e d b o u n d a r y m a r k i n g a n d t e as i n g. T h e s e t w o a r e s o m e w h a t



732 J. H ay / Journal of Pragmatics 32 (20 00) 709-742

r e la t e d , a n d s u f f i c ie n t e x a m p l e s w e r e c o d e d a s b o t h t o a f f e c t t h e m o d e l . T o b y p a s s

t h i s p r o b l e m , I c r e a t e d a s e p a r a t e c a t e g o r y f o r t h o s e e x a m p l e s c o d e d a s b o t h t e a s e - P

a n d b o u n d a r y - P . T o i ll u s tr a te t h e t r e n d s i n t h e d a t a c l e a r ly , I h a v e r e - s e p a r a t e d t h e s e

c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n . T h e p r o b a b i l i t y f i g u r e s p r e d i c t e d b y t h e

m o d e l f o r e x a m p l e s w h i c h b o t h p o w e r f u l l y t e as e a n d c r e at e b o u n d a r i e s h a v e b e e n

a d d e d t o t h e b o u n d a r y - P c a t e g o r y a n d a l s o t o t h e t e a s e - P c a t e g o r y , s o t h a t w e c a n

i n d e p e n d e n t l y c o n s i d e r t h e p r o b a b i l i ty o f e a c h o f th e s e o c c u r r i n g . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e

p r o b a b i l i t y f i g u r e s p r e s e n t e d f o r a l l o f t h e s t r a t e g i e s a d d t o a l it tl e o v e r 1 i n e a c h

g r o u p . T h i s i s b e c a u s e p a r t o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y f i g u r e s f o r b o u n d P a n d t e a s e P o v e r l a p .

T h e o d d s r a t i o s f o r e a c h o f t h e s t r at e g i e s th a t a r e u s e d t o c r e a t e o r m a i n t a i n p o w e r

a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 7 . N o o d d s r a t i o s a r e g i v e n f o r th e c a t e g o r i e s o f ' f o s t e r c o n f l i c t '

o r ' c o n t r o l ' . T h e r e w a s o n l y o n e e x a m p l e i n e a c h o f t h e s e c a t eg o r i e s a n d s o n o t h i n g

m e a n i n g f u l c a n b e s a i d a b o u t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t h e r e i s t h e

f a c t t h a t s o f e w e x a m p l e s f e l l i n t o t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s .

Table 7

Odd s ratios for pow er-based strategies

F M -M M M M - F M F M - F S F S - F M M M - M S M S - M M F S - M S M S -F S

Bou ndP 1.18 - - 1.31 1.00 1.00 1.55 -

Te aseP 1.18 - - 1.81 - 1.94 1.10 -

T h e r a t io s f o r c r e a t in g o r c h a l l e n g i n g b o u n d a r i e s a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s t ri k in g . T h e

w o m e n s e e m t o u s e h u m o r i n th i s w a y s li g h tl y m o r e t h a n t h e m e n , b o t h i n s i n g le s e x

a n d m i x e d i n t e r a c t i o n . W o m e n u s e i t s l i g h t l y m o r e i n s i n g l e - s e x g r o u p s t h a n m i x e d

g r o u p s , b u t g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n d o e s n o t a f f e c t t h e ex t e n t to w h i c h m e n u s e h u m o r t o

c r e a t e o r c h a l l e n g e b o u n d a r i e s .

T h e r a t io s s h o w t h a t t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y f o r p o w e r f u l t e a s e s t o o c c u r i n s i n g le s e x

c o n v e r s a t i o n s m o r e o f t e n t h a n m i x e d s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s . T h e m o d e l s h o w s w o m e n

s l i g h t l y m o r e l i k e l y t o u s e h u m o r i n t h i s w a y t h a n m e n , t h o u g h t h i s f i g u r e i s f a r f r o m

c o n c l u s i v e .

7 . 2 .3 . R e s u l t s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s

T h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s t h a t a s p e a k e r w i l l u s e h u m o r t o c o p e o r d e f e n d a r e s h o w n i n

T a b l e 8 . I n T a b l e 9 , I p r e s e n t t h e o d d s r a t i o s f o r t h e s e f u n c t i o n s .

T h e f i g u r e s s h o w n o n o t a b l e d i f f e re n c e i n t h e u se o f d e f e n d i n g h u m o r b e t w e e n

m e n a n d w o m e n o r m i x e d a n d s i n g l e - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s . T h e o n e t r e n d i n d i c a t e d b y

t h e f i g u r e s i s a s l i g h t t e n d e n c y f o r d e f e n d i n g h u m o r t o o c c u r m o r e i n s i n g l e t h a n i n

m i x e d - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s .

T h e p r o b a b i li ti e s g i v e n f o r h u m o r w h i c h c o p e s w i th a n o n - c o n t e x t u a l p r o b l e m a r e

f a i r l y s m a l l , a n d s o t h e r e s u l t i n g o d d s r a t i o s m a y b e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y h i g h . T h e y d o

i n d ic a t e s o m e c l e a r tr e n d s , h o w e v e r . T h i s t y p e o f h u m o r i s m o r e l ik e l y to o c c u r in

s i n g l e - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a n i n m i x e d - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s , a n d f e m a l e s a r e m o r e

l i k e l y t h a n m a l e s t o u s e h u m o r i n t h i s w a y .



J. H ay / Journal of Pragmatics (2000) 709-742

Table 8

Probabi l i t ies for psychological funct ions

733

F M M M F S M S

Defend 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03

Cop e-noncon text 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.03

Cop e-context 0.02 0.04 0.03 0 .07

Table 9

Odds ratios for psyc holog ical functions

F M - M M M M - F M F M - F S F S -F M M M -M S M S - M M F S - M S M S -F S

De fend 1.00 1.00 - 1.52 - 1.52 1.00 1.00

Co pe-n onc onte xt 2.02 - - 2.04 - 3.06 1.35 -

Co pe- con text - 2.04 - 1.52 - 1.81 - 2.43

T h e s t r o n g e s t tr e n d i n v o l v i n g c o n t e x t u a l c o p i n g i s th a t th e o d d s o f m a l e s u s i n g

c o n t e x t u a l c o p i n g h u m o r a r e m o r e t h a n t w i c e a s h i g h a s f o r w o m e n , a c r o s s b o t h

g r o u p c o m p o s i t i o n s . T h e r e a l s o s e e m s t o b e a s li g h t t r e n d f o r c o n te x t u a l c o p i n g

h u m o r t o o c c u r m o r e i n s i n g l e - s e x t h a n i n m i x e d - s e x g r o u p s .

8 . D i s c u s s i o n

T h a t I c h o s e t o i n v e s t i g a t e n a t u r a l f r i e n d s h i p g r o u p s h a s n o d o u b t i n f l u e n c e d t h e

t y p e s o f f u n c t io n s f o r w h i c h h u m o r i s u s e d i n m y d a ta . T h e r e a r e v e r y fe w e x a m p l e s

o f th e p a r t i c u l a r l y n e g a t i v e c a t e g o r i e s - t o c o n t r o l, a n d t o c r e a t e c o n f l i c t . T h e s e

f u n c t i o n s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f ie d a s c o m m o n f u n c t io n s f o r h u m o r i n t h e l it e r a tu r e ( M a r -

t i n e a u , 1 9 7 2 ; C o l l i n s o n , 1 9 8 8 ), b u t it s e e m s v e r y p l a u s i b l e t h a t t h e i n f o r m a l f r i e n d l y

c o n t e x t i s t h e r e a s o n t h e r e a r e f e w i n s t a n c e s i n m y s a m p l e .

8 . 1 . T h e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n

A c h i e v i n g t h e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 4 w a s m o r e o f t e n th e o n l y

p u r p o s e o f t h e h u m o r p r o d u c e d b y m e n . W o m e n w e r e m o r e l i k e l y t o a l s o u s e th e

h u m o r f o r s o m e f u r t h e r f u n c t io n , s u c h a s to c r e a t e s o l i d a r i t y t h r o u g h s h a r in g .

T h a t t h e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n w a s u s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e b y m e n t h a n b y w o m e n i s

p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o th e f a c t t h a t a p p e a r i n g w i t t y s e e m s m o r e c e n t r a l to a m a l e

p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y t h a n t o a f e m a l e i d e n t i t y ( s e e H a y , 1 9 9 5 a : 1 4 8 ). A s h o r t q u i p

o r o n e - l i n e r , t h en , p e r f o r m s p o s i t i v e w o r k o n a m a l e p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y . I n g e n -

e r a l , th i s a b i l i t y s e e m s m u c h l e s s i m p o r t a n t f o r w o m e n , a n d s o w h e n t h e y u s e

h u m o r , i t t e n d s to b e p e r f o r m i n g a f u r th e r i d e n t i f i a b l e fu n c t i o n b e y o n d t h e g e n -

e r a l f u n c t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g s o l i d a r i t y a n d p o w e r a n d p o s i t i v e l y a f f e c t in g p e r s o n a l

i d e n t i t y .



7 3 4

J. Hay / Journal o f Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

I t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t , b e c a u s e I a m a f e m a l e , I w a s u n a b l e t o i n t e r p r e t m u c h o f

t h e m a l e h u m o r , a n d s o m o r e m a l e h u m o r t h a n f e m a l e h u m o r e n d e d u p i n th i s g e n-

e r a l c a t e g o r y , w h i c h c o u l d b e s e e n i n s o m e w a y s a s a n ' o t h e r ' c a t e g o r y . T h i s i s a

p o s s i b i l i t y , b u t I t r i e d t o s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t t h i s b y c h e c k i n g m y i n t u i t i o n s w i t h s e v -

e r a l m a l e ' i n t e r p r e t e r s ' .

T h e c l a i m t h a t m a l e s m o r e o f t e n u s e h u m o r f o r t h e s o l e p u r p o s e o f i m p r e s s i n g ,

a p p e a r i n g f u n n y , o r c r e a t i n g a p o s i t i v e p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y i s i n p a r t s u p p o r t e d b y p a s t

f i n d i n g s .

E r v i n - T r i p p a n d L a m p e r t ( 1 9 9 2 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t m e n ' s h u m o r c o n s i s t s l a r g e l y o f

f l i p w i s e c r a c k s a n d t h a t th i s t e n d e n c y f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d i n m i x e d - s e x g r o u p s . M o s t

s h o r t w i s e c r a c k s i n m y s a m p l e f e l l i n t o th i s g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n . T h e y a r e t y p i c a l o f a

t y p e o f h u m o r d e s i g n e d t o e l e v a t e s ta t u s a n d s o l i d a r it y w i t h i n th e g r o u p a n d t o w o r k

o n p e r s o n a l i d e n t i ty , w i t h o u t p e r f o r m i n g a n y f u r t h e r f u n c t i o n . I n m y d a t a , to o , t h is

t y p e o f h u m o r i n c r ea s e d i n m i x e d s e x g r o up s .

8.2. Solidarity

T h e s o l i d a r i t y r a t i o s h o w s e x a c t l y w h a t o n e w o u l d e x p e c t , g i v e n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

T h e o d d s o f w o m e n u s i n g h u m o r t o c r e a te o r m a i n t a in s o l id a r i ty a r e m o r e t h a n t w i c e

a s h i g h a s m e n .

T h e r e su l ts f o r s h a ri n g h u m o r s h o w c o n c l u s i v e l y th a t w o m e n u s e t hi s s t ra t e g y

m u c h m o r e t h a n m e n d o . T h is s u p p o r ts E r v i n - T r i p p a n d L a m p e r t ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) c la i m t h a t

w o m e n u s e h u m o r t o s h a re . J o h n s o n a n d A r i e s ( 1 9 8 3 ) i s o n e o f s e v e ra l s tu d i es w h i c h

f o u n d w o m e n m u c h m o r e l i k e l y t o s e l f- d i sc l o s e t h a n m e n . C o z b y ( 1 9 7 3 ) p r o v i d e s a

c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w o f e a r l y w o r k i n t h is a r e a . S o m e o f t h e s tu d i e s o u t l i n e d i n th i s

r e v i e w s h o w t h a t w o m e n s e l f - d i s c l o s e m o r e t h a n m e n , w h i l e s o m e f o u n d n o d i f f e r -

e n c e . S o m e o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s m a y b e a t t r ib u t a b l e t o d i f f e r e n t l y p l a c e d t h r e s h o l d s

f o r w h a t c o u n t s a s s e l f - d is c l o s u r e . N o s t u d ie s , h o w e v e r , f o u n d m e n m o r e l i k e l y to

s e l f - d i s c l o s e t h a n w o m e n .

K o m a r o v s k y ( 1 9 6 2 ) f o u n d t h e m e n i n h e r s tu d y u n l i k e ly t o s h a r e o r d i sc l o s e p e r-

s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n .

" T h e p h r a s e ' i n c a p a c i ty t o s h a r e ' a i m s t o c o n v e y a c e r t a i n v i e w a b o u t t h e m e n ' s a r t ic u l a te n e s s . T h e i d e al

of m ascu l in i ty in to which they were soc ia l i zed inh ib i t s expres s ivenes s bo th d i rec t ly , wi th i t s em phas i s

on re se rve , and ind i rec t ly , by iden t i fy ing pe rsona l in te rchange wi th the fem in ine ro le . " (Kom arovsky ,

1962: 151)

M y r e s u l ts s h o w m a l e s m o r e l i k e l y th a n f e m a l e s t o u s e h u m o r t o h i g h l i g h t s i m i l a r i-

t i e s o r c a p i t a l i z e o n s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s .

M a n y o f t h e se e x a m p l e s c o n s i s t o f j o i n t r e m i n i s c e n c e s a b o u t p r e v i o u s l y s h a r e d

a c t iv i ti e s, o r o f r e m i n d i n g e a c h o t h e r o f j o k e s f r o m m o v i e s , o r q u o t i n g l i ne s f r o m

f a v o r i t e b o o k s . I n t h is w a y , s p e a k e r s e x p r e s s s i m i l a r ta s t es , a n d c a p i t a l i z e o n t i m e

t h e y h a v e s h a r e d t o g e th e r . S o w h i l e a g r o u p o f w o m e n m a y s h a re n e w , p e r s o n a l

i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p

g r o u p , m e n s e e m b e m o r e l i k e l y to r e l iv e o l d t i m e s t o a c h i e v e t h e s a m e e n d . J o h n -



J. Ha y /Jour na l of Pragmatics (2000) 709-742

735

s o n a n d A r ie s ( 1 9 8 3 ) f o u n d t h at m e n r e m i n i s c e d m o r e t h a n w o m e n a n d t a l k e d a b o u t

h o b b i e s a n d s h a r e d a c t i v i t i e s .

T h i s c o u l d r e l a t e t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n - b a s e d / t a s k - b a s e d d i s t i n c t i o n n o t e d b y P a r s o n s

a n d B a l e s ( 1 9 5 5 ) . I n t e r a c t i o n s e e m s c r u c i a l t o f e m a l e f r i e n d s h i p g r o u p s , w h e r e a s

a c t i v it i e s a r e m o r e i m p o r t a n t in a ll m a l e g r o u p s ( G o o d w i n , 1 9 8 2 ). D o u v a n a n d A d e l -

s o n ( 1 9 6 6 ) p o i n t t o t h e f a c t t h a t f e m a l e s a r e s o c i a l i z e d t o p l a c e v a l u e o n i n t e r p e r -

s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , w h e r e a s m a l e s a r e t a u g h t t o v a l u e a c t i v i t i e s a n d a c h i e v e m e n t . I t

t h e r e f o r e m a k e s s e n s e t h a t w h i l e w o m e n c r e a t e s o l i d a r i ty b y s h a r i n g i n t i m a t e i n f o r -

m a t i o n , m e n r e m i n d e a c h o t h e r o f s h a r e d a c t i v i ti e s .

F e m a l e s a r e s l i g h t l y m o r e l i k e l y t h a n m a l e s t o u s e h u m o r t o m a i n t a i n o r c l a r i f y

b o u n d a r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n m i x e d g r o u p s . T h i s s t r a t e g y s e r v e s t o i n c r e a s e g r o u p s o l -

i d a r i t y , o f t e n b y i d e n t i f y i n g a n o u t g r o u p .

S o l i d a r i t y - b a s e d t e a s e s a r e u s e d m o r e o f t e n i n s i n g l e - s e x t h a n i n m i x e d - s e x

g r o u p s . T h i s i s p a r ti c u l a r l y tr u e o f m e n . T h e o d d s o f a m a l e u s i n g a s o l i d a r i t y - b a s e d

t e a s e a r e 2 . 5 9 t i m e s g r e a t e r i n s i n g l e - s e x t h a n i n m i x e d - s e x i n t e r a c t i o n .

M o s t l i t e r a t u r e o n t e a s i n g i s r e s t r i c t e d t o t e a s i n g a m o n g s t m a l e s ( s e e R a d c l i f f e -

B r o w n , 1 9 5 2 [ 1 9 4 0 ] ; L o u d o n , 1 9 7 0 ; K u i p e r , 1 9 9 1 ) . S o m e st u d i e s s h o w t e a s in g i n

m i x e d g r o u p s , b u t th i s is o f a p a r t ic u l a r l y s e x u a l n a t u r e ( S p r a d l e y a n d M a n n , 1 9 7 5 ;

W h i t e h e a d , 1 9 7 6 ; P a r k i n , 1 9 7 9 ). O n l y r e c e n t l y h a v e r e s e a r c h e r s f o u n d t h a t t e a s i n g

a l s o o c c u r s i n a ll f e m a l e g r o u p s ( E d e r , 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 3 ) .

L i m b r i c k ( 1 9 9 1 ) f o u n d a s i m i la r p a t te r n i n th e u s e o f e x p l e ti v e s b y N e w Z e a l a n d

m e n a n d w o m e n . B o t h g r o u p s u se d r o u g h l y t h e sa m e n u m b e r o f e x p l e t i v e s w h e n i n

s i n g l e - s e x g r o u p s . I n m i x e d g r o u p s , h o w e v e r , t h e m a l e s d e c r e a s e d t h e i r u se o f e x p l e -

t i v e s b y a s u b s t a n ti a l a m o u n t . L i m b r i c k i n t e r p r e t e d t h is a s a d e s ir e n o t t o o f f e n d , a n d

a s a n a c c o m m o d a t i o n t o th e s t e re o t y p e o f f e m a l e s ' l e s se r e x p l e ti v e u s a g e.

F o l b ( 1 9 8 0 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e B l a c k A m e r i c a n g i r l s s h e s t u d i e d u s e d t h e v e r n a c u l a r

a n d s w e a r w o r d s o n l y w h e n o u t o f e a r s h o t o f m a l e s a n d o f a d ul ts .

"When I was p r ivy to a l l fem a le conversa t ion , I found tha t the quan t i ty o f t a lk , jok ing , boas t ing , a rgu-

m en t , curs ing and even shoot ing the dozen s r iva l l ed m a le expres s ive beha v ior . " (F o lb , 198 0: 195)

M u c h o f t h e t ea s in g h u m o r i n m y c o r p u s t a k e s th e f o r m o f j o c u l a r i n su l ts . F o l b

p o i n t s o u t t h a t s u c h b e h a v i o r i s n o t ' l a d y - l i k e ' a n d s o r e g a r d e d a s i n a p p r o p r i a t e

b e h a v i o r t o d i s p l a y t o b o y s , o r t o a d u lt s. S i m i l a r l y , t h e b o y s i n h e r s t u d y t o n e d d o w n

t h e i r v e r n a c u l a r u s a g e a m o n g y o u n g w o m e n , a s t o d o o t h e r w i s e w o u l d b e d i s r e -

s p ec t f u l .

S o b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n e n g a g e i n j o c u l a r a b u s e a n d t e a s in g a c t i v it ie s , th o u g h

t h e y d o t h is m u c h m o r e o f t e n i n s i n g l e - se x g r o u p s t h a n m i x e d g r o u p s . I t s e e m s l i k e l y

t h a t th e r e a s o n s t h i s b e h a v i o r i s r e s t r ic t e d i n m i x e d c o n v e r s a t i o n d i f f e r f o r m e n a n d

w o m e n , b u t b o t h r e f le c t th e g e n d e r s t e r e o t y p in g a n d e x p e c t a t io n o f ' a p p r o p r i a t e '

s e x - s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r .

T h e r e i s a l s o a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e a r e m o r e l i m i t a t i o n s o n w h o o n e c a n t e a s e

i n m i x e d g r o u p s . S p e a k e r s w e r e v e r y u n l i k e l y t o f o c u s h u m o r o n t h e o t h e r p a r t i c i -

p a n t o f t h e s a m e s e x in m i x e d c o n v e r s a t i o n s . T h i s p a t t e r n is d i s c u s s e d i n H a y

( 1 9 9 5 b ) .



736 J. Hay / Journal o f Pragmatics 32 (2000) 709-742

H a y ( 1 9 9 4 ) a n a l y z e d j o c u l a r a b u s e p a t te r n s i n a m i x e d f r i e n d s h ip g r o u p c o n s i s t -

i n g o f e i g h t m e m b e r s . T h e v a s t m a j o r i ty o f e x a m p l e s i n v o l v e d j o c u l a r a b u s e b e t w e e n

m e n a n d w o m e n - t h e s p e a k e r s ra r e ly t ea s e d o t h e rs o f th e i r o w n s e x . T h e e x a m p l e s

s h o w e d a f r i e n d l y a n i m o s i t y b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s a n d c l e a r l y s e r v e d t o m a i n t a i n g e n -

d e r d i v i s i o n s .

T h e r e s u l t s o f t h is r e s e a r c h s h o w t h a t te a s i n g i s a n a c ti v i t y i n d u l g e d i n e q u a l l y b y

m e n a n d w o m e n . I t t e n d s to o c c u r m u c h m o r e i n s i n g le - s e x i n te r a ct io n , p e r h a p s a l s o

b e c a u s e t h e s e a r e t h e g r o u p s i n w h i c h t h e m o s t i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s h i p s t e n d t o b e m a d e .

T e a s i n g a n d s p a r r in g c a n d e v e l o p a s e n se o f ' c o m r a d e s h i p ' a n d j o v i a l i ty w i t h in

g r o u p s . B e c a u s e t hi s te n d s t o o c c u r m o s t i n s i n g le - s e x g r o u p s , m a n y s e e m t o b e l i e v e

t h a t i t i s r e s t r ic t e d t o j u s t o n e s e x . M y t o p i c s p a r k e d m u c h d e b a t e a m o n g s t m y

f r i e n d s , a n d m a n y g a v e m e ' i n s i g h t s ' i n t o w h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d w e r e t h e e s s e n t i a l s

a b o u t h u m o r . A m a l e f r i e n d e x p l a i n e d t o m e t h a t h i s b e s t f r i e n d s w e r e t h o s e h e

i n s u l t e d r e g u l a r l y a n d w i t h g r e a t v i g o r . H i s w i f e d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h i s , a n d h e m o s t

c e r ta i n ly c o u l d n o t i n su l t h e r in th e s a m e m a n n e r H e w o n d e r e d w h y i t w a s t h a t m e n

c o u l d e n j o y t hi s ty p e o f h u m o r a n d s o l id a r it y , w h e r e a s w o m e n d i d n o t s e e m t o b e

a b l e t o . T h e a n s w e r s e e m s t o b e t h a t w o m e n d o , i n f a c t , u s e h u m o r t o t e a s e t o t h e

s a m e e x t e n t a s m e n . B u t b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n d o t h i s m o s t i n s i n g l e - s e x g r o u p s

r a th e r t h a n m i x e d - s e x g r o u p s .

I t i s im p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h is i s a s p e c i fi c t y p e o f h u m o r w h i c h i s u s u a l l y

r e s t r ic t e d t o c e rt a i n f r i e n d s h i p g r o u p s . O n e e i t h e r h a s a j o k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p e s t a b -

l i s h e d , o r o n e d o e s n o t . J o k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e f i r s t d e s c r i b e d b y R a d c l i f f e -

B r o w n :

"W hat is m eant by the term joking relationship is a relation between two person s in w hich one is by cus-

tom p ermitted, and in so m e cases required to tease or m ake fun o f the other, who in return is required to

take no offence" (Radcliffe-Brown, 1952: 90)

I f s u c h a r e la t i o n s h i p e x i s ts , t e a s i n g h u m o r w i ll b e p r e v a l e n t ; i f i t d o e s n o t , th e r e w i ll

m o s t l ik e l y b e n o h u m o r t h a t s e r v e s t hi s p u r p o s e . T h e e x a m p l e s o f t ea s in g i n th i s

c o r p u s , t h e n , a r e n o t e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g s t a l l t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n s .

8 . 3 . P o w e r

M u c h o f th e l a n g u a g e a n d g e n d e r l i te r a tu r e p r e s e n ts p o w e r a n d s o l i d a ri ty a s

d i c h o t o m o u s . M e n , i n g e n e r a l, a re s a id to p l ac e i m p o r t a n c e o n p o w e r a n d c o m p e t i -

t io n w i th i n c o n v e r s a t i o n , a n d f e m a l e s p r io r i ti z e th e e x p r e s s i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f

s o l i d a r i ty ( s e e A r i e s , 1 9 7 6 ; E d e l s k y , 1 9 8 1 ; F i s h m a n , 1 9 8 3 ; M a l t z a n d B o r k e r ,

1 9 8 3 ; C o a t e s , 1 9 8 6 ; P r e i s l e r , 1 9 8 6 , a m o n g o t h e r s ) . C o n t e x t is a l s o i m p o r t a n t h e r e ,

w i t h ' m e n ' s ' s t y le u s e d m o r e o f te n in p u b l i c s et ti n g s, a n d ' w o m e n ' s ' i n p r i v a t e

i n t e r a c t i o n .

I t i s s u r p r i s in g , t h e n , t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n i n t h e u s e o f

p o w e r - b a s e d f u n c t i o n s i s n o t g re a t. M e n d o u s e h u m o r f o r p o w e r - b a s e d f u n c t i o n s

s l i g h t l y m o r e t h a n w o m e n , b u t t h e f i g u r e s a r e f a r f r o m c o n c l u s i v e . I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n t e r e st i n g t h a t th e o d d s r a t io f o r m a l e - f e m a l e s i n g l e - s e x g r o u p s i s g r e a t e r t h a n f o r



J. Hay / Jou rnal of Pragmatics (2000) 709-742 737

m a l e - f e m a l e m i x e d g r o u p s . G i v e n t h a t m e n a r e sa id t o e x e rt th e i r p o w e r m o r e o f t e n

- e s p e c i a l ly o v e r w o m e n , w e w o u l d h a v e e x p e c t e d q u it e a la r g e ra t io h e re . P e r h a p s

t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s s o s m a l l b e c a u s e t h e g r o u p s a r e a l l n a t u r a l f r i e n d s h i p g r o u p s . S t a -

t u s a n d p o w e r d i f f e r e n t i a l s a r e m i n i m a l .

T h e r e a r e n o s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n o r s i n g l e a n d m i x e d

c o n v e r s a t i o n s i n t h e u s e o f h u m o r w h i c h c r e a t e s o r c h a l l e n g e s b o u n d a r i e s . T h i s , t o o ,

i s c o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d p r o b a b l y , r e f l e c t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n s o c c u r

a m o n g s t f r i en d s .

P o w e r f u l t e a s e s o c c u r m o r e i n s i n g l e - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a n m i x e d - s e x c o n v e r s a -

t i o n s . T h i s i s i n t e r e s t i n g , a s t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o b e

u s e d b y m e n t h a n b y w o m e n . B o t h g r o u p s t e n d t o ' b e h a v e ' m o r e , o r c o n f o r m t o

s o c i a l n o r m s w h e n i n th e p r e s e n c e o f t h e o p p o s i t e s e x . In s e c t i o n 8 . 2, I d i s c u s s e d s o l -

i d a r i t y - b a s e d t e a s e s . T h e d i s t r i b u t io n o f th e t w o t y p e s o f t e a s e a r e v e r y s i m i l a r.

8 . 4. P s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s

H u m o r w a s m o r e l i k e l y t o b e u s e d f o r a p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n s i n g l e - s e x c o n -

v e r s a t io n s t h a n m i x e d c o n v e r s a t io n s . A c o n t r ib u t i n g f a c t o r w a s t h e la r g e a m o u n t o f

c o n t e x t u a l c o p i n g u s e d i n s in g l e - s e x c o n v e r s a t i o n s b y m a l e s , w h o t e n d e d t o f i n d th e

t a p i n g s i t u a t i o n m o r e d i f f i c u l t . I n H a y ( 1 9 9 6 ) , I d i s c u s s i n d e t a i l t h e f a c t t h a t s i t t i n g

a n d c h a t t in g w i t h f r ie n d s a n d a t a p e - r e c o r d e r w a s a n a c t iv i ty t h e w o m e n i n m y s t u d y

s e e m e d m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h th a n d i d th e m e n .

C o p i n g h u m o r t e n d s t o o c c u r i n s i n g l e - s e x g r o u p s - f e m a l e s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y

t h a n m a l e s t o u s e h u m o r t o d e a l w i t h a n o n - c o n t e x t u a l p r o b l e m , w h e r e a s m e n w e r e

m o r e l i k e l y t o u s e i t t o c o p e w i t h a c o n t e x t u a l p r o b l e m . I n s e c t i o n 8 . 2 I r e f e r r e d t o

l it e ra t u re w h i c h c l a i m s w o m e n a r e m o r e l i k e ly t o s e lf - d i sc l o s e th a n m e n . I f w o m e n

a r e m o r e l ik e l y to d i s c u ss a n o n - c o n t e x t u a l p r o b l e m f a c in g t h e m a t a n y g i v e n t i m e ,

i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e y m o r e o f t e n e m p l o y h u m o r t o c o p e w i t h s u c h p r o b l e m s .

E r v i n - T r ip p a n d L a m p e r t ( 1 99 2 ) f o u n d w o m e n m o r e l ik e ly t o us e h u m o r a s a c o p -

i n g s t ra t e g y , al t h o u g h t h e d e f i n i ti o n I h a v e u s e d o f c o p i n g h a s m u c h w i d e r s c o p e

t h a n t h e i r s , a s t h e y a r e i n t e r e s t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y i n s e l f - d i r e c t e d h u m o r .

E r v i n - T r i p p a n d L a m p e r t a l s o f o u n d m e n ' s h u m o r m o r e l i k e l y t o b e u s e d t o

d e f e n d t h a n w o m e n ' s . A g a i n , I h a v e e x p a n d e d t h e d e f i n it io n f o r m y p u r p o s e s , w h i c h

m a k e s c o m p a r i s o n d i f f i c u l t . W h e r e a s E r v i n - T r i p p a n d L a m p e r t i n c l u d e o n l y h u m o r

w h i c h p r o t e c ts t h e s e l f b y i d e n t i f y in g a w e a k n e s s b e f o r e a n y o n e e l se d o e s , w h e r e a s

I i n c l u d e i n th i s c a t e g o r y a n y h u m o r w h i c h s e r v e s to p r o t e c t t h e s p e a k e r . M y r e s u l ts

s h o w n o s i g n if i ca n t d i f f e re n c e s i n t h e u s e o f d e f e n d i n g h u m o r .

9 . C o n c l u s i o n

H u m o r is a c o m p l e x d i s c o u r s e e v e n t , w h i c h c a n s e r v e n u m e r o u s f u n c t i o n s . T h i s

p a p e r h a s p r e s e n t e d a t a x o n o m y i n t o w h i c h s u c h f u n c t i o n s c a n b e o r g a n i z e d . T h e

t a x o n o m y is s p e c i f ic a l ly t a il o r e d f o r th e c l a s s i fi c a ti o n o f s p o k e n h u m o r o c c u r r i n g i n

y o u n g N e w Z e a l a n d P a k e h a f r ie n d s h ip g r o u p s.



738


F u n c t i o n s o f h u m o r o c c u r r i n g i n s u c h g r o u p s c a n b e c l a s s i fi e d u n d e r t h e th r e e

b r o a d l a b e ls o f so l i d a r i ty - b a s e d , p o w e r - b a s e d a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s . F u r t h e r

d i s t in c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e s e l a b e l s a r e a l s o m a d e .

H u m o r , o f c o u r s e , i s c u l t u r a l l y g r o u n d e d , a s a r e g e n d e r e d p a t t e r n s o f i n te r a c t i o n .

T h e l a st th i n g I w a n t t o d o i s m a k e c l a i m s a b o u t u n i v e r s a l p a t te r n s o f m e n ' s a n d

w o m e n ' s h u m o r . R a t h e r , I h a v e p r o v i d e d a t o o l w h i c h c a n s e r v e a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t

f o r in v e s t ig a t io n s i n t o s p o n t a n e o u s h u m o r . H o l m e s a n d H a y ( 1 9 9 7 ) u s e d t h e ta x o n -

o m y p r e s e n t e d h e r e , a n d f o u n d q u i t e d i f f e r e n t p a t t e rn s i n t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f h u m o r

a m o n g M a o r i .

T h e r e s u l ts o f a p p l y i n g th i s ta x o n o m y t o a c o r p u s o f s p o n t a n e o u s h u m o r a m o n g

P a k e h a N e w Z e a l a n d e r s r e v e a l e d th e w o m e n m o r e l i k e ly to u s e h u m o r f o r t h e s p e-

c i f ic f u n c t i o n o f fo r m i n g o r m a i n t a i n i n g s o l i d a ri t y t h a n a r e m e n . I n p a r ti c u l a r ,

w o m e n u s e d h u m o r t o s h a r e p e r s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s . R e v e a l i n g p e r -

s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a l l o w s t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n p a r t i c i p a n t s t o k n o w t h e s p e a k e r b e t t e r ,

an d i n d i ca t e s a s en s e o f t ru s t .

W h e n u s i ng s o l id a r i ty - b a s e d h u m o r , t h e m e n w e r e m o r e l i k e ly th a n w o m e n t o

c a p i t a l i z e o n s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s o r h i g h l i g h t s i m i l a r i t i e s . R e m i n i s c i n g a b o u t s h a r e d

e x p e r i e n c e s i s a n e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g y f o r c r e a t i n g s o l i d a r i t y , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e m e n i n

t h i s s t u d y , w h o s e e m t o p l a c e h i g h v a l u e o n s h a r e d a c t i v i t i e s .

M e n w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to u s e h u m o r s o l e ly f o r th e g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n o f i n c r e as i n g

s o l i d a r i t y a n d s t a t u s a n d p e r f o r m i n g p o s i t i v e w o r k o n t h e i r p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y . P o w e r -

b a s e d s t ra t e g i e s s u c h a s c o n t r o l l i n g a n d f o s t e r i n g c o n f l i c t a re o f t e n i d e n t i f i e d a s

f u n c t i o n s o f h u m o r , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t m y d a t a c a m e f r o m n a t u r a l f r ie n d s h i p g r o u p s

m e a n t t h a t t h e se f u n c t i o n s s e l d o m o c c u r r e d .

T h e s p e a k e rs i n m y c o r p u s u s e d h u m o r f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l p u rp o s e s . M e n m o r e

o f t e n u s e d h u m o r to c o p e w i t h a c o n t e x t u a l p r o b l e m , w h e r e a s w o m e n w e r e m o r e

l i k e l y t o u s e n o n - c o n t e x t u a l c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s w h i c h h e l p e d c o p e w i t h p r o b l e m s t h a t

w e r e n o t s p e c i f i c t o t h e i m m e d i a t e s i t u a t i o n .

D e s p i t e l i t e r a t u r e t o t h e c o n t r a r y , t h i s r e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n t h a t w o m e n d o , i n f a c t ,

i n d u l g e i n t e a s i n g h u m o r . B o t h m e n a n d w o m e n t e a s e b o t h i n a p o w e r f u l m a n n e r ,

an d t o c r ea t e s o l i d a r i t y , t h o u g h t h i s s t r a t eg y i s l a r g e l y r e s t r i c t ed t o s i n g l e s ex g r o u p s .

T h i s s t u d y l e a v e s o p e n m a n y q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e f u n c t io n s o f h u m o r a s i t is u s e d

b y m e n a n d w o m e n . I n p a r t ic u l a r , t h e a p p l i c a b i li t y o f t h is t a x o n o m y to d o m a i n s o u t -

s id e o f y o u n g P a k e h a f r ie n d s h i p g r o u p s n o w n e e d s t o b e i n v e s t ig a t e d , a n d t h e g e n -

d e r p a t t e r n s s h o u l d b e s u b j e c t t o c a r e f u l l y q u a l i t a t iv e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Appendix A: Transcription conventions

W ith the except ion of the more detai led sys tem for t ranscr ibing laughter, the conven t ions

used in this thes is are based largely on those developed at Victor ia Univers i ty for the

Wel l ing ton Corpus o f Spoken New Zealand Engl i sh (WC SNZE) .

Speakers are labelled using an initial and the letter F or M to indicate their sex.



J. Hay /Jou rna l o f Pragmatics (2000) 709-742

739

T ransc r i p t i on i n doub t

( ) S p e e c h i n d e c i p h e r a b l e

( h e l lo ) T r a n s c r i b e r ' s b e s t g u e s s a t a n u n c l e a r u t t er a n c e

In t ona t i on

9

Y E S

R i s i n g o r q u e s t io n i n t o n a t io n

I n c o m p l e t e o r c u t - o f f u t t e r a n c e

Ca p i t a l s i n d i c a t e e mp h a t i c s t r e s s

J u n c t u r e b e t w e e n l e t t e r s ( e . g . a #b #c )

P a r a l i n g u is t ic a n d o t h e r n o n - v e r b a l f e a t u r e s

D e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r a l i n g u i s t i c a n d n o n - v e r b a l f e a t u r e s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n s q u a r e b r a c k e t s . I f

t h e f e a t u r e i s c o n c u r r e n t w i t h s p e e c h , o r d e s c r i b i n g s p e e c h , t h e r e l e v a n t s p e e c h i s p l a c e d

b e t w e e n c o l o n s , e .g :

A M :

B M :

[ s n e e z e s ]

[ s i l l y v o i c e ] : y o u n e v e r c a n t e l l w i t h b e e s :

P a R s e s

+

++

P a u s e o f u p t o o n e s e c o n d

P a u s e o f u p t o t w o s e c o n d s

S i m u l t a n e o u s s p e e c h a n d l a tc h i ng

S i m u l t a n e o u s s p e e c h i s c o n t a i n e d i n s l a s h e s, a s i n t he f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e :

A F :

B F :

r e m e m b e r t h e t i m e w h e n / / w e w e r e a t s c h o o l a n dk

/ w h a t a b o u t w h e n y o u w o r e t h a t \ \ g r e e n h a t

A " = " s i g n a l s s p e e c h c o n t in u e s f r o m a n e a r l i e r l i n e :

A M :

B F :

A M :

i w o u l d g o t o s c h o o l a l m o s t / / e v e r y d a y \ w e a r i n g t h i s=

/ [ h a h a h a ] ~ \

= b r i g h t g r e e n h a t

L a u g h t e r

h i

[huh]

[ha]

[nh]

h e l l o [ h o ]

[ l a u g h s ] 2 s e c s

L a u g h i n g e x h a l a t i o n

L a u g h i n g i n h a l a t i o n

V o i c e d l a u g h p a r t i c le

N a s a l i z e d l a u g h p a r t i c le

L a u g h i n g r e p e t i ti o n o f s y l l a b l e

U s e d f o r p r o l o n g e d l a u g h t e r ,

o r f o r a g r o u p o f p e o p l e l a u g h i n g

R e f e r e n c e s

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Jennifer Hay

h a s a M a s t e rs i n L i n g u i s t ic s f r o m V i c t o r ia U n i v e r s i t y o f W e l l i n g t o n , N e w Z e a l a n d . S h e i s

cur ren t ly a P h . D . cand ida te in the L inguis t i c s Depar tm ent o f Nor thwes te rn Unive rs i ty , where she i s

work ing on i s sues o f phonolog ica l and l ex ica l represen ta t ion .

Hay, 2000 - Functions of Humor in Converstionas of Men and w

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