CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION

1. The modern history of Indian literature is generally

classified based on religions or languages. The classification

based on religions consists of categories such as Brahmanical

Literature, Buddhist Literature, Jain Literature and so on.

Similarly, there are works based on the classification of a

particular language, the works such as “A History of Sanskrit

Literature”, “A History of Pāli Literature”, and “A History of

Prakrit Literature” etc. It may be observed that in ancient

times, there existed a classification of the then existing

branches of knowledge or various genres. One such listing of

the branches of knowledge is found in the Lokanīti (10-11) as

follow:

suti sammuti saṅkhyā ca, yogā nīti visesikā।

gandhabbā gaṇikā ceva, dhanubedā ca pūraṇā।।

tikicchā itihāsā ca, joti māyā ca chandati।

hetu mantā ca saddā ca, sippāṭṭhārasakā ime।।

The Vedas, the Smṛti, the Sāṅkhya, the Yoga, the

(worldly) Law, and the Vaiśeṣika system of philosophy;

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2

Music, Arithmetic, Archery, and the Purāṇas, and the

science of Medicine, History, Astrology, Magic, Metre,

Causation, Diplomacy and Grammar; these are the

eighteen branches of knowledge.

2. Though we know that this classification is of late origin and

not found in early Buddhist literature, its antiquity goes back

to the Milindapañha (Mil). The Mil was the first text where

this classification is used with one more addition, that is,

Buddhavacana reaching the number of sippā up to nineteen.

The account of the sippa given in the Mil illustrates the

principal features of the systems of both Brahmanical and

Buddhist education as they prevailed in their times. Some

passages in the Jātaka-s, nevertheless, make individual

mention of some subjects under scientific and technical

education; however, it is not certain whether they would come

under the eighteen sippa-s. The Dummedha Jātaka (Jā no. 50)

mentions the number of sippa-s as eighteen. However, their

names are not illustrated there. In Sanskrit literature, the

antiquity of the eighteen sippa-s goes back to Viṣṇu Purāṇa

(III.6: 28-29):

aṅgāni vedāś catvāro, mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ ।

purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca, vidyā hy etāś caturdaśa ।।

āyurvedo dhanurvedo, gāndharvaś caiva te trayaḥ ।

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3

arthāśāstraṃ caturthaṃ tu, vidyā hy aṣṭādaśaiva tāḥ ।।

Kavidappananīti (2-3), one of the late nīti texts under the Pāli

Nīti Literature (PNL) faithfully transmits this gāthā as

follow:

aṅgāni vedā cattāro, mīmaṃsā nyāyavittharo।

dhammasatthaṃ purāṇañca, vijjā hetā catuddasa।।

āyubbedo dhanubbedo, gandhabbo ceti te tayo।

atthasatthaṃ catutthañca, vijjāhyāṭṭharasa matā।।

A brief description of the branches of knowledge will not go

beyond our topic. It is relevant to discuss here briefly, in what

sense the composer of the Mil used these terms and later on

Pāli nītikāra-s mentioned them in their compositions. This

matter is significant as the classification of the Lokanīti

incorporates the term nīti in the list.

3. General Descriptions of Branches of Knowledge

3.1. Suti - The Pāli word suti (feminine), derived from the root

√su, is parallel to the Sanskrit word śruti. This word is

translated as ‘hearing’, ‘tradition’, and ‘inspiration’ in the Pāli

Text Society’s Pāli-English Dictionary (PED) of RHYS

DAVIDS and STEDE (1921-1924). Further, this word also

denotes ‘knowledge of the Vedas’. WINTERNITZ (1933: 49)

points out that the word śruti corresponds to the expression

‘Holy Scriptures’. RHYS DAVIDS (1890: 6), following

WINTERNITZ (1933: 49), translates the word as ‘Holy

Introduction

4

Tradition’. In the Burmese tradition, as reported by GRAY

(1886: 3), suti conveys a technical meaning, i.e. “what is heard

and seen.” GRAY (1886: 3) translates this word as “general

knowledge.” Here the reference is no doubt to the knowledge

of the Veda-s, or at least that of the mantra-s (hymns), and

brāhmaṇa-s (expositions) - the scriptures obtained by the Ṛṣi-s

through divine revelation. There is no doubt that this word

signifies the Brahmanical lore of learning. Unfortunately, it is

not clear in what sense the Buddhists used this word in their

writings.

3.2. Sammuti - The word sammuti (feminine) is derived from

the root saṃ+√man. The general meanings of the word are

given in PED as ‘consent’, ‘permission’, ‘choice’, ‘selection’,

‘delegation’, ‘general opinion’ etc. This word also conveys the

meaning ‘convention’ e, g, in the word ‘sammutisacca’ ‘the

conventional truth’. Here, this word is parallel to the Sanskrit

word samvṛti. In the Burmese tradition, as GRAY (1886: 3)

reports, “The Pāli sammuti (an adaptation of smṛti, “memory”)

is rendered by “the knowledge of the Dhammathat-s.”

Sammuti, strictly speaking, signifies “tradition”, to which the

Sanskrit Dharmaśāstra-s have referred. Śruti is what is heard

by divine revelation in contrast with smṛti, what is received

from memory (tradition). The six principal divisions of Smṛti

in Sanskrit literature are:

I. The Vedāṅga-s (Ancillary Vedic Texts), comprising

(a) Kalpa (Ritual) (b) Śikṣā (Pronunciation),

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5

(c) Chandas (Metre), (d) Nirukta (Exposition),

(e) Vyākaraṇa (Grammar), (f) Jyotiṣa (Astronomy).

II. The Gṛhya Sūtra-s (Non-Solemn Ceremonies).

III. The Dharmaśāstra-s (Law Books).

IV. The Itihāsa-s (Historical Tales),

V. The Purāṇa-s (LegendaryTales).

VI. The Nītiśāstra-s (Moral Precepts).

3.3. Sāṅkhya – Pāli word sāṅkhya is identical with the same

word in Sanskrit. It is derived from the root saṃ+√khyā, which

means, “counting”. For this reason, Pāli scholars translate this

word as calculation (see GRAY 1886: 3). This word is

mentioned here in the sense of one of the six classical

darśana-s of Indian philosophical literature. As HULIN (1978:

127) says, Sāṅkhya stands for “the trend of thought which aims

at approaching reality through an exact and comprehensive

enumeration of its constitutive principles of categories

(tattva)”.

3.4. Yogā – Kauṭilya mentioned three varieties of philosophy:

Sāṅkhya, Yoga, and Lokāyata. Here the term Yoga does not

mean the Yoga school of Patañjali. It might have meant ‘logic’

– ‘the science of reasoning’ (yukti). According to some, yoga

refers to the dual school of Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika (see MATILAL

1978: 77). GRAY (1886: 3) translates this word as ‘mechanical

art’.

Introduction

6

3.5. Nīti – We do not know in what sense exactly Buddhist

texts used this term among the list of eighteen sippa.

TRECKNER (1908: 102-138) points out that “for smṛti and

nyāya, substituted terms were sammuti (Sanskrit sammati,

perhaps in the sense of ‘what is universally agreed on’) and

nīti; the regular equivalents, sati and ñāya, being

objectionable, because these are among the technical terms of

Buddhism (ñāyo= ariyo aṭṭhangiko maggo), and might have

induced Milinda to suppose of Buddhist attainments previous

to his conversion.” Even in the list of eighteen sippa-s, before

and after the nīti, Yoga and Visesika are mentioned. Therefore,

logically it is possible that the word nīti here indicates Nyāya

School of philosophy. The Nyāya derives its name from nyāya,

the rules of logical thinking or the means of determining the

right meaning or the right thing (see MATILAL 1978: 53).

GRAY (1886: 4) reports that in Lokanīti nissaya, “the ancient

collection known as the Nītiśāstra is referred to” as nīti.

3.6. Visesika - Pāli word visesika is parallel to the Sanskrit

word vaiśeṣika. The Vaiśeṣika system takes its name from

viśeṣa ‘particularity’, which deals with the analysis of nature.

Pointing to Burmese nissaya, GRAY (1886: 4) says, “Visesakā

is so translated in the Burmese nissaya, and ‘grammatical

analysis’ is probably referred to. The word Vyākaraṇa (Pali

Byākaraṇa, Burmese Byākareiṇ) literally means ‘undoing’, and

is applied first to the linguistic analysis and then generally to

grammar, but especially to Pāṇini’s Grammar. It is opposite to

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7

Saṃskaraṇa, ‘putting together’, whence the formed language

is called Saṃskṛta, ‘constructed’.” GRAY (1886: 4) further

says, “as there seems to be a great deal of misconception on

the part of the Burmese translator in several of the renderings

of words in the l0th

and 11th

stanzas, the rendering attached to

visesakā can scarcely be looked upon as the right one. I have

no doubt that there is a reference to the Vaiśeshika philosophy,

one of the six systems which had their origin in the

Upaniṣhds.”

3.7. Gandhabba – Pāli Gandhabba is corresponding to

Sanskrit Gandharva. General meaning of this term is musician,

a singer. In Buddhist terminology Gandhabba indicates a

heavenly musician or demigods who inhabit the

Cātummahārājika realm. In Abhidhamma tradition gandhabba

also refers to antarābhava or mediatory existence. In the

category of sippa-s, gandhabba stands for science of music.

3.8. Gaṇikā – Under the heading of arts and crafts, the word

gaṇikā (f.) stands for ‘arithmetic’, the science of computation,

counting etc. This word also stand for a courtesan; a

prostitute. No doubt that here in the list of sippa-s this word is

used for arithmetic.

3.9. Dhanubbedā – In the Mil this word is mentioned as

Catubbedā. General meaning of this word is ‘a science of

archery’, ‘a treatise on archery’.

Introduction

8

3.10. Pūraṇā – Under the branch of sippa, Pāli word pūraṇā

point towards Sanskrit Purāṇa; or the ancient legendary tales.

3.11. Tikicchā – The word tikicchā, parallel to the Sanskrit

cikitsā, stands for ‘diagnosis’ or ‘pathological analysis’,

‘medical treatment’, ‘healing’, ‘medical practice’.

3.12. Itihāsa - Literal meaning of this word is tradition,

traditional accounts, history. As a branch of sippa this word

signifies telling stories, recitation; tale, legend.

3.13. Joti – Common meaning of the word joti is light,

splendor, radiance. Under the heading of sippa, joti signifies

jyotiḥśāstra, the science of the stars, astronomy. Traditionally

jyotiḥśāstra is divided into the three branches (skandha),

namely, saṃhitā (compendium)1, gaṇita (astronomy), and horā

(astrology).

3.14. Māyā – Broad meaning of māyā is deceptive appearance,

fraud, deceit, hypocrisy. In the Niddesa (Nd. 1: 422) it is said,

māyā vuccati vañcanikā cariyā. As a branch of knowledge,

māyā indicates science of mystic formula or magic or a trick.

GRAY (1886: 4) translates this word as ‘a strategy’ and

remarks that, “By māyā, possibly ‘mysticism’, such as we read

in connection with the Vedānatist and Mīmānsā systems, is the

1 According to PINGREE (1981: 1), the word Sa�hitā, in the context of Jyoti�a, points

to ‘omens’.

Chapter 1

9

idea intended to be conveyed by the text.”

3.15. Chanda – Under the heading of sippa, chanda signifies

knowledge of meters or metrical texts. GRAY (1886: 4)

translates this word as ‘versification’. The Sanskrit word

chanda is phonologically a cognate of English ‘cadence’.

3.16. Buddhavacana – The Word Buddhavacana under the

heading of sippa, appeared for the first time in the Mil. Pāli

works of late origin2 comprehend Buddhavacana as follows:

“It should be known that the Word of the Buddha is

single in flavor (rasa), twofold by reason of the doctrine

(dhamma) and discipline (vinaya), threefold by reason of

the initial (paṭhama), intermediate (majjhima) and final

(pacchima) (words of the Buddha), also threefold by

reason of the Baskets (piṭaka), fivefold by reason of the

collections (nikāya), nine-fold by reason of the

constituent parts (aṅga), and finally, of 84,000 kinds

because of the articles of the Law (dhammakhanndha).”

However, this classification contains elements of later

development, and historically speaking, the expression of

‘doctrine and discipline (dhamma-vinaya) may be accepted as

2 Samantapāsādikā I, p. 16; Suma�galavilāsinī I, p. 15, and A��hasālini, p. 18. The

Samantapāsādikā and Suma�galavilāsinī are the commentaries to the Vinaya-pi�aka

and the Dīgha-nikāya respectively ascribed to the authorship of Buddhaghosa of the

5th century CE. However, they were composed based on the older sources known as

the Sinhalese commentaries, which were composed and developed in Ancient Sri

Lanka between the 3rd

century BCE and about 2nd

or early 3rd century CE. The

A��hasālinī is also traditionally ascribed to Buddhasghosa.

Introduction

10

one of the earliest classifications of the Word of the Buddha.

3.16.1. The Word of the Buddha is single in flavour

“Just as the ocean has a single flavour, the flavour of salt, so

does this doctrine and discipline have a single flavour, the

flavour of deliverance” (Vinaya II.239; AN IV.203; Ud 56).

3.16.2. Dhamma and Vinaya

“Dhamma-vinaya” as a compound word represents the

teaching of the Buddha as a whole, the Buddhist religion in

general, and, in a wider sense, the religious order and

community life. However, when they are used together with

the particle ‘ca’ (and), they mean the doctrine and the code of

discipline.

3.16.3. Initial words, etc.

The word of the Buddha is sometimes classified into three:

initial, intermediate, and final. The stock-phrase goes like the

following: “The Buddha preaches the Dhamma which is good

in the beginning (ādikalyāṇa), in the middle (majjhekalyāṇa),

and at the end (pariyosānakalyāṇa) …” (Vinaya I.179; SN

I.105; etc.). Dīgha-nikāya-aṭṭhakathā Sumaṅgalavilāsinī

(I.176) also, note the further explanation of these three as

“ādimhi sīlaṃ dasseyya, majjhe magaṃ vibhāvaye,

pariyosānamhi nibbānaṃ...”.

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3.16.4 The Five Collections (Pañcanikāya)

The word ‘collections’ (nikāya) denotes the following five

collections: Dīgha-nikāya, Majjhima- nikāya, Sa�yutta-

nikāya, A�guttara- nikāya, and Khuddhaka-nikāya. However,

some commentaries (Samantapāsādikā, Suma�galavilāsinī,

etc.) mention that the Khuddaka-nikāya includes the totality

of the Vinaya-pi�aka, Abhidhamma-pi�aka and the 14

subdivisions of the Khuddaka-nikāya in the strict sense,

beginning with the Khuddakapā�ha and Dhammapada, in brief,

all the rest of the Buddha’s word with the exception of the four

above-mentioned Nikāya-s.

3.16.5. The Nine Constituent Parts (Nava�ga satthu-sāsanaṃ):

This classification does not correspond to any real division of

the canon, but lists the literary styles represented in the

canonical writings. Each of the texts can be classified in

several of the styles at the same time depending on which of

its characteristics is under consideration. While the Tipiṭaka

(Tripi�aka) as a corpus of writings never mentioned in the

oldest canonical texts, the division into ‘aṅga’ is frequently

recorded. These nine ‘aṅga-s’ are: 1. Sutta, 2. Geyya, 3.

Veyyākara�a, 4. Gāthā 5. Udāna, 6. Itivuttaka, 7. Jātaka, 8.

Abbhutadhamma, 9. Vedalla.

3.16.6. Modern scholars argue over the exact meanings of

these terms, but according to the Pāli tradition

(Sumaṅgalavilāsinī, I: 23; Manorathapūranī, III: 5; etc.) they

Introduction

12

are explained as follows:

3.16.6.1. Sutta: The twofold Vinayavibhaṅga, the Niddesa, the

Khuddaka, the Parivāra, the Maṅgala, Ratana, Nālaka and the

Tuva�aka sutta of the Suttanipāta, and all the other discourses

of the Buddha which bear the name of Sutta.

3.16.6.2. Geyya: All Sutta-s with verses which can be sung.

3.16.6.3. Veyyākara�a: The Abhidhammapi�aka, Sutta-s

without verses and all the discourses of the Buddha, not

included in the other eight aṅgas.

3.16.6.4. Gāthā: The Dhammapada, the Thera- and Therīgāthā

and the sections of the Suttanipāta which do not bear the title

of sutta.

3.16.6.5. Udāna: Eighty-two suttanta embellished with verses

expressing intellectual joy (section No. 3 of the Khuddaka-

nikāya).

3.16.6. 6. Itivuttaka: The 112 Sutta-s (of the 4th

section of the

Khuddaka-nikāya) which begin with the formula: vutta�

heta� Bhagavatā.

3.16.6. 7. Jātaka: the 500 Jātaka, Apa��aka, etc., contained in

section 10 of the Khuddaka-nikāya.

Chapter 1

13

3.16.6.8. Abbhutadhamma: All the Sutta-s recording

marvelous and extraordinary feasts, for example, A�guttara, II,

p. 132.

3.16.6.9. Vedalla: All Sutta-s in the form of questions which

provoke joy (subhā vedanā) and satisfaction; for example,

vedaṃ ca tuṭṭhiṃ ca labdhvā, Cū�avedalla (MN I.299),

Mahāvedalla (MN I. 292), Sammādi��hi (MN I.46),

Sakkapa–ha (DN II.263), Sa�khārabhājaniya (MN III.99),

Mahāpu��ama (MN III.15). We should not fail to note that

instead of Vedalla the Sanskrit canon (i.e. Mahāyanic portions)

reads Vaipulya or Vaipulya-sūtrāni.

3.16.7. This division into nine Aṅga-s is adopted by the

Theravādin-s of Ceylon (Vin. III: 7; M. I: 133; Mil 344; Vism

373; etc.), by a few rare canonical or para-canonical texts

translated from Sanskrit into Chinese, such as Sa�gītisūtra (T

12: 277b), the Sanskrit Itivttaka (T 765: 684a) and the

Dharmasa�gītisūtra (T 76: 612a). The Mahāsā�ghika-s

retained this division. The division into nine can also be found

in some Mahāyāna sūtra-s and śāstra-s such as the

Daśavihāravibhā�ā by Nāgārjuna (T 1521: 69b) and even the

Saddharmapu� arīka (T 262: 7c), but the last text deviates

from the Pāli tradition by eliminating three early aṅga-s

(veyyākara�a, udāna, and vedalla) to replace them by three

new ones (nidāna, anupamya = apadāna, and upadeśa).

Introduction

14

3.16.8. The 12 Constituent Parts (dvādaśā�gabuddhavacana):

The greatest majority of Sanskrit texts add three further aṅga-s

to the nine of the Pāli traditions. They are 1. sūtra, 2. Geya, 3.

vyākara�a, 4. gāthā, 5.udāna, 6.nidāna, 7. ityukta, 8. jātaka,

9. vaipulya, 10. adbhutadharma, 11. avadāna, and 12.

upadeśa.

3.16.9. The Vibhā�ā (T 1545, 6601) defines them as follows:

3.16.9.1. Nidāna: In the sūtra-s, utterance (ukti) was the

outcome of various circumstances (nidāna), such as those

described in the Arthavargīyā�i sūtrā�i. Similarly, in the

Vinaya it is explained that it is a result of an offence

committed by Sudhana, etc., that the Bhagavat convened the

assembly of bhik�u-s and promulgated a rule (śik�āpada).

3.16.9.2. Avadāna: This is an account of the manifold and

various adventures (avadāna) narrated in the sūtra-s; for

instance, the Dīrghāvadāna, Mahāvadāna, etc.

3.16.9.3. Upadeśa: This is the teaching of defined and

considered instructions and great words contained in the sūtra-

s. Thus, when the Buddha had expounded a sūtra in brief, he

would retire to the monastery; then, while he was resting, the

great disciples would gather in one place and, by means of all

kinds of syllables (ak�ara), phrases (pada) and meanings

(artha), they would interpret the Buddha’s word.

Chapter 1

15

3.16.10. Among the sources which accept the ‘12 constituent

parts’ (dvādaśā�gabuddhavacana) as opposed to the ‘9’

(nava�gabuddhavacana) of the Pāli, we may point out:

3.16.10.1. All the Āgama-s, no matter which school

transmitted them; the Sanskrit Mahāparinirvā�asūtra,

Dīrghāgama (T 1, p. 16c, etc,) Madhyama (T 26, 421a; etc.)

Sa�yukta (T 99, 300c); Ekottara (T 125, 635a; etc,).

3.16.10.2. All the Chinese Vinaya-s with the exception of that

of the Mahāsā�ghika-s.

3.16.10.3. The treatises of the great Hīnayānist schools,

Sarvāstivādins, Vaibhā�ikas, Sautrāntikas: Mahāvyutpatti,

Vibhā�ā, Kośa, Satyasiddhiśāstra, etc.

3.16.10.4. The majority of the Mahāyānasūtra-s such as the

Pa–cavi�śati, the Avata�saka, etc.

3.16.10.5. The Upadeśa of Nāgārjuna and the great treatises of

the Yogācāra school.

3.16.11. To sum up, all the Pāli sources, the Mahāsa�ghika-

s and a few sūtra-s and śāstra-s of the Mahāyāna consider the

navaṅgabuddhavacana as authoritative, while all the Sanskrit

sources of the Hīnayāna and most of the sūtra-s and śāstra-s of

the Mahāyāna favor the dvādaśā�gabuddhavacana.

Introduction

16

4. Defining Terms: Pāli and Nīti

4.1. Pāli

The title of the dissertation, A Historical Study of Pāli Nīti

literature, requires a word of explanation, especially the words

like Pāli and Nīti. Pāli belongs to the family of Indo-Aryan

languages. Linguists divide the Indo Aryan languages into

three periods: Old Indo Aryan (1500 BCE – 600 BCE), Middle

Indo Aryan (600 BCE – 1000 CE) and Modern Aryan (1000

CE to date). Languages such as Pāli, Ardhamāgadhī and

Māgadhī belong to the second category. When a language is

used as a religious language, it is surrounded by legends and

beliefs. Traditionally, Pāli is believed to be the oldest language

spoken by the earliest human beings, inhabitants of Brahma

world, and the Buddha-s as well. The following stanzas of

Khuddasikkhā (460) articulate this traditional belief:

sā māgadhi mūḷabhāsā, narā yāyādikappikā।

brahmāno cassutālāpā, sambuddhā cāpi bhāsare’’ti।।

The Brahmins believe that the Vedic language, used in Vedic

texts, is the oldest language. Similarly, the Christians believe

that Hebrew, the first language in which the Bible was written,

is the oldest language in the world. Followers of Islam believe

that the original language of the Koran is the first in the world.

The belief that Pāli is the first language in the world is

similarly a popular myth. In fact, Pāli is one of the many

Prakrit dialects used by people in northern India during the

time of the Buddha. Traditionally the Theravāda school

Chapter 1

17

believes that Pāli is the language spoken by the Buddha. Not

all Buddhologists however, accept this view. They think that

there must have been another even more archaic form of

language spoken by the Buddha. Although there is no way to

prove or disprove this view, Pāli has an unbroken history

starting at least from the first century BCE, from the time the

word of the Buddha was committed to writing in Sri Lanka

during the reign of King Waṭṭagāmini Abhaya. Even if Pāli is

not the language the Buddha spoke, this evidence suggests that

it is the closest and earliest relative to the original language of

the Buddha. From a Buddhist philosophical point, however,

what is important is not the outer structure or the history of a

language; but what the language contains. In this context, what

matters is the teaching of the Buddha presented through the

medium of Pāli language. Here it is generally understood that

Pāli is the language of the Buddha and the sacred language

used by at least Theravādi.

4.2. Nīti

The word nīti, common to both Sanskrit and Pāli, is derived

from the root √nī and has various meanings. V. S. APTE’s

Sanskrit-Englsih Dictionary gives the following meanings: 1.

Guidance, direction, management; 2. Conduct, behaviour,

course of action; 3. Propriety, decorum; 4. Policy, prudence,

wisdom, right course; 5. Plan, contrivance, scheme; 6. Politics,

political science, statesmanship, political wisdom;

7. Righteousness, moral conduct, morality, etc. The PED also

Introduction

18

gives the same meanings. In the Mil., nīti indicates a branch

of study3. In the ‘Saddanīti’, a famous Pāli grammar text, the

word nīti signifies ‘policy or method’4. The Pāli grammar

Padarūpasiddhi derives the word nīti from the root √ni with

the feminine suffix ‘ti’ according to the rule 599

‘Itthiyamatiyavo vā’.5 Thus, one may articulate that the

Sanskrit-Pāli word ‘nīti’ is equivalent to “conduct”. As applied

to books, it is a general term for a treatise, which includes

maxims, pithy sayings, and didactic stories. Treatises of this

kind, intended as a guide in respect of matters of everyday life,

help an individual to build his character and form good

relations with his fellow men. They have therefore been

popular in all ages, and have served as the most effective

medium of instruction.

Out of the eighteen branches of knowledge mentioned above,

the present thesis is focused on nīti literature in general and

3 tesu sāmaṇero jambudīpe sāgalanagare milindo nāma rājā ahosi paṇḍito byatto

medhāvī paṭibalo atītānāgatapaccuppannānaṃ mantayogavidhānakiriyānaṃ,

karaṇakāle nisammakārī hoti, bahūni cassa satthāni uggahitāni honti. seyyathidaṃ,

suti sammuti sa=khyā yoga nīti visesikā gaṇikā gandhabbā tikicchā dhanubbedā

[catubbedā (sī. pī.)] purāṇā itihāsā jotisā māyā khetu mantanā yuddhā chandasā

buddhavacanena ekūnavīsati, vitaṇḍavādī durāsado duppasaho puthutitthakarānaṃ

aggamakkhāyati, sakalajambudīpe milindena raññā samo koci nāhosi yadidaṃ

thāmena javena sūrena paññāya, aḍḍho mahaddhano mahābhogo anantabalavāhano. 4 byākaraṇasatthepi hi ā iti etīti sandhiviggaho dissati, tasmā ayampi nīti sādhukaṃ

manasi kātabbā. 5itthiya� abhidheyyāya� sabbadhātūhi akāratiyuiccete paccayā honti vā

bhāvakammādīsu.....tippaccaye sambhavana� sambhūti. vādhikārato tippaccayamhi

na vuddhi, sava%a� suti, nayana�, nīyati etāyāti vā nīti. mana ñā%e, maññatīti mati.

Chapter 1

19

PNL in particular. As far as the History of Pāli Literature is

concerned, the nīti literature has scarcely been dealt with.

There is no comprehensive study of this genre to date. It is

therefore intended to take up, for the degree of PhD, a study of

this very important and neglected theme in the History of Pāli

Literature. The purpose of this study is to delineate the

available PNL with a chronological or a historical perspective

and see the stages of its development through the ages.

5. Previous Research on PNL

5.1. E. FOWLE’s “Translation of a Burmese Version of the

Niti Kyan”

Western scholarship has noticed the importance of the PNL at

an early stage of Pāli studies, particularly commenced and

developed in Burma. The very first scholar who noticed the

place of PNL in Burmese society was E. FOWLE. In 1858,

FOWLE published his book Translation of a Burmese Version

of the Niti Kyan, a Code of Ethics in Pali in the Journal of the

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland , 17, 252-

266. Subsequently he prepared a short English summary of one

of the famous works of that genre, namely the Lokanīti, from

the Burmese nissaya which was published in 1860. FOWLE

informs, “[Niti Kyan] a short code of ethics compiled from

selections from various authors is one of several that I have

translated from the Burmese language, which are themselves

translations from Pāli.” Unfortunately, FOWLE had not

mentioned the sources of his translation and simply called it

Introduction

20

‘Niti Kyan’, and thereby misled some later scholars to think

that the Nīti Kyan was a separate Burmese work based on the

Lokanīti. Relied on FOWLE’s work, Ludwik STERNBACH (1963:

329-345), a great scholar who mainly devoted his academic

writings to Indian nīti literature, was misguided and thought

that the Pāli Lokanīti and the Burmese Nīti Kyan were different

works. In his article, “The Pāli Lokanīti and the Burmese Nīti

Kyan and Their Sources”, STERNBACH drew our attention to

the similarity between the Pāli Lokanīti and the Burmese Nīti

kyan. As BECHERT and BRAUN pointed out “The translation of

the introductory verse (FOWLE 1860: 253) and a comparison of

FOWLE's translation with the printed Burmese version of the

Lokanīti (STERNBACH 1969a) clearly show that FOWLE's text

was a nissaya of a Lokanīti manuscript representing a text only

slightly different from the version which was printed later on.”

However, the pioneering works of FOWLE's attracted many

scholars later to devote their academic writings to the field of

PNL.

5.2. Richard Carnac TEMPLE’s “The Lokanīti, Translated

from the Burmese Paraphrase”

After FOWLE, Richard Carnac TEMPLE made and published a

more exact translation of the Lokanīti from the Burmese

nissaya in 1878 (The Lokanīti, Translated from the Burmese

paraphrase. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, XLVII

:III, 239-252). TEMPLE (1878) rightly informs “There is

probably no book so universally known to the Burmese as the

Chapter 1

21

Lokanīti, pronounced in Burmese as Lawkanīdi.” TEMPLE had

the earliest printed editions and a number of manuscripts at his

disposal. TEMPLE (1878: 239) notifies that “[this text] has been

copied into hundreds of palm-leaf MSS with more or less

accuracy …the Government itself published an edition of it in

Burmese and Pāli in an issue of 10,000 copies.” TEMPLE was

the first person who tried to establish the date of the text and

identify the author of the work. On the basis of the account of

general public Burmese Sanyāa-s or learned men, TEMPLE

(1878: 240) mentions that “… it was written originally (date

unknown) in Sanskrit (? Pāli) by the Pōngnā (Brahman)

Sànnêkgyaw (Burmese name) and paraphrased into Burmese in

1196 Burmese Era (= 1826 A.D.) by the Hpôngyī U Pôk of the

Mahā Oung Myê Bông Sàn Ok Kyoug (the Great Brick built

Monastery in the Sacred Place) at Ava. U Pôk’s priestly name

was Sêk-kàn-da-bī, to which the king of Ava added the titles of

Thīri Thàddamma-daza, Mahà Damma-yàza Guru, (= Sanskrit,

Śri Saddharmadhuaja, Mahā Dharmarāja Guru) ….” One of

correspondents of Temple writes to him that the author was a

priest “with no extraordinary knowledge of Pāli” who either

collected the maxims from old books or what is more probable

is that he collected some of them and added others of his own

composition. Though TEMPLE was not sure about the date and

the compiler of the text, he firmly believed that Hpôngyī U

Pôk had revised the text.

Introduction

22

5.3. Emilio TEZA’s “Sul Lokaniti, Studi sulla gnomologia

buddiana”

Emilio TEZA, an Italian scholar, published his study of the

Lokanīti in 1879, under the title “Sul Lokaniti, Studi sulla

gnomologia buddiana” (Memoriw dell: Instituto Lombardo,

126-132). With the help of a single edition of the Lokanīti,

printed in Rangoon in 1879, TEZA then edited and translated

eighteen stanzas from this work and traced the sources of

several of them. Till that time it was confirmed that the

Lokanīti was compiled from the different sources and the role

of Sanskrit subhāṣita-s was already established for the

compilation of the text. With this understanding, TEZA

identified several stanzas.

5.4. James GRAY’s Ancient Proverbs and Maxims from

Burmese Sources

The great pioneering work for making the nīti literature of

Burma known and accessible to the academic world was done

by James GRAY. For the first time, in 1883, he edited the Pāli

text of the Dhammanīti, the longest and most interesting nīti

work of Burmese Pāli tradition (The Pāli text of the

Dhammanīti: A Book of Proverbs and Maxims. Pp. 45,

Haṃsāvatī Press, Rangoon, 1883), and then added the Burmese

nissaya to the second edition of this text published in 1884

(The Pāli text and Burmese Translation of the Dhammanīti: A

Book of Maxims. Pp. 165, Haṃsāvatī Press, Rangon, 1884.). In

the history of PNL 1886 was a remarkable year when GRAY

Chapter 1

23

had published an English translation of four Burmese Pāli nīti

works, viz. Lokanīti (Pp. 1-36), Dhammanīti (Pp. 37-118),

Rājanīti (Pp. 119-141), and Sutavaḍḍhananīti (Pp. 142- 157)

and he added a number of subhāṣita-s found in the Burmese

literature under the heading of “Old Indian Sayings” (Pp. 161-

174), as well as a table of corresponding stanzas (Pp. 175-178)

in the four texts under the title, Ancient Proverbs and Maxims

from Burmese Sources; Or, The Nīti Literature of Burma,

Trübner & Co, London, 1886. GRAY in his translation also

tried to identify the original sources of Pāli nīti gāthā. Many

times he succeeded but in some places he wrongly identified

the original source of Pāli gātha. The English translation of

Dhammanīti, Rājanīti and Sutavaḍḍhananīi are the only

English translations available until now.

5.5. Paolo Emilio PAVOLINI’s “Cenni sulla Dhammanīti Pāli

birman e sulle sue fonti”

After GRAY’s (1886) work, Paolo Emilio PAVOLINI, an Italian

scholar produced a short study of the Dhammanīti in Italian

language (Pavolini 1907: 609-616). In his article “Cenni sulla

Dhammanīti Pāli birman e sulle sue fonti” [Commentaries on

the Pāli and Burman Dhammanīti and its Sources (Google tr.)].

PAVOLINI identified some of the gāthās of the Dhammanīti and

almost rightly established a theory that Pāli nīti works are a

mere compilation of Sanskrit nīti verses.

Introduction

24

5.6. Charles DUROISELLE’s Pāli Unseen

In the main stream of Pāli study, the Lokanīti and the

Dhammanīti were included for the first time in the textbook for

Matriculation students, prepared by Charles DUROISELLE

(1907). Under his editorship, fifty gāthās from the Lokanīti

and thirty gāthās from the Dhammanīti were included in a text

book namely Pāli Unseen (School Pāli Series III. Rangoon:

British Burma Press. 1907).

5.7. Mabel Hayanes BODE’s Pāli Literature of Burma

Mabel Hayanes BODE’s (1909) Pāli Literature of Burma was

another work where the reference to PNL is made. He makes

this passing remark only in two sentences that are being

reproduced here: “For a king’s ācariya, he must be able to

discourse on ethics and polity, pronounce moral maxims, and

give advice. The Rājanīti, Lokanīti, and Dhammanīti represent

this sort of literature modelled on Sanskrit originals” (Bode

1909: 51). This way Bode hints at the existence of the Pāli nīti

works but does not provide further details.

5.8. Maung TIN’s A Pāli Reader With Notes

The importance of PNL was once again recognized by a very

famous Burmese scholar Maung TIN. TIN (1920: 43-52,72-83)

includes the Lokanīti in his 2nd

edition of Pāli Reader and

brought the study of PNL in the mainstream of Pāli study. This

text was used for the Anglo-Vernacular High School Final

Examination. Highlighting the reason for including this text in

Chapter 1

25

the Pāli Reader, TIN says (1920: Preface),

“In place of the first five Chapters of Dīpavaṃsa

(Chronicle of Ceylon) of the old course, the present

reader includes Lokanīti (Worldly behavior)…Lokanīti is

the only one which is not in the three Piṭakas but its high

standard of morality and its pithy stanzas have won a

great popularity in Burma. Indeed it had been included at

the express wish of the Burman Buddhists.”

5.9. Ludwik STERNBACH “The Pāli Lokanīti and the Burmese

Nīti Kyan..”

After Maung Tin, Ludwik STERNBACH was the first westerner

who notices the PNL. In his article (1963: 26, 329-345) “The

Pāli Lokanīti and the Burmese Nīti Kyan and Their Sources”,

STERNBACH carried forward the work of GRAY, PAVOLINI, and

TEZA and trired to identify the sources of the Lokanīti verses.

Unfortunately, in this pioneering work, STERNBACH identified

many Lokanīti gāthā-s wrongly and identified them as of

Sanskrit origin while they were taken from Pāli sources. Since

1963, STERNBACH has included the Pali Nīti works in the scope

of his studies of the subhāṣita literature (cf. in particular

STERNBACH 1963a, 1969a, 1973a, 1973b and 1974b) and

brought out a major work of PNL in Subhāṣita, Gnomic and

Didactic Literature in 1974 in the famous monumental work A

History of Indian Literature edited by Gonda.

Introduction

26

5.10. Heinz BRAUN and Heinz BECHERT Pāli Nīti Texts of

Burma…

Apart from these few writings on PNL, a major work was

carried out by a German scholar Heinz BRAUN. For his

Master’s thesis, he edited the Lokanīti under the title

Bearbeitung des Pāli-Werkes Lokanīti, Goöttingen, in 1972.

This was the first critical edition of Lokanīti. In this edition

Heinz BRAUN consulted more than thirty manuscripts and

brought out the first critical edition of the Lokanīti.

Subsequently in his Ph.D. thesis Heinz BRAUN once again

concentrated on PNL and edited two other important texts, viz.

the Dhammanīti and the Mahārahanīti (Dhammanīti und

Mahārahanīti, Zwei Texte der Spruchliterature aus Birma.

Göttingen, 1975). Later on with Heinz BECHERT, BRAUN

published his dissertation from PTS in 1981 and also included

one more important text, namely, the Rājaniti, under the title

Pāli Nīti Texts of Burma: Dhammanīti, Lokanīti,

Mahārahanīti, Rājanīti (PNTB), Text Series No. 171, London:

PTS, 1981. Till now this edition was the only critical edition

that covered the four major works in the genre of PNL. In this

work BRAUN and BECHERT not only edited the four major texts

of PNL but also identified the sources of most of Pāli gāthā-s.

The main part of the volume (pp. 1-160) consists of critical

editions of the Dhammanīti, Lokanīti, Mahārahanīti and the

Rājanīti, and notes thereon. The latter contains the critical

apparatus, comments upon grammar and metre, and parallels to

the verses in other texts, both Sanskrit and Prakrit, and

Chapter 1

27

especially a large corpus of Sanskrit verses attributed to

Cāṇakya, which STERNBACH had collected.

5.11. Khin Win KYI’s “Burmese Philosophy as Reflected…”

After Heinz Braun, Khin Win KYI was the only scholar who

did her Ph.D. on the works related to PNL. She submitted her

Ph.D. thesis on the Lokanīti in 1986 to the Washington

University under the title Burmese Philosophy as Reflected in

Caturangabala’s Lokaniti. In her work, KYI mainly focused on

the social aspect of the Lokanīti in Burmese society.

6. Purpose of Writing this Thesis

When one takes a review of the modern writing on Buddhist

studies in general and Pāli studies in particular, one cannot but

get an impression that there have been two parameters of these

studies:

6.1. There seems to be a misconception that Buddhism thinks

mostly of the other worldly matters and that it mainly

concerns the next life and has less to do with this world and

this life, because Buddhism is described as one transcending

the world.

6.2. Buddhism is all about individual salvation, so there is

nothing like social engagement. So the conclusion is that there

is no social philosophy in Buddhism.

Introduction

28

6.3. A possible reasons behind such type of misconceptions

may be to the fact, as Kate CROSBY (2006) says, “Theravāda

texts dedicated to lay practice have received relatively a little

attention in Buddhist studies.” Large amounts of Pāli works

mainly focus on the translation of early Pāli Tipiṭaka editions.

Even in early Pāli Tipiṭaka, sutta-s dedicated to lay followers

of Buddhism have been overlooked in modern academic

writings. Such was the case of the study of PNL. Although

scholars noticed the importance of PNL at a fairly early stage

of the Pāli studies, the texts related to the PNL are some how

neglected in the main field of Pāli studies. These texts are not

even mentioned by their names in the standard works on Pāli

literature nor in the most comprehensive bibliography of Pāli

literature which was compiled by Helmer Smith and published

in 1948 (CPD, Epilegomena to vol. I). Neither Wilhelm GIGER

(1916) in his monumental work Pāli Literature and Language

nor Maurice WINTERNITZ (1933) in his work History of Indian

Literature have mentioned this vast literature in Pāli. In the

same line of trend B. C. LAW (1933) in his History of Pāli

Literature and Bharat Singh UPĀDHYĀYA (1951) have not

mentioned the vast and popular PNL. Of course in recent

writings on the History of Pāli literature, the nīti texts in Pāli

are acknowledged but not in a significant manner. For instance

K. R. NORMAN (1983) in his monograph Pāli Literature:

Including the Canonical Literature in Prakrit and Sanskrit of

all the Hīnayāna Schools of Buddhism recognizes the work of

BECHERT and BRAUN’s PNTB. However, a thorough study of

Chapter 1

29

this work is still needed. The aim of this thesis, therefore, is to

take a further step and acknowledge the presence of PNL in the

History of Pāli Literature with its historical and contextual

information.

6.4. Studies in PNL are also interesting due to the cultural

exchange of Buddhist-Brahman ideas. Many of the Pāli nīti

gāthā-s are derived directly from the Brahmanic sources.

Evidently the Pāli nītikāra-s adopted only those ideas which

are suitable to their religious sentiments and many times

changed the original Sanskrit verses as per their suitability.

However, the interaction between the Buddhism and the

Brahmanism outside India the land of the origin of these two

great human thought is an interesting topic that motivated the

present author to look deeply into this subject.

6.5. Another reason for taking this topic is to investigate the

role of the householder in Theravāda Buddhism especially for

writing a text. In the Mahāyāna sect of Buddhist thought,

writings of Buddhist texts by the laity are very popular. In

Mahāyāna, even the texts composed by the laity are also

considered as Buddhavacana. For example we can see the

Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra, the Śrimālādevisiṃhanādasūtra and the

Ārya-vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra. Such type of activity is not

seen in the Theravāda practice of Buddhism. Compositions of

Pāli nīti literature start a different trend in the Theravāda. Most

of the Pāli nīti texts are composed by Buddhist laity. In the

Introduction

30

long history of their composition though these texts do not get

the sanction as Buddhavacana, they make a large impact on

the Buddhist societies. Therefore, the role of laity for the

composition of Buddhist texts is also an important fact that

attracted me to write this thesis. The subject matter of PNL is

secular and represents the ideas connected directly to the lay

people.

7. Research Methodology

7.1. Present thesis evolves mainly applying historical methods.

The PNL, which forms a valuable, but at the same time

unacknowledged and almost forgotten branch of Pāli literature,

is particularly important from the point of view of the history

of that literature, and because of the light they throw upon the

Indian way of life and thought. In particular, PNL preserves an

ancient thought and the moral teaching, and also works of

smaller and lesser known Indian authors whose poems were

lost. Many Indian poets would not be known to us even by

their names, if they and their stray verses had not been quoted

in different nīti saṃgraha-s. In other cases, some parts of the

literary works of well-known authors, which otherwise would

not be known to us, are preserved in the subhāṣita-saṃgrahas.

These Subhāṣita-saṃgraha-s are also important for

chronological reasons, since they are mostly dated and thus

provide information about the time in which the poets lived

(e.g. a poet named in an anthology from the thirteenth century

CE must have lived before that date or should at least be

Chapter 1

31

contemporaneous with the author of the anthology).

7.2. By applying the historical method, an attempt is made

here to take up a contextual study of PNL. As we know that

nīti literature also has enormous poetical and educative value,

even if they belong to a comparatively late period and even if

the authors of the verses quoted in them are not known. They

teach us what was considered the right behavior among the

cultured people and what as such constituted a code of good

conduct applied in ancient India. They vividly depict the spirit

of an age, the task and the ability during various periods,

country life, life in the village, different occupations of men

and women, their habits and manners, their activities, etc.,

sometimes better and with deeper insight than the quotations

from kāvya-s and epics.

7.3. The subhāsita-saṃgraha-s not only preserve a floating

mass of oral tradition and current wise sayings, but also

represent excellent poetry. They are real gems of poetical

expressions with minute descriptions of everything that was

worth noting and describing. They are flashes of imagination

and, on account of the terseness of their diction and their

striking but easily comprehensive imagination they drive the

ancient truths, which have become almost banal, with a fresh

impact.

7.4. Verses included in the PNL are storehouses of information

Introduction

32

written in the Pāli language about life in India though the text

was composed outside India. This information, easily available

in these collections can only be found there, since the other

sources of Indian literature rather describe the life of kings,

Brahman-s and noble ones.

8. Outline of the Dissertation

8.1. This thesis consists of seven chapters including the

introduction as the first chapter and the seventh chapter as

conclusion with appendix. Chapter 2 provides an extensive

survey of the various nīti texts spread from India to the

Buddhist world outside India. This chapter makes a survey of

the development of the spread of Indian nīti literature to the

Buddhist world. Buddhism spread across many Asian countries

after the zealous efforts of King Aśoka and spread through a

majority of India as well. The very nature of missionary

activities of Buddhism rightly supports their development and

in due course of time till around 8th

century C.E. Buddhism

covered a bigger part of Asia. Nīti literature that was preserved

and composed in Tibet, Mongolia, Manchuria, Sri-Lanka,

Burma, Thailand, Campā, Cambodia, Laos, Java, Sumatra, Bali

comes under the examination of this survey.

8.3. The Chapter 3 of this thesis focuses on the origin and the

development of PNL from the early Pāli texts to the

compilation of pure nīti literature in Pāli. In this chapter an

attempt is made to bring together the ample amount of nīti

Chapter 1

33

verses scattered in different parts of Pāli Tipiṭaka. It also

points out how the need was felt for compiling the nīti texts in

Pāli, in the Buddhist world, especially in Burma.

8.4. The Chapter 4 examines the sources of PNL. Texts that

come under PNL are mostly compilation of verses. For

example, the author of Lokanīti acknowledges the “various

specialized treatises” from which his own little treatise has

been derived. Pāli nītikāra-s make no claim that the texts they

have written are original work of their own. In this chapter an

effort has been made to outline the sources of PNL divided

into two parts; Pāli sources and Sanskrit sources.

8.5. The Chapter 5 provides a brief introduction to PNL on the

basis of primary and secondary sources. Here I have

extensively utilized BECHERT and BRAUN's PNTB, Chaṭṭhā

Saṇgāyana Online edition, and GRAY’s Ancient Proverb and

Maxims. This provides a detailed outline of available PNL,

considering the author of the text, the date of the text, the

content of the text, and the discussion on the text.

8.6. The Chapter 6 discusses the process of adaptation of

Sanskrit verses in PNL. As we know, PNL brought their ideas

from Pāli literature (canonical and non-canonical) and from

Sanskrit nīti texts of the Brahmanical school of thought.

Especially in the case of adaptation of Sanskrit verses, Pāli

nītikāra-s never deviated from their ideology. Verses adopted

Introduction

34

from Sanskrit sources are improvised in terms of Buddhist

ideology. Thus, the adaptations of Sanskrit verses in Buddhist

ideology are highlighted here. Furthermore, this chapter

highlights the method of translation and new vocabulary

introduced by Pāli nītikāra’s etc.

8.7. Chapter 7, the last chapter of this thesis is a conclusion

that bears a summary of the important points of the thesis. It

has been concluded that, PNL is not a breakaway from

mainstream of Pāli literature, nor is it a new thought, but it is

only a developed form of Buddhist thought related to secular

matters. Its roots can be traced back to the very teachings of

the Buddha and common ideas of Indian masses.

8.8. The present thesis also makes an appendix of a

preliminary edition of the Cānakyanīti-Pāli in Devanāgari.

This preliminary edition is based on Chaṭṭha-Saṅgāyana online

version. The Sanskrit source of Pāli verses is also given.