Hamlet and the philosophers

Theories of tragedy and modernity

What is tragedy?

A tragic event is a sad and perhaps shocking event, but “tragedy” in the sense of drama means more than this.

One common definition, emerging from the time of Aristotle, is that tragedy involves a great person experiencing a reversal of fortune (Peripeteia in Greek)

Certainly, Fate is an important “character” in any tragedy. The actions of the characters have unintended effects.

Aristotle and tragedy

• In the 4th century BC, Aristotle developed a theory of tragedy in his Poetics.

• Tragedy is often assessed and explored in these terms, even today.

The features of Aristotelian tragedy

• Hamartia: A tragic mistake

• Anagnorsis: The moment of realisation

• Peripeteia: A reversal of fortune

• These features apply quite neatly to Ancient Greek drama.

How well do they apply to

Hamlet?

Where is the hamartia?

Where is the anagnorisis?

When is the peripeteia?

G.W.F Hegel (1770-1831)

Hegel developed an alternative theory of tragedy.

This theory was intended not as an examination of literature, but of life.

The power of tragedy is that it affects us all.

To illustrate his theory of tragedy, Hegel used the example of Sophocles’ Antigone as his archetypal tragic heroine.

Hegel sees Antigone as a young woman caught between two authorities – the state authority represented by her uncle Creon, and the religious duty to secure a proper burial for Polynices.

Importantly, for Hegel, both of these authorities are justified. Both the state authorities and religion make valid ethical claims on Antigone.

Is Hamlet caught between the demands of two justified ethical authorities?

“What should such fellows as I do/Crawling between heaven and earth”? (Act 3, scene 1)

Tragedy and Freedom

With his discussion of tragedy, Hegel clearly wants to make a point about freedom.

For Hegel, freedom is about much more than the absence of obstacles to liberty. It depends very much on our relations with other people, and our development as a person.

These relations, for Hegel, take place in the ethical sphere (that is, the sphere of public life). Ethical demands, far from limiting our freedom, are necessary for it. We need to respond to these demands in order to be free, fully developed human beings.

Freedom and determinism

Determinism is the view that everything is planned out (by a God or gods) in advance.

Aristotle’s view of tragedy is, in many ways, a deterministic one. The tragic hero might commit a hamartia, but this is not deliberate. Really, he cannot control his fate.

Hegel’s view is, in some ways, less deterministic. People cannot control their relationship with the ethical authorities, but they can choose how they respond (remember Machiavelli?)

Interestingly, determinism is associated far more with Protestant thought than with Catholic thought.

John Calvin (1509-1564) was a particular advocate of the view that everything that happens is controlled from above.

It is therefore an over-simplification to see the

“new religion”, Protestantism, as in all respects more “modern” than the old religion, Catholicism.

Certainly, Protestantism was associated with social change – not least because literacy increased due to the publishing

of the Bible in the vernacular. However, in terms of doctrine (the actual beliefs held), it is not correct to see the old beliefs as superstitious/old-fashioned and the new ones

as modern.

What are Hamlet’s beliefs?

• Hamlet and the traditional – Hamlet doesn’t doubt that he is really seeing the ghost, and he is clearly scared and doesn’t completely disregard his friends’ suggestions that the ghost might be an evil spirit. He later doubts that the ghost was telling him the truth (or does he doubt the ghost was really his father?) However, maybe he is just trying to put off having to carry out his revenge.

• Hamlet seems to believe that his uncle, even as a murderer, will go to heaven if killed at prayer. However, perhaps he is again putting off taking his revenge

• “Why wouldst thou be a breeder of sinners”? Frustration at original sin

At the same time, there is evidence for Hamlet’s “modern” thought – challenging and doubting received wisdom:

-The “to be or not to be” speech

-“There is nothing good or bad, but thinking makes it so” (2.2)

-Who might the latter quotation remind us of?