H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsVolume8,No.1(2018)https://networks.h-net.org/h-environment

Publicationdate:April2,2018RoundtableReviewEditor:ChristopherF.Jones

MarkStoll,InherittheHolyMountain:ReligionandtheRiseofAmericanEnvironmentalism(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2015).ISBN:9780190230869ContentsIntroductionbyChristopherF.Jones,ArizonaStateUniversity 2CommentsbyLisaH.Sideris,IndianaUniversity 4CommentsbyConstanceM.Furey,IndianaUniversity 9CommentsbyJosephKipKosek,GeorgeWashingtonUniversity 14 CommentsbyMarkFiege,MontanaStateUniversity 18 ResponsebyMarkStoll,TexasTechUniversity 21AbouttheContributors 27Copyright©2018H-Net:HumanitiesandSocialSciencesOnlineH-Netpermitstheredistributionandreprintingofthisworkfornonprofit,educationalpurposes,withfullandaccurateattributiontotheauthor,weblocation,dateofpublication,H-Environment,andH-Net:Humanities&SocialSciencesOnline.

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IntroductionbyChristopherF.Jones,ArizonaStateUniversitynvironmentalhistorianshavenot,onthewhole,turnedakindeyetowardorganizedreligion.Mostofthefield’sscholarshiphasignoredreligion,andwhenitisinvoked,theconnotationsaretypicallynegative.FollowingthepioneeringworkofLynnWhiteJr.,theJudeo-Christiantraditionhasbeencast

asanenablerofenvironmentallydestructivebehaviorcharacterizedbyazealousandaggressiveinterpretationoftheBiblicalpassageinwhichGodgrantshumans“dominionoftheEarth.”Thisviewistoosimplistic,MarkStollarguesinInherittheHolyMountain.IfwelookbeyonddoctrinetomoralformationandturnourattentiontoaparticulargroupwithintheReformedProtestanttradition,wecanseeamuchmorepositiveroleforreligionwithintheAmericanpast:onethatwascommonlysharedbymanyenvironmentalpioneersandhelpedgiverisetoanethosofhumbleandsustainablestewardshipfortheplanet.AtthecenterofInherittheHolyMountainisasurprisingfinding:aremarkablenumberofimportantmembersoftheAmericanenvironmentalmovementinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturieswereraisedwithintheReformedProtestanttradition,andCalvinisminparticular.FiguresrangingfromJohnMuirtoGiffordPinchottoRachelCarsonwerenotonlyraisedCongregationalistorPresbyterian,buthadanupbringinginwhichreligiouslifewascentraltotheirmoralformationaschildrenandyoungadults.Whatemergedwasasenseof“innerPresbyterianism”thatwasmuchlessaboutreligiousdoctrine,andmuchmoreaboutacautiousandhumbleattitudetowardtheworld.Becausehumanswereflawedandimperfect,theycouldneverachievesuchagrandiosenotionasmasteryovernature.Instead,moremodestideassuchasimprovingoractingasstewardoveranimperfectworldfitbetterwiththeCalvinistworldview,withtheNewEnglandfarmingcommunityanexampleofacarefullytendedlandscape.Inthissense,themoralgroundingofreligiousfaithgaverisetoasenseofstewardshipamongCalviniststhatencouragedthemtopreservetheenvironmentsinwhichtheylived.Stoll’sworksuggeststhehelpfulpossibilitiesofabroaderandmoreimaginativeattitudetowardsreligionandtheenvironment.Notonlycanthishelpusbetterunderstandthepast,itmaybejustasessentialforthepresentday.ItisclearincontemporaryAmericathattherearestrongoverlapsbetweenfundamentalistChristianity,conservativepoliticalthought,fossilfuelextraction,andclimatechangedenial.Yetenvironmentalistshaveperhapsbeentooquicktodenyanypositiveroleforreligion,seekingonlytocountertheperceivedfailuresofmanyreligioustraditionstoencouragesustainability.GiventheimportanceofreligioninthelivesofmillionsofAmericans,thoseseekingtobuildsupportforenvironmentalprotectionswouldbewisetoadoptamoreopenandimaginativeapproachtothenon-secularworld.Thisroundtableemergesoutofasuccessfulandwell-attendedpaneldiscussiononInherittheHolyMountainatthe2017AmericanSocietyforEnvironmentalHistory

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meetinginChicago,Illinois.Iwaspleasedthateachoftheparticipantsonthatroundtablepanelagreedtotransfertheiroralremarksintowrittencommentssothatthediscussioncouldbesharedmorebroadly.LisaSiderisopenstheroundtable,placingStoll’sbookinthecontextofscholarshiponreligionandtheenvironmentandaskingquestionsaboutthelinksbetweenCalvinistpessimism,managedlandscapes,andwilderness.ConstanceFureyprovidesacompellinglookatJohnCalvinandhisthoughtsonnaturetosituatethecontributionofStoll’swork,concludingwithaninvitationtoreflectontheinfluenceofPopeFrancis’s2015papalencyclicalLaudatoSi’.Inhisremarks,JosephKipKosekpushesStolltoclarifytheboundariesofwhatdefinesthePresbyterianethosandhowitmayhaveshiftedovertheperiodoftimehisbookcovers.Finally,MarkFiegelaudsStoll’sinsightsaboutthereligiousrootsofenvironmentalistswhilealsoaskingquestionsabouthowtoconnectthesefindingswiththerecentwaveofenvironmentalhistoryscholarshipshowingtheuncomfortableco-existenceofenvironmentalprotectionwithforcibleremovalandexclusionofnon-whitepopulations.Beforeturningtothefirstsetofcomments,Iwouldliketopausehereandthankalltheroundtableparticipantsfortakingpart.Inaddition,Iwouldliketoremindreadersthatasanopen-accessforum,H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsisavailabletoscholarsandnon-scholarsalike,aroundtheworld,freeofcharge.Pleasecirculate.

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CommentsbyLisaH.Sideris,IndianaUniversityuchscholarshiponreligionandtheenvironment—thefieldinwhichIwork—wasinitiallylaunchedbyanacademicblame-gamethatexhibitssurprisingstayingpowereventoday.BlameforneglectanddestructionofthenaturalenvironmentisoftenapportionedtotheJudeo-Christian

traditionaschiefenvironmentaloffender(thoughinreality,itistheChristianratherthantheJudeopartthatcriticstendtoassail).1Christianity,onaninterpretationfamouslypioneeredbyLynnWhite,devaluestheearthwhilesimultaneouslyexaltingthehumanastheveryimageofGod,thecreaturewithadivinemandatetoconquerandsubdue.WithintheChristiantradition,ProtestantismisseentoharborfewerresourcesthanCatholicismfor“greening”nature(WhitesuggestedSt.FrancisofAssisiasanecologicalsaint),owingtotheReformedtradition’sassumedaffinitywithcapitalistimpulsesanditsinvestmentinadeitywhotranscendsthenaturalworld.ThedisenchantednaturalworldofProtestantismremainsabackgroundassumptioninmanydiscussionsofenvironmentalism.Towit:alinefromBillMcKibben’sbookDeepEconomyleaptoutatmeasIwaspreparingthesecomments:“TheworkbegunbytheReformationwasfinishedbyfossilfuel.”2AndiftheProtestantworldviewsomehowpavedthewayforclimatechange,thenitisparticularlyCalvinism,withitstwinconvictionsoftheabsolutelysovereigntyofGodandtheutterfallennessofthecreatedorderandhumans,thatseemspositionedtowinthisenvironmentalracetothebottom.Calvinism,inotherwords,isparticularlyresistantto“greening.”MarkStoll’sInherittheHolyMountainturnsthisinterpretationonitshead.AnditdoessoinwaysthatalsospeaktothelegacyforenvironmentalstudiesofLynnWhite’sfamouscritique.AlapsedPresbyterianhimself,Stolldiscovered,eventohisownapparentsurprise,thatconservationandenvironmentalpioneersoverwhelminglyhadreligiouschildhoodsofsomeCalvinistvariety.HisstudyfocusesonCongregationalistsandPresbyterians,includinglapsedPresbyterianswhoplayedprominentrolesintheriseofmodernenvironmentalism.CongregationalistsandPresbyteriansledthewayinpromotingandestablishingforestry,parks,andagriculturalstewardship.TheirranksincludedparkdesignerssuchasFrederickLawOlmstedaswellaslandscapepainterslikeThomasCole.GiffordPinchot’sfoundingoftheForestService,andTeddyRoosevelt’sNationalParksinitiativealsohaddeepPresbyterianroots.Bythe1960s,lapsedPresbyterianRachelCarsonwouldbecrusadingfornatureinwaysthatdrewdirectlyonthesternandserious,butnature-reverencingmilieuofherchildhood.WiththedeclineofPresbyteriandominanceinrecentdecades,Stollsuggests,wehaveinheritedadissipatedenvironmentalmovementthathaslostitsmoralcenter.

1 Lynn White Jr., “The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis.” Science 155 (1967): 1203-7. 2 Bill McKibben, Deep Economy: The Wealth of Communities and the Durable Future (New York: Henry Holt, 2007), 95.

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Stolldoesn’texactlyprescribearemedyforthissituation;asahistorian,thatisnothisjob.Buthisnarrativeofferssomehintsofwherewemightandmightnotwanttolookforreligioussourcesofafutureenvironmentalism.AsI’vesuggested,Stoll’sanalysisoftheenvironmentalpoweroftheReformedtraditionchallengesWhite’slegacyinsomeparticularways.White’sthesisandthosethattoetheline,assumethatanewreligion—anewcosmologyandsetofpropositionalbeliefs—mustevolve,orbecreated,toreplacetheproblematic,anthropocentricteachingsofJudeo-Christianityandother(mostlywestern)traditions.3Interestingly,Stoll’sanalysissuggeststhatReformedProtestants’commitmenttonaturestemmednotfromspecificteachings—notafixationwithcorrectdoctrineordogma—butfromsomethingconsiderablymoreimplicitandintangible:adenominationalcultureandmilieu,atemperament,acertaininnerPresbyterianism.Afterthe“creedanddogmafellaway,”hewrites,thereremainedthe“innerPresbyterian,”amoralmap,acompulsiontorightthewrongsoftheworld.4ThinkofJohnMuirrhapsodizinginhisforestcathedralorRachelCarson’simpassionedindictmentofthechemicalindustryandyouhavesomeideaofhowpowerfultheinnerPresbyteriancanbe.StollsuggestsadistinctionbetweentheinnerPresbyterianmodeofmoralformationandpreoccupationwithconversiontosomeproperunderstandingoftheworld.Theconversion-to-right-thinkingapproach,asheseesit,isevident,forexample,in(non-Presbyterian)environmentalpioneerAldoLeopold’slandethic.Stollsimilarlydiscernstheorthodoxy/conversionmodelamongprominentmodesofCatholicandBaptistenvironmentalism,bothofwhich,interestingly,heseesasfarmoreindividualisticthantheirPresbyteriancounterparts.WhileIhavequibbleswithStoll’sportraitofthelandethicasapersonalethiclackingpublicpolicyimplications,I’motherwiseintriguedandpersuadedbyhisanalysis.Presbyteriansweregreatsermonizers,notgreattheologians.Intheirknackforsermonizing,theydidn’tdoubtthattheirviewswereright—andthatmanyothersweredeadwrong—buttheirconvictionswereemboldenedbyloveofsomethinggreaterthanthemselves.Theirsermonswerethereforetemperedbyadeepsenseofhumility.Humilityandearnestmoraloutrageathumanavarice,pride,andidolatry,andacommitmenttoengagingthesocial-politicalordergaveusconservationandenvironmentalism.Stoll’ssuggestion(ifI’vegothimright)thatenvironmentalismpreoccupiedwithconversiontorightopinionorrightteachinghashistoricallybeensomewhatineffectivecanbereadasachallengetoLynnWhite’sthesis.BecauseWhitebelievedthattheGenesis“dogma”ofcreationencouragedexploitation,anthropocentrism,anddevaluationofnature,heassumedthatanewsetofdoctrinesmustbefound.Ifreligionwastheproblem,thenthesolutionmustbeakindofnewreligion,“whether

3 See for example Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim, Series Forward, in Buddhism and Ecology: The Interconnection of Dharma and Deeds, Tucker M.E., and Williams, D.R. eds. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), xv-xxxiii. 4 Stoll, Inherit the Holy Mountain: Religion and the Rise of American Environmentalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 2.

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wecallitthatornot.”5FromWhite’sdiagnosis,itfollowsthatifwegetourcosmologyright,everythingelsewillfallintoplace,andhumanswillfallinline.Stollsuggestsamorecomplexpictureofmoralformation.Anabidingpessimismabouthumans’abilitytodotherightthing—thelegacyofCalvin’sdoctrineofthedepravityofhumans—seemsvitaltoeffectiveenvironmentalsermonizing.“Calvinism,”Stollwrites,“imbuedtheReformedProtestanttraditionwithathoroughgoingpessimismaboutthepossibilitythateveryonewouldbehavewellifjustgiventhefreedomtodoso.”6Thus,ashealsoargues,“thosewhoadvocateconvertingeveryonetotheproperattitudetowardthelandcommunity,ortheearth,ortheuniverse,inhopesofanenvironmentalmillennium,evinceanoptimismtowardhumanpossibilityforwhichhistorysupplieslittlesupportingevidence.”7Thisunfoundedoptimismisevident,Ibelieve,amongthevaguelylaissez-faire,feel-goodformsenvironmentalismoftodaythathavecreatedneolibertarianecomodernistmanifestos,andvisionsofagoodAnthropocene.Presbyterians,lapsedorotherwise(Iincludemyselfhere),havealwaysbeenmovedtocorrectsuchmisguidedoptimism.Stoll,asI’vesaid,isnotwritingasanenvironmentalethicistorproselytizerhimself,buthisanalysisdoesseemtosuggestsomenormativeconclusions.Iconcludewithafewoftheseandthenraiseafewquestionshisworkpromptedforme.AsIseeit,aclearimplicationofStoll’sworkisthatthehumilitythatattendsaviewofhumansasdepravedismoreimportantthaneverifenvironmentalismistoretain,orrecover,amoralcompass.AsalapsedPresbyterianmyself,letmereaffirmthecentralCalvinistbeliefthathumansaredepraved.8Weneedmoreprophetstodecrythesinsofsociety,particularlysinsthataredestroyingnature.AnothernormativeupshotIseeinStoll’swork(thoughhedoesn’tpressthepoint)isthatmoralformationinchildhoodappearscrucialtothedevelopmentofaneffectiveenvironmentalist.ResearcherslikeLouiseChawlahavelookedintothechildhoodexperiencesofadultenvironmentalpioneersanddocumentedtheimportanceofamoraltemperamentforgedinchildhoodandcultivatedbycloseencounterswithnature.9AthirdimplicationwecandrawfromStoll’sanalysisistheimportanceofdialogueacrossthedisciplinesandbetweenscholarsandthepubliconissueslikeenvironmentalism.ThefiguresoftheReformedtraditionthatStollhighlightscomefromatimeandplacebeforeourcurrentculturewarsandentrenchedpartisanpolitics.Writers,scientists,artists,theologianswereabletospeaktooneanother,notjusttotheirownranks.Stollhimself,thoughhehasnoobvioustheologicalcommitments,embodiesthisabilitytoopenlinesofcommunicationbetween5 White, “The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis,” 1207. 6 Stoll, Inherit the Holy Mountain, 273. 7 Ibid. 8 This line was originally said aloud at the conference as a humorous aside. As with dark comedy, it is intended as a joke that also possesses a good deal of truth. 9 See for example, Louise Chawla, “Life Paths into Effective Environmental Action,” The Journal of Environmental Education 31(1), 1999, 15-26.

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environmentalhistoryandreligiousstudies,amongotherfactions.Manyscholarsoutsideofreligiousstudiesseemwaryofengagingwithreligiousthemes,forreasonsthatmayhavetodowithpoorunderstandingofwhatreligionscholarsdo.AtenvironmentalhistoryconferencesthatIattend,discussionsofreligionarerare.Stoll’skeeninterestinanddetailedunderstandingoftheologicalthemessetshimapartfromotherenvironmentalhistorians.Hisbookdeservestheattentionitisreceiving,inpartbecauseitspeakstomanyconstituenciesinwaysthatchallengewidespreadpreconceptionsaboutreligion.Finally—andhereImaybereaching—Stoll’ssuggestionthatthepowerorexperienceofreligion—environmentalorotherwise—islessaboutpropositionalbeliefsororthodoxythanabouttheformationofmoralsubjects,accordswithsomecurrenttrendsinthestudyofreligion.Religionscholars,includingsomeinmyownimmediateareaofresearch,10arebeginningtodivestfromamodelofreligionsasdefinedfirstandforemostascosmologies,worldviews,orpropositionalstatementsdeliveredintop-downfashioninthebeliefthatadoptersoftheprofferednewvisionwillrealigntheirethicsaccordingly.Theyareinterestedinexploringinsteadthecomplex,contextually-drivenwaysinwhichreligioustraditionsbringtheirresourcestobearonthewickedproblemsoftheworld.Inalloftheseways,Stoll’sbookmakesanumberofimportantcontributionstodisciplinesanddebatesfarbeyondenvironmentalhistory.IconcludebyposingjustthreeofthequestionsthatoccurredtomeasIreadthisfascinatingbook.First:HowisthatCalvinismgaverisetobothanimperativetoimprovenature—seeninCongregationalistsforexampleandtheirneatlyorderedlittleNewEnglandvillages—andadeeppessimismandpreoccupationwithhumanflaws?Itseemsthatthelatterconvictionmightunderminetheimprovementimperativeorrenderitbaseless.What,inotherwords,explainsReformedthinkers’trustintheirownabilitytoimproveuponnature?Second(andrelatedtothefirstquestion):Itseemsalittlecounterintuitivethat,asStollargues,theWildernessMovementwasaseparateaffairfromProtestantinvolvementinparks.AsStollargues,parkswere“ReformedProtestantspaces.Wildernesswasnot.”11Onemightexpectthatintheirviewofthehumanasinsignificant,humble,orevendepraved,ReformedProtestantswouldhaveinclinedtowardwilderness—aplaceoftencharacterized(howeverproblematically)asdevoidofhumans,anenvironmentinwhichonecanloseoneselfandviscerallysenseone’ssmallness—ratherthantothemixedhumanandnaturalspacestheyhelpedcreate.Why,giventheir“thoroughgoingpessimism,”didn’ttheReformedtraditionproducemoremisanthropicwilderness-seekersinthestyleof(Presbyterian)EdwardAbbey?

10 See for example Willis Jenkins, The Future of Ethics: Sustainability, Social Justice, and Religious Creativity (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2013). 11 Stoll, Inherit the Holy Mountain, 269.

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Andlastly:IndistinguishingenvironmentalistswhogravitatedtoparksfromthosewhoweredrawnintotheWildernessMovement,StollremarksthattheWildernessMovementwas“areligious”—notmotivatedbyarecognizablereligiousimpulse.Thoughnotasignificantpointinhisoverallargument,thisconclusionwas,forme,wasanunexpectedoneinabookthatotherwisesuggestsacapaciousdefinitionofreligionanditstransformative(ifimplicit)powerintheworld.Weren’twildernessproponentsjustdifferentlyreligious?Waswildernessperhapstheirreligion?TheseremarksaboutareligiousnessraisethequestionofhowreligionisdefinedinStoll’snarrativeandwhatitsboundariesmightbe.12Needlesstosay,itisfarfromincumbentuponenvironmentalhistorianstoansweraquestionaboutwhichreligionscholarswillneveragree—howtodefinereligion—butIexpectthatStoll’sresponsestotheseandotherquestionsarelikelytobeasthought-provokingashisbook.

12 Here I have in mind, for example, claims for the existence of nature religion or nature spirituality, such as those promoted by religion scholar Bron Taylor who identifies a form of “dark green religion” that does not adhere to standard definitions of religion but is expressed through a deep commitment to nature and a strong sense of kinship and interconnection (See Taylor, Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).

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CommentsbyConstanceM.Furey,IndianaUniversitymayseemlikeanunlikelypersontoincludeinthisroundtableonaworkofAmericanenvironmentalhistory.I’mnotanenvironmentalist;I’mnotevenanAmericanist;andI’veneverresearchedortaughtecology.I’mareligionist,trainedinReligiousStudiesandinthehistoryandliteratureofearlymodernChristianity

inparticular.WhatIhavewrittenandtaughtabout,often,areideasandmovementsassociatedwithoneofthemosttheocraticanddogmaticthinkersinthehistoryofChristianity:JohnCalvin.AndwhatIcanattesttoistheoriginalityandsignificanceofInherittheHolyMountainasaworkofreligiousaswellasenvironmentalhistory.MarkStoll’sbookgivesusaCalvinismmostpeoplehaveneverimagined,muchlesslearnedabout,andaviewofreligionthatwillsurpriseenvironmentalistsandconservativeChristiansalikebecausesomanypeopleinbothgroupsareaccustomedtothinkingthatChristianityandenvironmentalismstandopposed.TounderstandthesignificanceofMark’sbook,itishelpfultoknowsomethingaboutthemanconsideredthefounderofCalvinism.MostpeoplefindJohnCalvinishardtoloveorevenlike,forgoodreason.Trainedasalawyerandhumanist(whichinhisdaymeanthewastrainedtoreadclassicalGreekandLatintexts),Calvinspentmostofhislifeinhisstudyoratthepulpit,writingtheologicaltreatisesanddeliveringlongandcomplicatedsermonsaboutalmightyGodanddepravedhumanity.Calvinisknownforhispersonalausterity;hisemphasisoncommunaldiscipline;hiscondemnationofreligiousimagesanddistasteforanymusicbutthesingingofthepsalms(onthisscorehedifferedfromtheearlierreformer,MartinLuther,whocomposedmanylastinghymns);hiswillingnesstoexecuteheretics;and,perhapsaboveall,hisextremeversionofthedoctrineofpredestination.ThosewhoteachCalvinoftensummarizehisthoughtwiththeacrosticTULIP(Totaldepravity;Unconditionalelection;Limitedatonement;Irresistiblegrace;andPerseveranceofthesaints).13AndmorethananyotherreligiousthinkerIteach,Calvinreliablyprovokesastrongreaction,usuallyastronglynegativereaction,fromstudentsoutragedbyhisdoctrineofpredestination.CalvinwasnotwillingtosimplyaffirmthepremisesharedbymostChristiantheologiansofhisday,thatanomnipotentGodhasthepowertodeterminehumandestiny.Instead,CalvininsistedthatGod’sjudgmentwaswhollyindependentofevendivineforesight,aboutwhetherpeoplewoulddothingstomeritdamnationorsalvation,and,moreover,thatinsteadofsavingsomeandleavingotherstothehelltheyhadbroughtonthemselves,Godactivelychosewhoshouldbedamnedandsaved.SoCalvincanbecountedontocreatelivelydiscussions,buthe’srarelypopularwithtwenty-firstcenturystudents,whoareinclinedtothinkaboutGod—iftheythinkaboutGodatall—asmercifulandloving.IofferallthisbackgroundonasixteenthcenturyChristiantheologiantomakethispoint:onethingCalvinisNOTknownforishisinterestinnature.Mystudentstend13 Those who want to know more about these five points can read about them here: http://www.reformed.org/calvinism/

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tobesurprised,andevenuncomprehending,whenIaskthemtoconsiderCalvin’seloquentpassagesaboutthebeautyandgrandeurofthecreatedorder.IhavealwaysemphasizedthisaspectofCalvin’sthought,whichIlearnedfrommyadvisorSusanSchreiner,whosebookaboutCalvin’sviewofnatureandthenaturalorderiscalledTheTheaterofHisGlory,takingitstitlefromaphraseCalvinusedrepeatedlyinhisInstitutestodescribenature.14IexplaintomystudentswhyCalvintaughtthatsinfulhumansthinknaturewasmadeforustouseasweseefit;thatnatureisinsteadintendedtoteachustofocusonGodratherthanourselves;andthisperspectivalchange—theshiftfromtheidolatroushumantendencytothinkofeverythinginrelationtoourselvesratherthanGodtoareverentfocusonGod—changeshowweseenature,enablingustoseeitnotasaresourceforourusebutasamanifestationofthedivine.Iteachallthis,andIsometimesevensucceedinconvincingstudentsCalvinmightbeakindofnaturalist.Butuntilnow,I’vehadonlyanecdotalevidencetosuggestCalvinismmightactuallyinspireenvironmentalism.Untilnow,becausethisisexactlywhatMark’sbookdemonstrates,decisively.AsMarkexplains,InherittheHolyMountainwasinspiredbywhatmanywouldconsiderasurprisingdiscovery:“Especiallybeforethe1960s,averylargemajorityofthefiguresofthestandardhistoriesofenvironmentalismgrewupinjusttwodenominations,CongregationalismandPresbyterianism,bothintheCalvinisttradition”(2).IntrueWeberianfashion,Markconsidersthisaphenomenonworthyofexplanation.WhydenominationsinspiredbyCalvinism?Whynotothers?AndwhywerethoseinfluencedbyCalvinsoeffectiveinestablishinginstitutions,policies,andlegislationandinspiringnaturalistandconservationistmovements?Inansweringthesequestions,Markhaswrittenabookthathasthepotentialtochangethewayenvironmentaliststhinkaboutreligionandthewayreligiouspeoplethinkaboutenvironmentalism.Thestoryhetellsisaboutthepast,andlikemoststoriesaboutenvironmentalismitismoresoberingthanitishopeful.TheCalvinismthatinspiredconservationistsandenvironmentalistsineighteenth-,nineteenth-,andearlytwentieth-centuryAmericawasitselfdiverse,withsignificantdifferencesbetweenCongregationalistsandPresbyteriansinparticular,andregionaldifferencesthatsignificantlyinfluencedthetenorandeffectoftheCalvinistmessage,butthehistorical,sociological,andtheologicaltributariesthatconvergedtomakethesediverseformsofCalvinismsignificantenginesofenvironmentalactivismhavebeendivertedanddiminished.ThisCalvinismisnomore.Andyet,indescribinghowandwhyCalvinismwasimportantinthepast,Markremindsbelieversandnon-believersalikethatcurrentformsofChristianityarenottheonlyformsofChristianity.Hedemonstrates,moreover,thatthinkersmoststronglyalignedwiththemostsociallyandtheologicallyconservativeformsofChristianity—asCalvinistoday—neednotonlyinspiretheologicallyandsociallyconservativemovements.14 Susan Schreiner, The Theater of his Glory: Nature and the Natural Order in the Thought of John Calvin (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1997).

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CalvintaughtthatnaturewaswondrousandessentialnotjustbecauseitwasGod’screation,butbecauseittaughtGod’screaturestoseeGod,toseethe“gloryveiledfromvulgareyes.”Calvindescribednatureasaspectacle,andas“dazzlingtheater.”“Nature,”JohnCalvinwrotedecisivelyinhisInstitutes,“isGod.”Alreadyby1560,Markpointsout,theBookofNaturewasseenasasecondbook,alongsidetheBible,whichsupportednotonlynaturaltheologybutalsotheconvictionthatsciencecouldthereforeproselytizefornature.Thisledtocommunityandthenpoliticalaction,Markexplains,becausethedoctrineoftotaldepravityorthoroughanddegradingsinfulnesswasadefiningcharacteristicofCalvinism.ThelessonthatnaturewasGod,combinedwiththeemphasisonhumandepravity,hadatwofoldeffect,encouragingregulationandtheconvictionthatbeautyprevailedwheretheeffectsofsin(andpeople)wereabsent.MarkillustratestheeffectofthisbydetailingthetheologicallessonsillustratedinapaintingbythenineteenthcenturyHudsonRiverSchoolpainter,ThomasCole.InCole’spainting,popularlyknownas“TheOxbow,”“theassociationsofwildnatureweresuperiortothoseofhumanizedlandscapesbecausetheysuggestedthedivineandnotthehuman”(15).

Figure1:ThomasCole,"TheOxbow"1836.PublicdomainimagecourtesyofWikipediaCommons.

AccordingtoMark’saccount,Calvinistenvironmentalismhadtwophases.Thefirst,inspiredbyNewEnglandtowns,gaveusparks,forests,agriculturalimprovement,andecology,withanemphasisoncommonlandandstewardship.Whatitoffered,inotherwords,wasanalternativetotheEmersonianindividualismoftenunderstoodasasingularlypowerfulsourceofAmericanenvironmentalism.Inlieuofthe

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mysticismassociatedwithEmerson,Congregationalistnaturalismhadapracticalinfluenceonparks,suburbs,landscaping,andagriculture.ThesecondphaseinvolvespeopleMarkdescribesasPresbyterianprogressives.ThesefolkstranslatedCongregationalistconservationintoanationalcrusade(139).InthisphasetherewasmorefocusonnationalpoliticsthanontheCongregationalistcommonweal.ThecombinationofnaturaltheologyandmoralphilosophyissuedinpeoplelikeJohnMuirandthepushfornationalparksandconservationagenciesthatclimaxedinthe1960sand1970s,characterizedbymoralurgency,suspicionofhumaninvolvement,andanevangelizingfervor.ThefactthatsomanyofthepeoplewholedsignificantfederalagencieswerefromPresbyterianbackgrounds,Markargues,demonstratesthePresbyterians’“electiveaffinity”formoralregulationofnaturalresourcesandtheassumptionthatpubliclandandlandscapeshouldservethecommongood(151).Whatislackinginthissecondphase,Markobserves,isavisionofarighteouscommunity.ThisistrueofactivistsraisedasPresbyterians,suchasWilliamDouglas,JaneJacobs,andRachelCarson.AndsowehaveMark’sregretfulobservation:“wherethereisnovision,thepeopleperish”(201).Thestrengthofbothphases,ofCongregationalistnaturalismandtheprogressivePresbyterianism,wastheenergyandconvictionbothgarneredfromnaturaltheology.Theweaknesswasthecorrespondingpreferenceforde-peopledlandscapes.AmongthekeyvirtuesofMark’sbookishismethodoftypologizingdifferentreligiousviewsofnature,whichunderscoresboththeimportanceofreligionandthesignificanceofreligiousdifferences.Thisinterestindifferencesextends,inlaterchapters,tocomparativediscussionsofCatholics,Mormons,andAfrican-AmericanBaptists.Ourcountryisnowdominatedbyreligionsateaseintheconsumereconomy.HowevermuchthecommunalformsofreligiosityMarkexploresinsomedetailmighthaveinspireenvironmentalconcern,thesereligionslacktherighteousfervorandmoralizingthatinspiredpoliticalaction.Thereis,Markconcludes,noclearsuccessortotheReformedconservationists.Thus,heconcludes,“Environmentalismisweak,divided,andwanderinginthewilderness”(275).BecauseMarkprovedhimselfsuchadeftinterpreterofCalvinisttheology,offeringapersuasiveWeberianaccountoftheelectiveaffinitybetweenareligiousworldviewandthis-worldbehaviors,IwouldaskhimtoconsiderextendinghiscomparativeanalysistotakeaccountofPopeFrancis’srecentenvironmentalencyclical,LaudatoSi’.Inparticular,itcouldbeilluminatingtocompareLaudatoSi’semphasisonTrinitarianism—theclaimthathumans,God,andnatureareallwoventogetherinawebofrelationships,andasinagainstoneisasinagainstall—toCalvinism’snaturaltheology.Asitis,Markargues,Catholicism’scommunitarianismdoesnotmotivateitsadherentstochangepoliticsandpolicies.Herehemakesanimportantpoint.Nevertheless,LaudatoSi’strinitarianismdoesaddresswhatMarkrightlyidentifiesasaweaknessofCalvinistenvironmentalism:itspuristvisionofnature,asbestwhenitisuninhabited.HowwouldMarkassessthestrengthsandweaknessesofthecurrentPope’svision(whichitselfextendstheenvironmentalconcernsarticulated

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byatleasthistwopredecessors)comparedtoCalvinistworldviews?Isthereanythinginthemessage,oreventheexistence,oftheencyclicalthatwouldleadhimtoalterhisconcludingassessmentofthecurrentstateofenvironmentalism,andthepotentialforreligionstoinspireenvironmentalactivism?

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CommentsbyJosephKipKosek,GeorgeWashingtonUniversityarkStoll’sInherittheHolyMountaininterweavestwohistoricalgenealogiesthatareseldomconsideredtogether,thoseofreligionandenvironmentalism.Tobesure,someoftheclassictextsofmodernenvironmentalstudiesofferedgeneralhypothesesaboutreligion.Lynn

White’sinfluentialessay“TheHistoricalRootsofOurEcologicCrisis”blamedChristianityforimposingadualisticviewofthecosmosthatelevatedthespiritualabovethenatural.WilliamCronon’s“TheTroubleWithWilderness”criticizedenvironmentalistsforfreightingsupposedlyuntouchedlandscapeswithsacredsignificancewhileevadingdifficultquestionsofhumanimpact.Theseinterpretationsofferedbird’s-eyeviews,rangingacrosscenturiesandcontinents.Onecanacknowledgethebrillianceoftheessaysandstillwishforalittlemoredetail.InherittheHolyMountainoperatesclosertothegroundandgivesusamorespecificlookathowreligionshapedenvironmentalthinking.ForStoll,thetheologyofCalvinisminspiredanappreciationofthenaturalworld,notviathedirectactivismofchurchesbutthroughinfluence,usuallyinchildhood,ontheleadersofenvironmentalistinitiatives.Tostudythisdynamic,thebookcutsagainstthegeneralmethodologicaltrendsinenvironmentalhistorywriting.Themostvisiblerecentworkinthefieldfocusesonsocialhistory,economicgeography,andpublicpolicy.Stoll’sorientationistowardculturalhistory,thewaythatsystemsofvalueandmeaningareproducedandreproducedovertime.Hetakesenvironmentalismasawayofseeingandanarrativestyle,oneconnectedtoartandliterature.Indeed,oneofthejoysofthebookisitscreativereadingofnineteenth-centurylandscapepaintingsbyThomasCole,WilliamKeith,andothers.Inthissense,InherittheHolyMountainlooksbacktoolderworkssuchasLeoMarx’sTheMachineintheGardenandRoderickNash’sWildernessandtheAmericanMind.Stollinvokesthoseearliertexts,too,inhisfocusonthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.Historiansoftenpresentenvironmentalawarenessasafairlynewphenomenon,notingthepublicationofSilentSpringin1962orthecelebrationofthefirstEarthDayin1970.Stollishavingnoneoftheassumptionofmoralprogressthatsuchachronologycanimply.Forhim,theheydayofenvironmentalistsensibilityhaslongsincepassedusby.Likeanotherrecentculturalhistory,AaronSachs’sArcadianAmerica,InherittheHolyMountaintellsastoryofdecline.ForStoll,theperiodsincethe1960shas“entailedalossofthemoralenergy,urgency,andfocuswithwhichthechildrenofCalvinismhadinfusedthemovement”(265).Giventhepresenceofconsiderableenvironmentalistactivity,frompoliticalpressuregroupslikeCitizen’sClimateLobbytomoreradicalprotesterslikeGreenpeace,Stollmighthavesaidabitmoreaboutwhere,exactly,theserecentendeavorsarefallingshort.

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WhatStollandSachsalsoshareisaclaimthatthisearlierAmericanenvironmentalismemergedfromacontemplationoflimitsratherthanahopeoftranscendence.ArcadianAmericafindsthishumilitycomingoutofclassicalandRenaissancehumanisttraditionsandsayslittleaboutChristianity.InherittheHolyMountainshowsusthataparallelstrainofCalvinismalsocontributedtothischastenedsenseofrespectfornature.“Hardlyany”ofhisnineteenth-centuryenvironmentalists,Stollnotes,“saidsomuchasonewordaboutEmerson”(4).TheydidnotsharetheEmersonianoptimismthatwouldcelebratenatureastheplaceoffreedomandfulfillment.TheCalvinistsandex-Calvinistsatthecenterofthebookweremuchmorecautiousabouthumanpossibility,oftenlookingtoGod’smagnificentcreationasanimplicitjudgmentonthesinfulnessoffallenhumans.Theyfavoredtheconceptsof“improvement”and“stewardship,”comparativelymodestnotionsofdoingthebestonecouldinanimperfectworld.Stoll,likeSachs,isinterestedintheenvironmentalismofthemiddlelandscape,theonewherepeoplehaveaneverydaypresence.Couldthesenseofahumble,ratherthanconfident,humanencounterwithnaturerevealsomethingnotonlyaboutthenineteenthcentury,butalsoabouttheculturalmoodoftheearlytwenty-first?StollconvincinglyshowsthatCalvinism,asexpressedinCongregationalandPresbyteriantheology,playedanimportantroleinAmericanenvironmentalistthoughtandreform.Buthowall-encompassingwasit?Inrecentdecades,scholarsofAmericanreligionhavedecenteredCalvinisminthestoryofthenationandemphasizedthediversityofAmericanreligions.YetInherittheHolyMountainlargelyadoptstheolderviewthattheUnitedStatesismoreorlessaPuritancountry.Chronologyisoftencollapsed,sothatthetheologyofseventeenth-centuryPuritansbecomesprettymuchthesameasthatofnineteenth-centuryCongregationalists.TheresultisaformidablesynthesisthatoffersmuchinsightbutalsoobscuressomeofthebreadthoftheAmericanreligiousmenagerie.ConsiderTheodoreParker.HewasoneoftheleadingvoicesagainstCalvinisminthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,extollingaliberalUnitarianisminfluencedbyEmersonandTranscendentalism.Stoll,however,adoptsParkerforhiscause,explainingthatalthoughhewas“astrongfoeofCalvinismasatheology,”he“stillheldtheCalvinistdoctrineofnature”(38).HowCalvinistwasthatdoctrineofnatureifthenation’sleadingUnitariansharedit?TheserhetoricalconversionstoCalvinismoccurthroughoutInherittheHolyMountain.HenryA.Wallaceislabeleda“preacherlyPresbyterian,”withnoattentiongiventohisexplorationsofTheosophyandSpiritualism(whichbecameembarrassingduringhis1948presidentialcampaign).AnselAdamssomehow“learnedReformedvaluesandaestheticsbycatchinghisfather’scontagiousenthusiasmforRalphWaldoEmerson”(115),eventhoughEmersonianandReformedideasarerepresentedasopposingforcesinmuchoftherestofthebook.GeorgiaO’Keefegetsanoddkindofhoroscopereading:she“hadastrongDutch-

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NewEnglandCalvinistheritagethatoverwhelmedherwarm,big-heartedIrish-CatholicandHungarianpaternalstock”(125).Bythetimethe“AmericanPresbyterianJacksonPollock”(123)appears,thezigzagsnecessarytoconnectallofStoll’scharacterstoasingleCalvinistheritagehavebeguntoresemblethoseinadrippainting.IftheReformedtraditionincludeseveryonefromParkertoPollock,whatexactlyisholdingittogether?Howshouldweunderstanditsintellectualcoherenceandexplanatoryforce?AdeeperengagementwithtrendsinAmericanreligioushistorymighthaveaddedsomeothervoicestotheCalvinistoneshighlightedinInherittheHolyMountain.BookssuchasDavidHall’sWorldsofWonder,DaysofJudgment,JonButler’sAwashinaSeaofFaith,AnnBraude’sRadicalSpirits,andPatriciaBonomi’sUndertheCopeofHeaven(tonameonlyafewinfluentialtexts)haveemphasizedthediversityofearlyAmericanspirituality,summedupinButler’smetaphorofa“spiritualhothouse.”TheseandotherrecentworkshavealsounveiledthesurprisingvarietyofthoughtandpracticewithinCalvinism,includingmanyheterodoxandsyncreticstrains.Stoll’sefforttosmoothoverthediversityofAmericanreligionobscuresamuchricherpanoply.Toitscredit,InherittheHolyMountainprovidesoccasionalhintsofthatpanoply,offeringsometantalizingleadsthatotherscholarsmightpursue.WhatifwelookedagainatStoll’scharacterswithmoreopennesstoAmericanreligiouspluralism?Weread,verybriefly,aboutJosephWorcester,anArtsandCraftspioneerand“sonofthefounderofNewEnglandSwedenborgianism”(131),afaiththatclaimedtohavenewmysticalvisionsofJesusChrist.ErnestThompsonSeton,awriterofpopularnaturestoriesandafounderoftheBoyScouts,tookhisregardofthenaturalworldinpartfromhisunderstanding(howeverlimited)ofNativeAmericanspirituality(162).SanfordGifford,whosehauntingpost-CivilWarpaintingHunterMountain,TwilightfiguresprominentlyinbothInherittheHolyMountainandArcadianAmerica,joinedOctaviusB.Frothingham’sultra-liberalFreeReligiousAssociation(207).IfwetookthisvarietyonitsowntermsratherthantryingtofititallintoaCalvinistframe,wemightgetafullerviewofhowreligioninfluencedAmericanenvironmentalism.SohowcanwebalancetheimportanceofCalvinismwithanappreciationfortherangeofreligioustraditionsthatcontributedtoAmericans’ideasaboutnature?Thesearebigquestions,anditisatestamenttothesuccessofInherittheHolyMountainthatitprovokesthem.Stollhelpsustoseethatconsiderationofnaturewasnottheresultofprogresstowardsecularrationalism;rather,itwasadeeplyingrainedpartofreligiousworldviews.Inourowntime,environmentalistsfaceacrisisofauthority,aslargenumbersofcitizensdisbelievethemostbasicfactsaboutclimatechangeandotherecologicalthreats.Theproposedsolution,itoftenseems,istoshoutthescientificdatathatmuchlouder,presumablywiththehopethatonemorestudyoronemorehockeystickgraphwillconvincetheholdouts.

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MarkStoll’sbookmaysuggestadifferentapproach,onethatattendsmorecarefully,asCalvinismdidinpreviouscenturies,totherealmofstories,emotions,andimagination.Toquotethebiblicalproverb,“wherethereisnovision,thepeopleperish.”InherittheHolyMountaindiscoversaformidableenvironmentalistvisioninAmerica’spastand,perhaps,offerscluesforreconstructingoneinthefuture.

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CommentsbyMarkFiege,MontanaStateUniversity

Praising and Questioning Mark Stoll’s Inherit the Holy Mountain havelongadmiredandenviedMarkStollandhiswork.Heisdeeplyintelligent,exceptionallycreative,andanunusuallyclear,elegantprosestylist.Heisameticulousresearcher,andhisintellectualbreadth,measuredbyhisreading,isimpressive.Inconversation,hiswordsandpersonalbearingproject

thoughtfulness,serenity,andkindness,asifheispracticingthebestfeaturesofthereligioustraditionsthathestudies.Hisqualitiesofcharacterandintellectaremanifestinhisessaysandbooks,whichpresentsomuchknowledgeandsomanyinterpretiveinsightsinsuchalight,engagingstylethatwhenIreadthem,IfeelsmarterthanIdeserve.ToenterthepastthroughMark’spagesistoundergointellectualandspiritualenlargement. InherittheHolyMountainisafield-alteringbookthatcompelsthereadertoconfronttheextenttowhichreligion,especiallyReformedProtestantismandCalvinism,shapedconservationandenvironmentalism.Theideaofanactive,egalitarianGodalwayspresentintheworld,continuallycreating,sustaining,improving,stewarding,andconservingit,iscompelling.Humanityisnotalone,thisperspectivesuggests,andtoengageinconservationnotonlyistoprotectandpreservetheEarth,butalsotoadvanceandfulfilltheEarth’sinherentdivinepurposeorpotential.Mark’sbiggestsurprise—winnowedfromthesourcesbymuchpainstaking,time-consuming,nodoubtagonizingresearch—isthatPresbyteriansdisproportionatelyinfluencedconservationfromthelatenineteenthcenturythroughthe1960s,thegoldenyearsoflandandresourceprotection.InMark’sinterpretation,Presbyterianismfosteredanactivist,nationalpoliticalcultureinclinedtosermonizingandcallingoutsinsagainstGodandtheCreation,attributeswellsuitedtothepoliticsoftheprogressiveconservationmovement.Afterreadingthisaccount,IstartedtoseePresbyterianseverywhereinthesourcesonconservationthatIwasstudying,andIbeganforwardingcitationstoMark.15Afterthethirdorfourthemail,heunderstandablystoppedreplying.Butthatisameasureofthesignificanceofthehistoryoncehiddeninplainsightandnowrevealedinthepagesofhiswonderfulbook. AsmuchasInherittheHolyMountainaccomplishes,however,itcannotaccomplisheverything,asMark’s“innerPresbyterian”(p.2)likelywouldadmit.Allofus,andallthatweproduce,arefallenandimperfect.Allareincomplete,allareworksinprogress,andinevitably—andperhapsnecessarily—allcomeupshort.AsIconsideredMark’sachievement,Irememberedastory(likelyapocryphal)aboutPaulRevereandthecolonialsilversmithswhomadesurethattheirwaresalwayscarriedablemish,becauseonlyGodwascapableofgettingitexactlyright.Morethanthat,Mark’sworkconfirmedmybelief—abeliefthathasgrownstrongerthe15 See, for example, Elers Koch, Forty Years a Forester, 1903-1943, ed. Peter Koch (Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press, 1998), 3, 9, 11, 15.

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older,grayer,andworld-wearierIhavebecome—thatthebestthingsthatpeoplecreatenotonlywillhaveflaws,butalsomusthavethem.Beautyandwonderonlycomethroughextraordinarystruggleandaccompaniedbyimperfections,which,intheirownway,oftenarebeautiful.16ContemplatingMark’sworkandthevirtuallyimpossiblerangeofhisambition,IalsothoughtofHomer’sIlliadandthecharacterofDiomedes,who,inbraveandnobledefianceofhistragicearthlymortality,turnshisweaponsonthegodsofloveandwar.17 Thus,whatMark’sbookcourageouslyachievesinevitablypointstowhatitdoesnot,towhatstandsinsilencebeyondthestorythatMarkbrilliantlytells.18Hereistheissue.TheproponentsoftheCalvinism,ReformedProtestantism,andPresbyterianismthatgaverisetoconservationandenvironmentalismalsowereinvolvedinbitterwarsagainstAmericanIndians,intheremovalofthoseNativestoreservations,andinthesegregationofAfricanAmericansandotherpeopleontheAmericanlandscape.TheimplicationsofthishistorysurelymattertoMark’saccountofconservation.Surelyitmatters,forexample,thattheNewEnglandsocietythatyieldedCongregationalismalsohelpedfomenttheterrifying,painful,anddestructivecalamityofKingPhilip’sWar.19OrthatAndrewJackson,oneofthechiefarchitectsoftheIndianremovalpolicy,wasaPresbyterian,asMarkhimselfpointsout(p.130).OrthatthecreationofnationalparksandotherprotectedareasintheAmericanWestwaspremisedontheeliminationofIndiansandcoincidedwiththecreationoftheJimCrowsystem.20OrthatGiffordPinchot,thefirstChiefoftheU.S.ForestServicewho“builtAmericanforestryonConnecticutPuritanvalues”(p.91)wasagoodfriendofeugenicistandconservationistMadisonGrantandservedontheAdvisoryCounciloftheEugenicsCommitteeoftheUSA.21OrthatWoodrowWilson,thePresbyterianpresidentwhosignedintolawtheNationalParkActof1916,alsoscreenedBirthofaNation(1915)intheWhiteHouse,oversawthesegregationtheCapitol,andundercutanascentAfricanAmericanmiddleclassbyremovingits

16 Cf. the aesthetic of Japanese Kintsugi or Kintsukuroi artwork; see Elizabeth Rosner, Survivor Café: The Legacy of Trauma and the Labyrinth of Memory (Berkeley, California: Counterpoint, 2017), 165. 17 Caroline Alexander, The War That Killed Achilles: The True Story of Homer’s Illiad and the Trojan War (New York: Viking, 2009), 64-82. 18 Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon, 1997). 19 See, for example, Ann M. Little, Abraham in Arms: War and Gender in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007); Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998); and Richard Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1973). 20 Mark Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Making of the National Parks (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); Carolyn Finney, Black Faces, White Spaces: Reimagining the Relationship of African Americans to the Great Outdoors (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014). 21 Jonathan Peter Spiro, Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant (Burlington: University of Vermont Press, 2009), 181.

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membersfrom,ordemotingthemwithin,civilservicepositionsinthefederalgovernment.22 CertainlyMarkdidnotsetouttoofferacomprehensive,warts-and-allexplanationofconservation,andforthatreasonheshouldnotbeheldaccountableforthebookhedidnotintendtowrite.Yetsurelyitisfairtowonder,forexample,ifthereligioussourcesofthepoliticalmovementthatcreatedthenationalparksalsoshapedthepoliciesthatremovedNativepeoplesfromthelandscapesthatbecametheparks.SurelyitisfairtojuxtaposeInherittheHolyMountainandDispossessingtheWilderness(aworkmissingfromMark’sotherwiseextensivebibliography)andwonderabouttheirpossibleconnectionsandhowtwosuchbooks,seeminglysoverydifferentfromoneanother,describesomeofthesameevents.SurelyitisfairtoinvokearangeofrecentworkfromarisinggenerationofyoungenvironmentalhistorianssuchasMilesPowellandMaryMendoza—andfromseniorscholars,too—demandingthathistoriansaddressthesocialinequitiesandinjusticestowhichconservationcontributed.23Markhasproducedanecessary,useful,surprising,superblyrenderedhistoryofconservation,butitseemsfairtoimaginewaystointegratethevariousstrandsofconservationhistorysothatevenwhenwerecognizetheinjusticelurkingbehindthejustice,theinhumanityattheheartofthehumane,westilldonotlosesightofthebeautyoftheoverallproject.24ThechallengeandresponsibilityisnotMark’salone;itbelongstoallofus(me,too)whoseektoimaginethepastmorefullysothatwecanrebuildconservationandmorecapablyactonourfaiththatabetterworldispossible.ButsincetheworkunderconsiderationisMark’s,perhapsImightputsomequestionstohimdirectly.Howdoyourinsightsintoreligionandconservationrelatetoissuesofconservationandrace?DidthecomplicityofCalvinists,ReformedProtestants,andPresbyteriansintheremovalandeliminationofNativepeople,theperpetuationofracistthought,andtheconstructionofthecolorlinecomplicatetheirconservationachievements?Or,aresuchcriticalquestionsunfairandmissthewaysthatinheritorsoftheholymountainalsoworked—howeverimperfectlyandhaltingly—toaccommodateandimprovethelivesofothers?

22 Leon Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Knopf, 1998), 373. 23 See, for example, Miles A. Powell, Vanishing America: Species Extinction, Racial Peril, and the Origins of Conservation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016); Dorceta E. Taylor, The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection (Durham: Duke University Press, 2016), and the H-Environment Roundtable Vol. 7, No. 1 (2017) on recent provocative work by Carolyn Finney and Carl Zimring. 24 Viet Thanh Nguyen, Nothing Ever Dies: Vietnam and the Memory of War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016), 19.

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ResponsebyMarkStoll,TexasTechUniversityfwecouldmakeoursocietyjustandsustainable,what,exactly,wouldsuchasocietylooklike?Hasanyoneinhistoryundertakentocreatesuchasociety?Canwelearnfromtheirexperience?

SuchquestionslieattheheartofInherittheHolyMountain:ReligionandtheRiseofAmericanEnvironmentalism.Withalittlereframing,ImighteasilyhavenameditsomethinglikeTheAmericanQuestforaJustandSustainableSociety.ItbearsthetitleithasbecausereligiousbeliefinspiredthegoalsofjusticeandsustainabilityfromwhichanecologicalconsciousnessandecologicalpoliticsgrewintheUnitedStates.You’lllookinvainforthesereligiousrootsinthefoundationalhistoriesofAmericanenvironmentalismbyHansHuth,SamuelHays,RoderickNash,StephenFox,andothers.Pervasivelysecular,asidefromnodstothe(unchurchedanddecidedlyunorthodox)TranscendentalismofEmersonandThoreau,theysharethathostilitytoPuritansandCalvinismthatLynnWhite,Jr.,expressedsoinfluentially.Inaperceptivechapteron“thereligionofconservation,”Foxnotedthattwentieth-centuryconservationistsandenvironmentalistswerejustasunchurchedanddecidedlyunorthodoxastheTranscendentalists.Doesn’tthatmeanthatWhitewasright?Endofstory,etc.?AfterInherittheHolyMountain,nohistoryofenvironmentalthoughtandactivismcanbecompletewithouttakingreligionintoaccount.Itdocumentshowatremendousproportionofleadingfiguresandactivistsgrewupinreligioushomes.Manyhadcloserelativeswhowereministersoractiveinchurchwork,orthemselvesonceintendedtobeaministerormissionary.Evenmoresurprising,anastonishingnumberwerenofurtherthanonegenerationawayfromachurchinaReformedProtestant(i.e.,Calvinist)denomination,especiallythetwoPuritantraditionsCongregationalismandPresbyterianism.Ihaveoftenwonderedhownobodyhadevernoticedthisbefore!AsMarkFiegeremarks,onceyoubecomeawareofit,youseeiteverywhere.WhitehimselfwasthesonofaPresbyterianministerandalifelongactivePresbyterian.So,wasWhitewrong,then?Perhapsthebestansweris“noneoftheabove.”25Thesereligiousconnectionsraisemanyotherquestions,though,soIamgratefultoChrisJonesforarrangingthisH-Environmentroundtable.TheexcellentcommentsbyLisaSideris,ConstanceFurey,KipKosek,andMarkFiege,bothkindandcritical,givemeanopportunitytoclarifyandexpandonsomeimportantpoints.

25 For more on Lynn White and his thesis, see my “Sinners in the Hands of an Ecological Crisis: Lynn White’s Environmental Jeremiad,” in Religion and Ecological Crisis: The “Lynn White Thesis” at Fifty, ed. by Todd LeVasseur and Anna Peterson (New York: Routledge, 2016).

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Tobeginwiththeopeningquestions,PuritanssoughttocreateonthestonysoilofNewEnglandamoral,equitablesociety,withoutpoverty,inwhicheveryonewouldusetheir(God-given)wealthandtalentsforthebenefitofthecommunity.PuritanshadthepeopleruntheirowntownsandchurchesandthussetupthemostdemocraticofallEuropeancolonies.Furthermore,asBrianDonahueshowedmeinTheGreatMeadow:FarmersandtheLandinColonialConcord(2004),theyusedconvertiblehusbandry,arelativelysustainableagriculturalsystem,partlybecausetheyknewitinEnglandandpartlybecauseofreligiousdutytobestewardsofthelandforfuturegenerations.Thisintentionally-designedjust,sustainablesociety(asopposedtoautopianorsectariancommunity)istheonlyoneIknowinhistory.Still,thefabricofPuritansocietybegantofraywithinjustacouplegenerations.PerhapstheoldTranscendentalistnarrativewascorrectafterall?WhenIwenttowriteaproposedchapteronNewEnglanders,Ithoughtitwouldwriteitself,sincesurelyeverybodywasreadingEmersonandThoreau.Ican’ttellyouhownonplussedIwastofindthattheworksofGeorgePerkinsMarsh,FrederickLawOlmsted,andalltheotherfoundersoftheconservationandparksmovementsrarelyornevermentionedeitherone.TheirideasandmodelscameinsteadfromtheCongregationally-dominatedNewEnglandtownofthekindtheyallgrewupin.ThePuritanearlydaysremainedaGoldenAgeintheCongregationalmind.IwouldarguewithKipKosek’scontentionthatthebookdoesnottakechangeintoaccount.ThedecayofthePuritancommunityinspiredMarshandotherstosavetheNewEnglandtownandtoholditupasamodelforthegrowingnation.ChangealsosubsequentlyledtothesuddendeclineofCongregationalinfluenceinAmericansociety.When,despiteeffortstosaveit,thePuritantowndied,traditionalCongregationalismanditscommunalethosdiedwithit.ThedisintegrationofPuritansocietyintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesbringsusfacetofacewiththedifficultyofmaintaininganyjust,sustainablesocietyovertime.IfIrecallcorrectly,RobertNetting’sBalancingonanAlparguedthatsustainablecommunitiesmustdotwothings:keepoutsidersoutandkeepcontroloftheirresources.Theisolation,homogeneity,andconservatismofwesternNewEnglandexplainsthePuritantown’slongsurvivalthere.Diversity,religiousfreedom,andeconomicdevelopment(allvaluesweupholdtoday)doomedthePuritanexperiment.Theyworldtheycreatedcouldnotwithstandconstantin-andoutmigration,thebreakupofCongregationalhegemony,andthearrivalofrailroads,urbanization,andindustrialization.Thepuzzlewetodaymustsolveisthis:canwedoanybetterthanthePuritans?Isajust,sustainablesocietypossiblethatisdiverse,free,dynamic,andprosperous?LisaSideriswondershowCalvinists,sodarklypessimisticabouthumannature,couldoptimisticallybuildanew,improvedsociety.Thisisanexcellentpoint.Sincedepravedmotiveslaybehindallhumanendeavors,PuritansturnedtotheBibletofindGod’splanforsocietyandallelse.Suchasocietycouldonlypersistifevery

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memberalwayskeptaneyeoneveryoneelsetocatchthemwhentheyinevitablyputselfaheadofcommunity.WhatmadePuritanshardtolivewithwasalsoexactlywhatmadetheircommunitywork.Conversely,religionsthatfocusonthesalvationofindividuals,fromBaptiststoBuddhists,preachoptimismabouthumanabilitiesthatcomplementsfatalismaboutsocialstructures.TheCalvinistdoctrineofhumandepravitymeansthattherewillalwaysbebadactorswhoseself-centeredactionsthreatenthecommongood.Therighteousfewmustcontroltheirsinfulness.Earlyenvironmentalismimplicitlyembodiedthistenetwhenitpushedregulationofresourceuseforfuturegenerations,preservationofnaturalspacesforpublicbenefit,andcontrolofindividualandcorporateavariceforthegoodofsociety.ThehistoryofenvironmentalpolicyintheUnitedStatessuggeststhatthishasbeenarathereffectivepoliticalmodeforthiscountry.Inademocraticsociety,leadersneedtoinspirethepeopletovoteagainsttheinterestsandpowerofconcentratedwealth.Hereagain,IwouldargueagainstKiptosaythatdenominationalchangeistheessenceoftheissue.ThePresbyterianchurchduringapproximatelythecenturyafter1845—whenCalvinismwasmakingitslaststandandScottishimmigration(amajorsourceofitsvitality)peaked—traineditsyouthinevangelisticpreachingthatprovedenormouslyeffectiveinthelarger,secularpoliticalarena.ThiserastretchesfromJohnMuir,TheodoreRoosevelt,andGiffordPinchottoRachelCarson,DavidBrower,andEdwardAbbey.ConstanceFureydrawsattentiontoSusanSchreiner’sTheaterofHisGlory,whichwasarealeye-openingbookforme.SchreinerleftopenacrucialpointthatIhavelongpuzzledover:whydidCalvinandReformedProtestantssoemphaticallyemphasizethepresenceofGodinnature?ThischaracteristicdoctrineofPuritans,Congregationalists,andPresbyterianslivedonunabatedinUnitarianismandTranscendentalism.MyprovisionaltheorywasthatnatureitselfsupportedthetruthofProtestantism,whichlackedtheauthorityofchurchtraditionthatsupportedCatholicism.IfoundevidenceinReformedconfessionsoffaith,whichbeginwiththeevidenceinnatureofGod’sexistenceandattributes.Arangeofpeople,fromeducatedPuritanpoetAnneBradstreettounletteredMormonprophetJosephSmith,allbeganwithaweatthenaturalworldandreasonedtheirwayfromdoubtbacktofaith.Recently,however,IreadCalvin’sSwisspredecessorZwingli’slengthyessayontheprovidenceofGod.ItdiscussedGod’sradicalpresenceinnatureintermssosimilartoCalvinthatIwonderedifCalvinborrowedfromhim.Zwingli’spurpose,however,wasnottosupportfaithbuttosupportthedoctrineofpredestination.ThatGodwasactivelyguidingeveryparticleoftheuniverseatalltimessupportedthenotionofhisunfathomabledecreesofsalvationfortheelect.Hence,Calvinism’sTranscendentalisticviewoftheSpiritinnaturehaditsoriginalrationaleinthedarkestpartofCalvinisttheology.

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ConstanceasksaboutLaudatoSi’,thefirstpapalencyclicalontheenvironment,whichPopeFrancis(whodeliberatelychosethisnameforitsenvironmentalistconnotations)releasedtogreatacclaimin2015.Likesomanyotherfaithtraditions,Catholicismisoptimisticabouthumans’abilitytoachievesalvation,offeringmanyaidstofaith,andisaccommodatedtotheworld.Withoutthesupportofrulersandstates,itcouldhardlyhaveerectedtheimpressivestructuresthatgracethelandscapewhereverCatholicismhasbeenthestatereligion.LaudatoSi’hasnorealpoliticalimplicationsbutrecommendsonlythatenvironmentalvaluesbetaughtbyparents,churches,andschools.AsIdiscussinChapter7aboutBaptists,thisindividualist,bottom-upmodelofenvironmentalismhasfewsuccessestoshow.Tomaximizeeffectiveness,anenvironmentalethicmustbemarriedtopolitics.KipfeelsIhavekepttooclosetotheoldstandardnarrativeofreligioushistorywhichcentersonthePuritantradition.InherittheHolyMountainisastudyoftheleadingfiguresinenvironmentalism,thevastmajorityofwhom,untilabout50yearsago,cameoutofthePuritanandCalvinisttraditions.Sincethisiscounterintuitiveandcontrarythedominanthistoriography,itdemandsexplanationandjustifiesthefocus.Thelasttwochaptersexploretheinfluenceofothertraditions.ThosethatIdidnotfindinfluentialIneglected.KippointsoutthelackofattentiontoSwedenborgians,Unitarians,Theosophy,Spiritualism,andothersuchmovements.Theargumentofthebookisthecentralityofreligiousupbringing,whichleavespatternsnoamountofadultspiritualwanderingcanerase.MostofthesegroupsemergedoutofthePuritantradition,whichleftitsmarkforacouplegenerations.(YoucantaketheboyoutofCalvinism,butyoucan’ttaketheCalvinismoutoftheboy.)Chapters4and5lookcloselyathowvaluessurvivethedeathofthetheologythatgavethembirth,withastrongelectiveaffinityforsomesortofspiritualrelationtonature,ratherthanforatheism.ItracethespiritualdevelopmentofMuirandhisfriendWilliamKeithtosetupaparadigm,whichHenryWallaceforonefollowsclosely.IgivesomespacetoexplainingwhypeoplebornintotheSwedenborgian,Unitarian,Quaker,andothertraditionsareunexpectedlyabsentfromenvironmentalleadership.ThestrikingexceptiontotheReformedProtestantconnectionisthewildernessmovement,asLisanotes.NofounderoftheWildernessSocietyin1935orEarthFirst!in1980wasraisedinaReformedProtestantchurch.NoneframedwildernessintheReformedmoralisticwayandfewarguedforwildernessprimarilyforasaspiritualresource.Butifit’sdiversityyouseek,you’llfindithere.ThereareJews,Catholics,Methodists,andafewothersinprofusion.(There’salsoAldoLeopold,who,ifhecouldbecategorized,wasculturallybutneverreligiouslyLutheran).Fromsuchdiverseorigins,wildernessadvocacyhadtobesecularfirst,withnomoralcenter.Manypeopletoday,ofcourse,regardwildernessasaspiritualresource,buthistoricallythat’snotwhatthemovementhasbeenallabout.See,forexample,PaulSutter’sDrivenWild(2002)ontheoriginsoftheWildernessSociety,whichneglectsreligionandspirituality.

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MarkFiege’sverycomplimentaryreviewendswithquestionsaboutthegrimmeraspectsofAmericanhistory,specificallyregardingIndiansandracialmatters.ItakehispointtobethatIpaidlittleattentiontoconcernsinrecenthistoriographyaboutconservation,parks,andenvironmentalismaseliteenterprisesthatignoredthedesiresofthepoorandmarginal,asintheworksofMarkSpence,KarlJacoby,andothers.Theirvaluableworkhasshonelightonthedarkercornersofenvironmentalhistory.Formypart,Idonotblameelitesfordoingwhatelitescandobetterthanthepowerless.Igivethemcreditforactingfortheirviewofthecommongood,ofteninoppositiontoothersoftheirclass.Theyclearlyhadtheirblindspots.Buttheyusedtheirinfluenceinsocietytoleaveapricelesslegacyofcity,state,andnationalparks,nationalforests,andwildernessareas,allforpublicbenefitandnotprivateprofit.Ifthesehadneverbeencreated,canwereallybelievethatthepoorandmarginalwouldhavedonebetteratthehandsofthewealthyandthecorporationswhowantedthoseareasforprivatepurposes?Moreover,onecouldeasilyarguethattheAmericanliberaltradition(andnotjustparksandconservation)wasbornofPuritanism.DespiteKingPhilip’sWar,whichwasless“fomented”thanexplodedfromaccumulatedgrievances,thehistoryofIndian-colonistrelationsinNewEnglandcomparesveryfavorablywiththeotherEnglishcolonies.TodaytherearemoreIndianreservationsinthesmallformerPuritancoloniesthanallthelargeformerplantationcoloniestogether,whereexterminationandremovalwaswidelypracticed.AddwesternNewYork,withitsheavyNewEnglandsettlement,andtheregioncontainsmorereservationsthanalltheformerslaveSouth.(QuakerPennsylvaniahasnoneatall.)Later,itwasCongregationalmissionarieswhotookresistancetoJackson’sIndianremovalallthewaytotheSupremeCourt.HelenHuntJackson,authorofACenturyofDishonor,wasdaughterofaCalvinistCongregationalminister.AbolitionistswereoftenCongregationalist(amongmanyQuakersandUnitarians),fromArthurTappantoWendellPhillipstoHarrietBeecherStow.Thesameholdstrueforthewoman’srightsmovement.CongregationalministerscreatedtheSocialGospel.TheUnitedPresbyterianChurch,thelittlePresbyteriandenominationfromwhichmanyenvironmentalfiguresemerged(Muir,Carson,andseveralothers)combinedCalvinistorthodoxywithabolitionismandaliberalsocialethic.Six-timeSocialistpresidentialcandidateNormanThomaswasaPresbyterianminister.Everychurchhasitsscoundrels,butexceptingSouthernwhitechurchesin“culturalcaptivity,”allofwhichsupportedslaveryandsegregation,Reformedchurchesasagrouplookprettygoodonsocialissues.InherittheHolyMountainconcludeswithsomemeditationsonwhatthepassingofCongregationalism’sandPresbyterianism’shistoricalmomentmeansforcontemporaryenvironmentalism.ThemovementhasbeenoperatingforthefirsttimewithouttheleadershipoftheheirsofOliverCromwellandJohnKnox.Politically,itisweakerthanithaseverbeenwhilethecriseswefacegrowevermoreinsistent.Corporateeconomicandpoliticalpowerhavegrownimmensely.

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Twoyearslater,LaudatoSi’ispracticallyforgotten.It’sveryeasytogrowdiscouraged.

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AbouttheContributorsMarkFiegeisWallaceStegnerChairinAmericanStudiesandProfessorofHistoryatMontanaStateUniversityinBozeman.HeistheauthorofIrrigatedEden(Washington,1999)andTheRepublicofNature(Washington,2012).ConstanceM.Furey,PhDUniversityofChicago,isProfessorintheDepartmentofReligiousStudies,IndianaUniversityBloomington,whereshewritesandteachesontheology,literature,andrelationshipsinearlymodernEuropeanChristianity.HermostrecentbookisPoeticRelations:FaithandIntimacyintheEnglishReformation(Chicago,2017).ChristopherF.Jones,AssociateProfessorofHistoryatArizonaStateUniversity,studiesthehistoriesofenergy,environment,andtechnology.HeistheauthorofRoutesofPower:EnergyandModernAmerica(Harvard,2014)andiscurrentlyworkingonaprojectexaminingtherelationshipsbetweeneconomictheoriesofgrowthandthedepletionofnon-renewablenaturalresources.JosephKipKosekisAssociateProfessorofAmericanStudiesatGeorgeWashingtonUniversity.HeistheauthorofActsofConscience:ChristianNonviolenceandModernAmericanDemocracy.Hiscurrentbookprojectisentitled“Producers:TheAgrarianEthicinModernAmerica.”LisaH.SiderisisanAssociateProfessorofReligiousStudiesatIndianaUniversity,withresearchinterestsinenvironmentalismattheintersectionofscienceandreligion,aswellasthelifeandworkofRachelCarson.HerlatestbookisConsecratingScience:Wonder,Knowledge,andtheNaturalWorld(UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2017).MarkStollisProfessorofenvironmentalhistoryatTexasTechUniversity.InadditiontoInherittheHolyMountain,heisalsotheauthorofProtestantism,Capitalism,andNatureinAmerica(NewMexico,1997)andToLovetheWindandRain(Pittsburgh,2006).Heiscurrentlyworkingonanenvironmentalhistoryofcapitalism.Copyright©2018H-Net:HumanitiesandSocialSciencesOnlineH-Netpermitstheredistributionandreprintingofthisworkfornonprofit,educationalpurposes,withfullandaccurateattributiontotheauthor,weblocation,dateofpublication,H-Environment,andH-Net:Humanities&SocialSciencesOnline.