Gulag Ahistory Introduction

8/13/2019 Gulag Ahistory Introduction

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G U L A G : A H I S T O R Y , I N T R O D U C T I O N

I N T R O D U C T I O N

GULAG: A HISTORY

And fate made everybody equal

Outside the limits of the law

Son of a kulak or Red commander

Son of a priest or commissar . . .Here classes were all equalized,

All men were brothers, camp mates all,

randed as traitors every one . . .

!ale"ander tvardovsky,

#y Ri$ht of %emory#

This is a history of the Gulag: a history of the vast et!or" of la#or $a%&s that !ere o$e

s$attere' a$ross the legth a' #rea'th of the Soviet Uio, fro% the isla's of the (hite Sea

to the shores of the )la$" Sea, fro% the Ar$ti$ Cir$le to the &lais of $etral Asia, fro%

*ur%as" to +or"uta to a-a"hsta, fro% $etral *os$o! to the Leigra' su#ur#s. Literally,

the !or' GULAG is a a$roy%, %eaig Glavoe U&ravleie Lagerei, or *ai Ca%&

A'%iistratio. Over ti%e, the !or' /Gulag0 has also $o%e to sigify ot oly the

a'%iistratio of the $o$etratio $a%&s #ut also the syste% of Soviet slave la#or itself, i all

its for%s a' varieties: la#or $a%&s, &uish%et $a%&s, $ri%ial a' &oliti$al $a%&s, !o%e1s

$a%&s, $hil're1s $a%&s, trasit $a%&s. 2ve %ore #roa'ly, /3Gulag0 has $o%e to %ea the

Soviet re&ressive syste% itself, the set of &ro$e'ures that &risoers o$e $alle' the /%eat4

gri'er0: the arrests, the iterrogatios, the tras&ort i uheate' $attle $ars, the for$e' la#or,

the 'estru$tio of fa%ilies, the years s&et i e5ile, the early a' ue$essary 'eaths.

The Gulag ha' ate$e'ets i C-arist Russia, i the for$e'4la#or #riga'es that o&erate' i

Si#eria fro% the seveteeth $etury to the #egiig of the t!etieth. It the too" o its

%o'er a' %ore fa%iliar for% al%ost i%%e'iately after the Russia Revolutio, #e$o%ig a

itegral &art of the Soviet syste%. *ass terror agaist real a' allege' o&&oets !as a &art

of the Revolutio fro% the very #egiig6a' #y the su%%er of 7879, Lei, the Revolutio1s

lea'er, ha' alrea'y 'e%a'e' that /urelia#le ele%ets0 #e lo$"e' u& i $o$etratio $a%&s

outsi'e %aor to!s. A strig of aristo$rats, %er$hats, a' other &eo&le 'efie' as &otetial

/ee%ies0 !ere 'uly i%&risoe'. )y 78;7, there !ere alrea'y eighty4four $a%&s i forty4three

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&rovi$es, %ostly 'esige' to /reha#ilitate0 these first ee%ies of the &eo&le.

=ro% 78;8, the $a%&s too" o a e! sigifi$a$e. I that year, Stali 'e$i'e' to use for$e'

la#or #oth to s&ee' u& the Soviet Uio1s i'ustriali-atio, a' to e5$avate the atural

resour$es i the Soviet Uio1s #arely ha#ita#le far orth. I that year, the Soviet se$ret &oli$e

also #ega to ta"e $otrol of the Soviet &eal syste%, slo!ly !restig all of the $outry1s

$a%&s a' &risos a!ay fro% the u'i$ial esta#lish%et. Hel&e' alog #y the %ass arrests of

78>? a' 78>9, the $a%&s etere' a &erio' of ra&i' e5&asio. )y the e' of the 78>@s, they

$oul' #e fou' i every oe of the Soviet Uio1s t!elve ti%e -oes.

Cotrary to &o&ular assu%&tio, the Gulag 'i' ot $ease gro!ig i the 78>@s, #ut rather

$otiue' to e5&a' throughout the Se$o' (orl' (ar a' the 78@s, rea$hig its a&e5 i the

early 78B@s. )y that ti%e the $a%&s ha' $o%e to &lay a $etral role i the Soviet e$oo%y.

They &ro'u$e' a thir' of the $outry1s gol', %u$h of its $oal a' ti%#er, a' a great 'eal of

al%ost everythig else. I the $ourse of the Soviet Uio1s e5iste$e, at least ? 'isti$t

$a%& $o%&le5es $a%e ito #eig, $o%&risig thousa's of i'ivi'ual $a%&s, ea$h of !hi$h

$otaie' ay!here fro% a fe! hu're' to %ay thousa's of &eo&le. The &risoers !or"e'

i al%ost every i'ustry i%agia#le6loggig, %iig, $ostru$tio, fa$tory !or", far%ig, the

'esigig of air&laes a' artillery6a' live', i effe$t, i a $outry !ithi a $outry, al%ost a

se&arate $ivili-atio. The Gulag ha' its o! la!s, its o! $usto%s, its o! %orality, eve its

o! slag. It s&a!e' its o! literature, its o! villais, its o! heroes, a' it left its %ar"

u&o all !ho &asse' through it, !hether as &risoers or guar's. Years after #eig release', the

Gulag1s iha#itats !ere ofte a#le to re$ogi-e for%er i%ates o the street si%&ly fro% /the

loo" i their eyes.0

Su$h e$outers !ere freuet, for the $a%&s ha' a large turover. Although arrests !ere

$ostat, so too !ere releases.


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'is%atle the%. Three %aor re#ellios, alog !ith a host of s%aller #ut o less 'agerous

i$i'ets, hel&e' to a$$elerate the &ro$ess.

Nevertheless, the $a%&s 'i' ot 'isa&&ear altogether. Istea', they evolve'. Throughout the

78?@s a' early 789@s, a fe! of the% !ere re'esige' a' &ut to use as &risos for a e!

geeratio of 'e%o$rati$ a$tivists, ati4Soviet atioalists6a' $ri%ials. Tha"s to the Soviet

'issi'et et!or" a' the iteratioal hu%a rights %ove%et, e!s of these &ost4Staliist

$a%&s a&&eare' regularly i the (est. Gra'ually, they $a%e to &lay a role i Col' (ar

'i&lo%a$y. 2ve i the 789@s, the A%eri$a


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If there is a 'earth of feelig a#out Staliis% a%og @s !ere useful #e$ause they &ro%ote' u&!ar' %o#ility a' therefore lai'

the grou'!or" for &erestroi"a. It is &ossi#le6still6for a )ritish literary e'itor to ree$t a

arti$le #e$ause it is /too ati4Soviet.0 =ar %ore $o%%o, ho!ever, is a rea$tio of #ore'o% or

i'iffere$e to Staliist terror. A other!ise straightfor!ar' revie! of a #oo" I !rote a#out the

!ester re&u#li$s of the for%er Soviet Uio i the 788@s $otaie' the follo!ig lie:0Here

o$$urre' the terror fa%ie of the 78>@s, i !hi$h Stali "ille' %ore U"raiias tha Hitler

%ur'ere' Fe!s. Yet ho! %ay i the (est re%e%#er itJ After all, the "illig !as so6so #orig,

a' ostesi#ly u'ra%ati$.0

These are all s%all thigs: the &ur$hase of a tri"et, a &hiloso&her1s re&utatio, the &rese$e

or a#se$e of Holly!oo' fil%s. )ut &ut the% all together a' they %a"e a story. Itelle$tually,

A%eri$as a' (est 2uro&eas "o! !hat ha&&ee' i the Soviet Uio. Ale5a'er

Sol-heitsy1s a$$lai%e' ovel a#out life i the $a%&s, Oe Day i the Life of Iva Deisovi$h,

!as &u#lishe' i the (est i several laguages i 78;6 . His oral history of the $a%&s, The

Gulag Ar$hi&elago, $ause' %u$h $o%%et !he it a&&eare', agai i several laguages, i

78?>. I'ee', The Gulag Ar$hi&elago le' to a %ior itelle$tual revolutio i so%e $outries,

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%ost ota#ly =ra$e, $overtig !hole s!athes of the =re$h Left to a ati4Soviet &ositio.

*ay %ore revelatios a#out the Gulag !ere %a'e 'urig the 789@s, the glasost years, a'

they too re$eive' 'ue &u#li$ity a#roa'.

Nevertheless, to %ay &eo&le, the $ri%es of Stali 'o ot is&ire the sa%e vis$eral rea$tio as

'o the $ri%es of Hitler. e Livigstoe, a for%er )ritish *e%#er of


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so$ial usti$e, euality for all6are si%&ly far %ore attra$tive to %ost i the (est tha the Na-i

a'vo$a$y of ra$is% a' the triu%&h of the strog over the !ea". 2ve if $o%%uist i'eology

%eat so%ethig very 'ifferet i &ra$ti$e, it !as har'er for the itelle$tual 'es$e'ats ofthe A%eri$a a' =re$h Revolutios to $o'e% a syste% !hi$h sou'e', at least, si%ilar to

their o!.


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789@s, a$uaita$es tol' %e ot to #other $otiuig !ith the su#e$t i gra'uate s$hool,

si$e there !ere too %ay 'iffi$ulties ivolve': i those 'ays, those !ho !rote /favora#ly0

a#out the Soviet Uio !o %ore a$$ess to ar$hives, %ore a$$ess to offi$ial ifor%atio,loger visas i the $outry. Those !ho 'i' ot ris"e' e5&ulsio a' &rofessioal 'iffi$ulties as

a $oseue$e. It goes !ithout sayig, of $ourse, that o outsi'ers !ere allo!e' a$$ess to ay

%aterial a#out Stali1s $a%&s or a#out the &ost4Staliist &riso syste%. The su#e$t si%&ly 'i'

ot e5ist, a' those !ho &rie' too 'ee& lost their right to stay i the $outry.


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%oogra&hs #ase' o e! 'o$u%ets, as !ell as $olle$tios of 'o$u%ets the%selves. Agai,

si%ilar !or" is #eig $arrie' out else!here, %ost ota#ly #y the arta So$iety i


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%usi$al &ro'u$tios &ut o #y $a%& theaters, all "e&t at the Russia State Ar$hive i *os$o!.

I also $osulte' re$or's of


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Havig sai' !hat this #oo" is, I !oul' also li"e to say !hat it is ot: it is ot a history of the

USSR, a history of the &urges, or a history of re&ressio i geeral. It is ot a history of

Stali1s reig, or of his @s. So%e !ere e5ile' for their

ethi$ity, i$lu'ig


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also horri#le, u#eara#le, a' ihu%a, a' 'eath rates !ere as high outsi'e the $a%&s as

they !ere !ithi the%.

Certaily it is o $oi$i'e$e that the first Soviet $a%&s !ere set u& i the i%%e'iate

after%ath of the #loo'y, violet, a' $haoti$ Russia Revolutio either. Durig the Revolutio,

the terror i%&ose' after!ar', a' the su#seuet $ivil !ar, it see%e' to %ay i Russia as if

$ivili-atio itself ha' #ee &er%aetly fra$ture'. /Death sete$es !ere %ete' out

ar#itrarily,0 the historia Ri$har'


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a #la"et3 of Taya $ho"ig i her agoy3 of %e a' *a%a, the last oes, tru'gig through

s%o"e a' thu'er i the #urig ste&&e.0

The &o&ulatio of the Gulag a' the &o&ulatio of the rest of the USSR share' %ay thigs

#esi'es sufferig. )oth i the $a%&s a' outsi'e the%, it !as &ossi#le to fi' the sa%e

slovely !or"ig &ra$ti$es, the sa%e $ri%ially stu&i' #ureau$ra$y, the sa%e $orru&tio, a'

the sa%e sulle 'isregar' for hu%a life. (hile !ritig this #oo", I 'es$ri#e' to a


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u%#er of $ri%ials . . . #ut oe of this has aythig to 'o !ith us, it1s ust ot iterestig . .

.

I retros&e$t, it is easy to fi', i the history of the C-arist &riso syste%, %ay e$hoes of

&ra$ti$es later a&&lie' i the Soviet Gulag. Li"e the Gulag, for e5a%&le, Si#eria e5ile !as

ever ite'e' e5$lusively for $ri%ials. A la! of 7?> 'e$lare' that if a village 'e$i'e'

so%eoe i its %i'st !as a #a' iflue$e o others, the village el'ers $oul' 'ivi'e u& the

ufortuate1s &ro&erty a' or'er hi% to %ove else!here. If he faile' to fi' aother a#o'e,

the state $oul' the se' hi% ito e5ile. I'ee', this la! !as $ite' #y hrush$hev i 789, as

&art of his su$$essful argu%et for e5ilig $olle$tive far%ers !ho !ere 'ee%e' isuffi$ietly

ethusiasti$ a' har'4!or"ig.

The &ra$ti$e of e5ilig &eo&le !ho si%&ly 'i'1t fit i $otiue' throughout the ieteeth

$etury. I his #oo", Si#eria a' the 25ile Syste%, George ea6u$le of the A%eri$a

states%a6'es$ri#e' the syste% of /a'%iistrative &ro$ess0 that he o#serve' i Russia i

7987:

The o#o5ious &erso %ay ot #e guilty of ay $ri%e . . . #ut if, i the o&iio of the lo$al

authorities, his &rese$e i a &arti$ular &la$e is /&reu'i$ial to &u#li$ or'er0 or /i$o%&ati#le

!ith &u#li$ trauility,0 he %ay #e arreste' !ithout !arrat, %ay #e hel' fro% t!o !ee"s to

t!o years i &riso, a' %ay the #e re%ove' #y for$e to ay other &la$e !ithi the li%its of

the e%&ire a' there #e &ut u'er &oli$e surveilla$e for a &erio' of fro% oe to te years.

A'%iistrative e5ile6!hi$h reuire' o trial a' o sete$ig &ro$e'ure6!as a i'eal

&uish%et ot oly for trou#le%a"ers as su$h, #ut also for &oliti$al o&&oets of the regi%e.

I the early 'ays, %ay of these !ere


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&ro#le% that ha' ra"le' for %ay $eturies: the u'er&o&ulatio of the far east a' the far

orth of the Russia la'%ass, a' the Russia 2%&ire1s $oseuet failure to e5&loit Russia1s

atural resour$es. (ith that i %i', the Russia state #ega, as early as the eighteeth$etury, to sete$e so%e of its &risoers to for$e' la#or6a for% of &uish%et !hi$h #e$a%e

"o! as "atorga, fro% the Gree" !or' "ateirgo, /to for$e.0 atorga ha' a log Russia

&rehistory. I the early eighteeth $etury,


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grou'. The !ealthier e5iles a' e54&risoers so%eti%es #uilt u& large estates. The %ore

e'u$ate' #e$a%e 'o$tors a' la!yers, or ra s$hools.


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ti%e, o the sa%e $otiet. Hitler "e! of the Soviet $a%&s, a' Stali "e! of the

Holo$aust. There !ere &risoers !ho e5&erie$e' a' 'es$ri#e' the $a%&s of #oth syste%s.

At a very 'ee& level, the t!o syste%s are relate'.

They are relate', first of all, #e$ause #oth Na-is% a' Soviet $o%%uis% e%erge' out of the

#ar#ari$ e5&erie$es of the =irst (orl' (ar a' the Russia $ivil !ar, !hi$h follo!e' o its

heels. The i'ustriali-e' %etho's of !arfare &ut ito !i'e use 'urig #oth of these $ofli$ts

geerate' a eor%ous itelle$tual a' artisti$ res&ose at the ti%e. Less oti$e'6e5$e&t, of

$ourse, #y the %illios of vi$ti%s6!as the !i'es&rea' use of i'ustriali-e' %etho's of

i$ar$eratio. )oth si'es $ostru$te' iter%et $a%&s a' &risoer4of4!ar $a%&s a$ross

2uro&e fro% 787 o. I 7879 there !ere ;.; %illio &risoers of !ar o Russia territory.

Ne! te$hology6the %ass &ro'u$tio of gus, of ta"s, eve of #ar#e' !ire6%a'e these a'

later $a%&s &ossi#le. I'ee', so%e of the first Soviet $a%&s !ere a$tually #uilt o to& of =irst

(orl' (ar &risoer4of4!ar $a%&s.

The Soviet a' Na-i $a%&s are also relate' #e$ause they #elog, together, to the !i'er history

of $o$etratio $a%&s, !hi$h #ega at the e' of the ieteeth $etury. )y $o$etratio

$a%&s, I %ea $a%&s $ostru$te' to i$ar$erate &eo&le ot for !hat they ha' 'oe, #ut for

!ho they !ere. Uli"e $ri%ial &riso $a%&s, or &risoer4of4!ar $a%&s, $o$etratio $a%&s

!ere #uilt for a &arti$ular ty&e of o$ri%ial $ivilia &risoer, the %e%#er of a /ee%y0

grou&, or at ay rate of a $ategory of &eo&le !ho, for reasos of their ra$e or their &resu%e'

&oliti$s, !ere u'ge' to #e 'agerous or e5traeous to so$iety.

A$$or'ig to this 'efiitio, the first %o'er $o$etratio $a%&s !ere set u& ot i Ger%ay

or Russia, #ut i $oloial Cu#a, i 798B. I that year, i a effort to &ut a e' to a series of

lo$al isurge$ies, i%&erial S&ai #ega to &re&are a &oli$y of re$o$etra$i, ite'e' to

re%ove the Cu#a &easats fro% their la' a' /re$o$etrate0 the% i $a%&s, there#y

'e&rivig the isurgets of foo', shelter, a' su&&ort. )y 78@@, the S&aish ter%

re$o$etra$i ha' alrea'y #ee traslate' ito 2glish, a' !as use' to 'es$ri#e a si%ilar

)ritish &roe$t, iitiate' for si%ilar reasos, 'urig the )oer (ar i South Afri$a: )oer $ivilias

!ere /$o$etrate'0 ito $a%&s, i or'er to 'e&rive )oer $o%#atats of shelter a' su&&ort.

=ro% there, the i'ea s&rea' further. It $ertaily see%s, for e5a%&le, as if the ter% "otslager

first a&&eare' i Russia as a traslatio fro% the 2glish /$o$etratio $a%&,0 &ro#a#ly

tha"s to Trots"y1s fa%iliarity !ith the history of the )oer (ar. I 78@, Ger%a $oloists i

Deuts$he Su'4(est Afri"a also a'o&te' the )ritish %o'el6!ith oe variatio. Istea' of %erely

lo$"ig u& the regio1s ative iha#itats, a tri#e $alle' the Herero, they %a'e the% $arry out

for$e' la#or o #ehalf of the Ger%a $oloy.

There are a u%#er of strage a' eerie li"s #et!ee these first Ger%a4Afri$a la#or $a%&s

a' those #uilt i Na-i Ger%ay three 'e$a'es later. It !as tha"s to these souther Afri$a

la#or $oloies, for e5a%&le, that the !or' o-etratioslager first a&&eare' i the Ger%a

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laguage, i 78@B. The first i%&erial $o%%issioer of Deuts$he Su'4(est Afri"a !as oe Dr.

Heiri$h Goerig, the father of Her%a, !ho set u& the first Na-i $a%&s i 78>>. It !as also

i these Afri$a $a%&s that the first Ger%a %e'i$al e5&eri%ets !ere $o'u$te' o hu%as:t!o of Fose&h *egele1s tea$hers, Theo'or *olliso a' 2uge =is$her, $arrie' out resear$h o

the Herero, the latter i a atte%&t to &rove his theories a#out the su&eriority of the !hite

ra$e. )ut they !ere ot uusual i their #eliefs. I 787;, a #est4sellig Ger%a #oo", Ger%a

Thought i the (orl', $lai%e' that othig $a $ovi$e reasoa#le &eo&le that the

&reservatio of a tri#e of South Afri$a "affirs is %ore i%&ortat for the future of hu%aity

tha the e5&asio of the great 2uro&ea atios a' the !hite ra$e i geeral . . . it is oly

!he the i'igeous &eo&le have leare' to &ro'u$e so%ethig of value i the servi$e of the

su&erior ra$e . . . that they $a #e sai' to have a %oral right to e5ist.

(hile this theory !as rarely &ut so $learly, si%ilar seti%ets ofte lay ust #eeath the

surfa$e of $oloial &ra$ti$e. Certaily so%e for%s of $oloialis% #oth reifor$e' the %yth of

!hite ra$ial su&eriority a' legiti%i-e' the use of viole$e #y oe ra$e agaist aother. It $a

#e argue', therefore, that the $orru&tig e5&erie$es of so%e 2uro&ea $oloists hel&e' &ave

the !ay for the 2uro&ea totalitariais% of the t!etieth4$etury. A' ot oly 2uro&ea:

I'oesia is a e5a%&le of a &ost4$oloial state !hose rulers iitially i%&risoe' their $riti$s i

$o$etratio $a%&s, ust as their $oloial %asters ha'.

The Russia 2%&ire, !hi$h ha' uite su$$essfully vauishe' its o! ative &eo&les i its

%ar$h east!ar', !as o e5$e&tio. Durig oe of the 'ier &arties that ta"es &la$e i Leo

Tolstoy1s ovel Aa areia, Aa1s hus#a'6!ho has so%e offi$ial res&osi#ilities for

/Native Tri#es06hol's forth o the ee' for su&erior $ultures to a#sor# iferior oes. At so%e

level, the )olshevi"s, li"e all e'u$ate' Russias, !oul' have #ee a!are of the Russia

2%&ire1s 'estru$tio of the irgi-, )uryats, Tugus, Chu"$hi, a' others. The fa$t that it 'i'1t

&arti$ularly $o$er the%6they, !ho !ere other!ise so itereste' i the fate of the

'o!tro''e6itself i'i$ates so%ethig a#out their us&o"e assu%&tios.

)ut the, full $os$iousess of the history of souther Afri$a or of easter Si#eria !as har'ly

reuire' for the 'evelo&%et of 2uro&ea $o$etratio $a%&s: the otio that so%e ty&es of

&eo&le are su&erior to other ty&es of &eo&le !as $o%%o eough i 2uro&e at the #egiigof the t!etieth $etury. A' this, fially, is !hat li"s the $a%&s of the Soviet Uio a'

those of Na-i Ger%ay i the %ost &rofou' sese of all: #oth regi%es legiti%ate'

the%selves, i &art, #y esta#lishig $ategories of /ee%ies0 or /su#4hu%as0 !ho% they

&erse$ute' a' 'estroye' o a %ass s$ale.

I Na-i Ger%ay, the first targets !ere the $ri&&le' a' the retar'e'. Later, the Na-is

$o$etrate' o Gy&sies, ho%ose5uals, a', a#ove all, o the Fe!s. I the USSR the vi$ti%s

!ere, at first, the /for%er &eo&le06allege' su&&orters of the ol' regi%e6a' later the /ee%ies

of the &eo&le,0 a ill4'efie' ter% !hi$h !oul' $o%e to i$lu'e ot oly allege' &oliti$al

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o&&oets of the regi%e, #ut also &arti$ular atioal grou&s a' ethi$ities, if they see%e'

for eually ill4'efie' reasos to threate the Soviet state or Stali1s &o!er. At 'ifferet

ti%es Stali $o'u$te' %ass arrests of @s, as the !ave of arrests #ega to e5&a', Stali too" this rhetori$ to greater e5tre%es,

'eou$ig the /ee%ies of the &eo&le0 as ver%i, as &ollutio, as /&oisoous !ee's.0 He also

s&o"e of his o&&oets as /filth0 !hi$h ha' to #e /su#e$te' to ogoig &urifi$atio06ust as

Na-i &ro&aga'a !oul' asso$iate Fe!s !ith i%ages of ver%i, of &arasites, of ife$tious

'isease.

O$e 'e%oi-e', the legal isolatio of the ee%y #ega i earest. )efore the Fe!s !ere

a$tually rou'e' u& a' 'e&orte' to $a%&s, they !ere 'e&rive' of their status as Ger%a

$iti-es. They !ere for#i''e to !or" as $ivil servats, as la!yers, as u'ges3 for#i''e to

%arry Aryas3 for#i''e to atte' Arya s$hools3 for#i''e to 'is&lay the Ger%a flag3 for$e'

to !ear gol' stars of Davi'3 a' su#e$te' to #eatigs a' hu%iliatio o the street. )efore

their a$tual arrest i Stali1s Soviet Uio, /ee%ies0 !ere also routiely hu%iliate' i &u#li$

%eetigs, fire' fro% their o#s, e5&elle' fro% the Co%%uist


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the !riter Gitta Serey as"e' Stagl !hy $a%& i%ates, #efore #eig "ille', !ere also #eate,

hu%iliate', a' 'e&rive' of their $lothig. Stagl as!ere', /To $o'itio those !ho a$tually

ha' to $arry out the &oli$ies. To %a"e it &ossi#le for the% to 'o !hat they 'i'.0 I The Or'er ofTerror: The Co$etratio Ca%&, the Ger%a so$iologist (olfgag Sofs"y has also sho! ho!

the 'ehu%ai-atio of &risoers i the Na-i $a%&s !as %etho'i$ally #uilt ito every as&e$t of

$a%& life, fro% the tor, i'eti$al $lothig, to the 'e&rivatio of &riva$y, to the heavy

regulatio, to the $ostat e5&e$tatio of 'eath.

I the Soviet syste%, the 'ehu%ai-atio &ro$ess also #ega at the %o%et of arrest, as !e

shall see, !he &risoers !ere stri&&e' of their $lothes a' i'etity, 'eie' $ota$t !ith

outsi'ers, torture', iterrogate', a' &ut through far$i$al trials, if they !ere trie' at all. I a

&e$uliarly Soviet t!ist o the &ro$ess, &risoers !ere 'eli#erately /e5$o%%ui$ate'0 fro%

Soviet life, for#i''e to refer to oe aother as /$o%ra'e,0 a', fro% 78>? o, &rohi#ite' fro%

earig the $ovete' title of /sho$"4!or"er,0 o %atter ho! !ell they #ehave' or ho! har' they

!or"e'.


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a%esties. It so%eti%es ha&&ee' that !hole $ategories of /ee%ies0 su''ely #eefite'

fro% a $hage i status. Stali arreste' hu're's of thousa's of 86a' the a#ru&tly release' the% fro% the Gulag i787 !he


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These are fie 'isti$tios, #ut they %atter. Although the Gulag a' Aus$h!it- 'o #elog to

the sa%e itelle$tual a' histori$al tra'itio, they are evertheless se&arate a' 'isti$t, #oth

fro% oe aother a' fro% $a%& syste%s set u& #y other regi%es. The i'ea of the$o$etratio $a%& %ay #e geeral eough to #e use' i %ay 'ifferet $ultures a'

situatios, #ut eve a su&erfi$ial stu'y of the $o$etratio $a%&1s $ross4$ultural history

reveals that the s&e$ifi$ 'etails6ho! life i the $a%&s !as orgai-e', ho! the $a%&s

'evelo&e' over ti%e, ho! rigi' or 'isorgai-e' they #e$a%e, ho! $ruel or li#eral they

re%aie'6'e&e'e' o the &arti$ular $outry, o the $ulture, a' o the regi%e. To those !ho

!ere tra&&e' #ehi' #ar#e' !ire, these 'etails !ere $riti$al to their life, health, a' survival.

I fa$t, rea'ig the a$$outs of those !ho survive' #oth, oe is stru$" %ore #y the 'iffere$es

#et!ee the vi$ti%s1 e5&erie$es tha #y the 'iffere$es #et!ee the t!o $a%& syste%s. 2a$h

tale has its o! uiue ualities, ea$h $a%& hel' 'ifferet sorts of horrors for &eo&le of

'ifferet $hara$ters. I Ger%ay you $oul' 'ie of $ruelty, i Russia you $oul' 'ie of 'es&air. I

Aus$h!it- you $oul' 'ie i a gas $ha%#er, i oly%a you $oul' free-e to 'eath i the so!.

You $oul' 'ie i a Ger%a forest or a Si#eria !astela', you $oul' 'ie i a %iig a$$i'et or

you $oul' 'ie i a $attle trai. )ut i the e', the story of your life !as your o!.

A N N 2 A < < L 2 ) A U * < A G 2 ; 7

Gulag Ahistory Introduction

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Transcript of Gulag Ahistory Introduction