GUIDED READING The Enlightenment in...

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GUIDED READING The Enlightenment in EuropeSection 2

A. Summarizing As you read this section, fill in the diagram by describing the beliefsof Enlightenment thinkers and writers.

I.Voltaire 2. Montesquieu 3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Enlightenment Philosophers and Writers

4. Cesare Bonesana Beccaria 5. Mary Wollstonecraft

B. Drawing Conclusions How did Enlightenment thinkers and writers set the stagefor revolutionary movements?

C. Contrasting On the back of this paper, write a paragraph contrasting ThomasHobbes's social contract view of government with the political philosophy of JohnLocke.

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26 UNIT 2, CHAPTER 6

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• GUIDED READING The Enlightenment SpreadsSection 3

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A. Drawing Conclusions As you read about art, literature, and politics in the Age ofReason, explain how each of the following people reflected Enlightenment ideas.

The Arts

1. Denis Diderot

2. Franz Joseph Haydn

3. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

4. Ludwig van Beethoven

5. Samuel Richardson

6. Frederick the Great

7. Joseph II

8. Catherine the Great

Government

B. Summarizing On the back of this paper, define the following terms:

salon baroque neoclassical enlightened despot

Enlightenment and Revolution 27

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GUIDED READING The American RevolutionSection 4

A. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects As you read this section, note somecauses and effects relating to the American Revolution and the establishment ofthe United States as a republic.

Causes Events Effects

1. British parliament passes StampAct.

2. British close Boston harbor andstation troops in city.

3. Second Continental Congressvotes to form an army undercommand of George Washington.

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4. France enters the war in 1778.

5. By approving the Articles ofConfederation, states create aweak national government.

B. Writing Expository Paragraphs On the back of this paper, write one or two para-graphs explaining how the Declaration of Independence and the U.S.Constitution reflect Enlightenment ideas about government. Use the followingterms in your writing:

checks and balances federal system Bill of Rights

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BUILDING VOCABULARY Enlightenment and Revolution

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A. Matching Match the description in the second column with the term or name inthe first column. Write the appropriate letter next to the word.

1. Galileo Galilei

2. Isaac Newton

3. Enlightenment

4. Catherine the Great

5. John Locke

6. Montesquieu

7. Voltaire

8. Mary Wollstonecraft

a. English philosopher who proposed that a government'spower comes from the consent of the citizens and thatcitizens have the right to rebel against unjust rulers

b. Russian empress who was considered an enlightened despot

c. Italian scientist who made astronomical observationsthat supported the theories of Copernicus

d. early proponent of women's rights

e. English scientist who discovered the law of gravity

f. French philosophe who promoted freedom of speech

g. French writer who proposed the ideas of separation ofpowers and checks and balances in government

h. intellectual movement that stressed reason and thoughtand the power of individuals to solve problems

B. Completion Select the term or name that best completes the sentence.

salonsneoclassical

enlightened despotchecks and balances

social contractfederal system

Declaration of IndependenceBill of Rights

1. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, the grand, ornate style in European artknown as baroque gave way to a simple, elegant style that was based on classical Greekand Roman ideas and was called

2. A form of government in which power is divided between national and state governmentsis a

3. The document in which American colonists asserted their independence from Great Britainwas the

4. The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known as the

_, wealthy hostesses of Paris helped spread5. In social gatherings calledthe ideas of the Enlightenment to educated Europeans.

6. Thomas Hobbes called the agreement by which people create a government the

C. Writing Write a paragraph explaining the following terms and how they are related.

geocentric theory Scientific Revolution heliocentric theory scientific method


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Section 1

GEOGRAPHY APPLICATION: LOCATION

Three Theories of the Solar SystemDirections: Read the paragraphs below and study the illustrations carefully. Thenanswer the questions that follow.

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In the second century A.D., Claudius Ptolemy, anastronomer who lived in Egypt, claimed that the

sun, stars, and other planets revolved around theearth. These ideas were unchallenged nearly 1,300years until Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish astronomer,discovered his revolutionary theory about the sun.

Ptolemy had believed in his geocentric or earth-centered view for several reasons. First, because ofgravity all objects were attracted to the earth, whichsuggested to him that the earth must be the center.Second, he thought that the earth did not move.He showed how an object is thrown in the air andfalls in practically the same place. If the earth moved,he theorized, that object should fall in a differentplace. Even today, these arguments would be diffi-cult to disprove by observation. As a result, Ptolemy'sviews remained undisputed for centuries.

/Venus .... ./ / .C Moon/ / / f~\ V ^̂ /

^--Ea

OMars. Sun

PTOLEMY

•: Mercury

Sun

.Mars ...

During the 1500s, Copernicus did not acceptthe Ptolemaic view. He became convinced that adifferent explanation of the solar system existed.After 25 years of observation, Copernicus conclud-ed that the sun was the center of the solar systemand that the planets, including the earth, revolvedaround the sun in "perfect divine circles."

Copernicus's conclusion at first went practicallyunnoticed. However, in the 1600s a Germanastronomer, Johannes Kepler, supported Copernicus'sbelief with mathematics. He also proved that theplanets travel in ellipses (ovals), not perfect circles,around the sun. Both Copernicus's and Kepler'sbreakthroughs laid the foundation of modern dayknowledge of the solar system.

Mercury

Moon

Earth

mSun f?\• ••"' Venus

fc. '"•"-- •••-"" /Mars...

COPERNICUS

0Venus

KEPLER


Name Three Theories of the Solar System continued

Interpreting Text and Visuals

1. What object did Ptolemy claim was at the center of the universe?

2. What object did Copernicus conclude was actually at the center of the universe?

3. What object is farthest from the center in all three systems?

4. What object is closest to the earth in all three systems?

5. According to Ptolemy, where was the sun in relation to Earth and the other planets?

6. According to Copernicus, what planets are located between the sun and the Earth?

7. What is the main difference between Kepler's system and the Copernican system?

8. Compare the way Ptolemy provided proof for his theory with the way Kepler provided proof

for his theory.

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Do you think Ptolemy's proof of his beliefs would be acceptable today? Why or why not?01</>

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RETEACHING ACTIVITY Tk0 Scientific

Section 1

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Determining Main Ideas The following questions deal with new theories of scien-tific exploration of the mid-1500s. Answer them in the space provided.

1. Explain the differences between the geocentric theory of the universe and the

heliocentric theory.

2. What are two factors that contributed to the rise of a Scientific Revolution in Europe

in the mid-1500s?

3. How did Galileo's work come into conflict with the Church, and how was that conflict resolved?

4. List three new scientific instruments that were invented as a result of the Scientific Revolution.

Reading Comprehension Find the name or term in the second column that bestmatches the description in the first column. Then write the letter of your answer inthe blank.

5. Aristotle's earth-centered theory of the universe

6. A new way of thinking about the natural world based oncareful observation and a willingness to question acceptedbeliefs

7. Copernicus's sun-centered theory of the universe

8. Italian scientist whose findings in the field of astronomysupported Copernicuss theory

9. A logical procedure for gathering and testing scientificideas

10. English scientist who explained the law of gravity

a. Scientific Revolution

b. Galileo Galilei

c. scientific method

d. geocentric theory

e. Isaac Newton

f. heliocentric theoiy

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ACTIVITY The Enlightenment SpreadsSection 3

Summarizing Complete the chart below by summarizing the significance of each ofthe people, events, or situations to the spread of Enlightenment ideas.

Person/Event/Situation Significance

Diderot's Encyclopedia

2. Neoclassical style

3. Changes in music duringthe Enlightenment

4. Changes in literature duringthe Enlightenment

5. Enlightened despots

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6. Frederick

76O)^o91. Catherine the Great


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Section 2

PRIMARY SOURCE from The Social Contractby Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In The Social Contract, published in 1762, the philosophe—a writer during the18th century French Enlightenment—Jean-Jacques Rousseau outlined his ideasabout individual freedom and obedience to authority. As you read this excerpt,think about Rousseau's argument against the use of force as a means of govern-ing the people.

Chapter I—Subject of theFirst Book

Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains.One thinks himself the master of others, and stillremains a greater slave than they. How did thischange come about? I do not know. What can makeit legitimate? That question I think I can answer.

If I took into account only force, and the effectsderived from it, I should say: "As long as a people iscompelled to obey, and obeys, it does well; as soonas it can shake off the yoke, and shakes it off, itdoes still better; for, regaining its liberty by thesame right as took it away, either it is justified inresuming it or there was no justification for thosewho took it away." But the social order is a sacredright which is the basis of all rights. Nevertheless,this right does not come from nature, and musttherefore be founded on conventions. Before coming tothat, I have to prove what I have just asserted.

Chapter 111—The Right of theStrongest

The strongest is never strong enough to bealways the master, unless he transforms strengthinto right, and obedience into duty. Hence the rightof the strongest, which, though to all seeming meantironically, is really laid down as a fundamental prin-ciple. But are we never to have an explanation ofthis phrase? Force is a physical power, and I fail tosee what moral effect it can have. To yield to forceis an act of necessity, not of will—at the most, anact of prudence. In what sense can it be a duty?

Suppose for a moment that this so-called "right"exists. I maintain that the sole result is a mass ofinexplicable nonsense. For, if force creates right,the effect changes with the cause: eveiy force thatis greater than the first succeeds to its right. Assoon as it is possible to disobey with impunity, dis-

obedience is legitimate; and, the strongest beingalways in the right, the only thing that matters is toact so as to become the strongest. But what kind ofright is that which perishes when force fails? If wemust obey perforce, there is no need to obeybecause we ought; and if we are not forced to obey,we are under no obligation to do so. Clearly, theword "right" adds nothing to force: in this connec-tion, it means absolutely nothing.

Obey the powers that be. If this means yield toforce, it is a good precept, but superfluous: I cananswer for its never being violated. All power comesfrom God, I admit; but so does all sickness: does thatmean that we are forbidden to call in the doctor? Abrigand [bandit] surprises me at the edge of a wood:must I not merely surrender my purse on compul-sion, but, even if I could withhold it, am I in con-science bound to give it up? For certainly the pistolhe holds is also a power.

Let us then admit that force does not createright, and that we are obliged to obey only legitimatepowers. In that case, my original question recurs.

from Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract andDiscourses and Other Essays, trans, by G.D.H. Cole (E.P.Button & Company, Inc., 1950). Reprinted in Peter Gay,ed., The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology (NewYork: Simon and Schuster, 1973), 322-325.

Discussion QuestionsAnalyzing Issues1. Which did Rousseau believe was better—a gov-

ernment freely formed by the people or oneimposed on a people by force?

2. Did Rousseau believe that it was the right of thestrongest to rule?

3. Making Inferences How would you compareLocke's ideas about government with Rousseau's?

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Section 2

PRIMARY SOURCE from Two Treatises on Governmentby John Locke

English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) attacked absolute monarchy andpromoted the concept of government by the people in his most famous work,Two Treatises on Government. Published in 1690, his book influenced the ideasof the philosophes Baron de Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau as well asthe framers of the United States Constitution. At the heart of Locke's argumentwas his belief that all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights:life, liberty, and property. As you read the following excerpt, think about howLocke defined one of these rights—liberty.

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Of Slavery22. The Natural Liberty of Man is to be free from

any Superior Power on Earth, and not to beunder the Will or Legislative Authority of Man,but to have only the Law of Nature for hisRule. The Liberty of Man, in Society, is to beunder no other Legislative Power, but thatestablished by consent, in the Common-wealth,nor but what the Dominion of any Will, orRestraint of any Law, but what the Legislativeshall enact, according to the Trust put in it.Freedom then is not what Sir R. F. tells us, O.A.55 [224]. A Liberty for every one to do what helists, to live as he pleases, and, not to be tyed byany Laws: But Freedom of Men underGovernment, is, to have a standing Rule to liveby, common to every one of that Society, andmade by the Legislative Power erected in it; ALiberty to follow my own Will in all things,where the Rule prescribes not; and not to besubject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown,Arbitrary Will of another Man. As Freedom ofNature is to be under no other restraint but theLaw of Nature.

23. This Freedom from Absolute, Arbitrary Power,is so necessaiy to, and closely joyned with aMans Preservation, that he cannot part with it,but by what forfeits his Preservation and Lifetogether. For a Man, not having the Power ofhis own Life, cannot, by Compact, or his ownConsent, enslave himself to any one, nor puthimself under the Absolute, Arbitrary Power ofanother, to take away his Life, when he pleases.No body can give more Power than he has him-

self; and he that cannot take away his own Life,cannot give another power over it. Indeed hav-ing, by his fault, forfeited his own Life, by someAct that deserves Death; he, to whom he hasforfeited it, may (when he has him in hisPower) delay to take it, and make use of him tohis own Service, and he does him no injury byit. For, whenever he finds the hardship of hisSlavery out-weigh the value of his Life, 'tis inhis Power, by resisting the Will of his Master, todraw on himself the Death he desires.

24. This is the perfect condition of Slavery, which isnothing else, but the State of War continued,between a lawful Conquerour, and a Captive.For, if once Compact enter between them, andmake an agreement for a limited Power on theone side, and Obedience on the other, the Stateof War and Slavery ceases, as long as theCompact endures. For, as has been said, noMan can, by agreement, pass over to anotherthat which he hath not in himself, a Power overhis own Life.

Activity Options1. Summarizing Paraphrase Locke's definition of

liberty in your own words. Then share your defi-nition with classmates.

2. Recognizing Point of View In this excerpt,Locke refers to Sir Robert Filmer, an author whopromoted the royal view of the basis of govern-mental power. With a partner, role-play a conver-sation between Locke and Sir Robert Filmerabout freedom and the role of government.


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Section 2

PRIMARY SOURCE from A Vindication of the Rightsof Womanby Mary Wollstonecraft

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published by the English writer andreformer Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, is one of the earliest feminist essays.According to this excerpt, how did Wollstonecraft feel about the education ofwomen?

Ihave sighed when obliged to confess that eithernature has made a great difference between man

and man or that the civilization which has hithertotaken place in the world has been very partial. Ihave turned over various books written on the sub-ject of education, and patiently observed the conductof parents and the management of schools; butwhat has been the result?—a profound convictionthat the neglected education of my fellow creaturesis the grand source of the misery I deplore; andthat women, in particular, are rendered weak andwretched by a variety of concurring causes, origi-nating from one hasty conclusion. The conduct andmanners of women, in fact, evidently prove thattheir minds are not in a healthy state; for, like theflowers which are planted in too rich a soil, strengthand usefulness are sacrificed to beauty; and theflaunting leaves, after having pleased a fastidiouseye, fade, disregarded on the stalk, long before theseason when they ought to have arrived at maturity.One cause of this barren blooming I attribute to afalse system of education, gathered from the bookswritten on this subject by men who, consideringfemales rather as women than human creatures,have been more anxious to make them alluring mis-tresses than affectionate wives and rational moth-ers; . . . the civilized women of the present century,with a few exceptions, are only anxious to inspirelove, when they ought to cherish a nobler ambition,and by their abilities and virtues exact respect. . . .

Yet, because I am a woman, I would not leadmy readers to suppose that I mean violently to agi-tate the contested question respecting the equalityor inferiority of the sex; b u t . . . I shall stop amoment to deliver, in a few words, my opinion. Inthe government of the physical world it is observ-able that the female in point of strength is, in gen-eral, inferior to the male. This is the law of nature;and it does not appear to be suspended or abrogat-ed [abolished] in favor of woman. A degree of

physical superiority cannot, therefore, be denied—and it is a noble prerogative [right]! But not con-tent with this natural preeminence, men endeavorto sink us still lower, merely to render us alluringobjects for a moment; and women, . . . do not seekto obtain a durable interest in [men's] hearts, or tobecome the friends of the fellow creatures who findamusement in their society.

I am aware of an obvious inference: from everyquarter have I heard exclamations against masculinewomen; but where are they to be found? If by thisappellation [name] men mean to inveigh [protest]against their ardor in hunting, shooting, and gam-ing, I shall most cordially join in the cry; but if itbe against the imitation of manly virtues, or, moreproperly speaking, the attainment of those talentsand virtues, the exercise of which ennobles thehuman character, and which raise females in thescale of animal being, when they are comprehen-sively termed mankind; all those who view themwith a philosophic eye must, I should think, wishwith me that they may every day grow more andmore masculine.

from Barbara H. Solomon and Paula S. Berggren, eds.,A Mary Wollstonecraft Reader (New York: New AmericanLibrary, 1983), 267-269.

Discussion Questions1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

According to Wollstonecraft, what happens whenwomen are not properly educated?

2. Clarifying What is Wollstonecraft's opinion ofthe equality of men and women?

3. Making Inferences Jean-Jacques Rousseaubelieved that a woman's education should pri-marily teach her to become a better wife andmother. How do you think Wollstonecraft wouldhave reacted to his views?

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Section 4

PRIMARY SOURCE from The Declaration ofIndependence

In writing The Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson drew many of hisideas from the works of enlightened thinkers such as John Locke. As you readthe following excerpt from that document issued in July 1776, think about theEnlightenment ideas it reflects.

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"¥ T Then in the Course of human events, itV V becomes necessary for one people to dissolve

the political bands which have connected them withanother, and to assume among the powers of theearth, the separate and equal station to which theLaws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, adecent respect to the opinions of mankind requiresthat they should declare the causes which impelthem to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that allmen are created equal, that they are endowed bytheir Creator with certain unalienable Rights, thatamong these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit ofHappiness; that, to secure these rights, Governmentsare instituted among Men, deriving their just powersfrom the consent of the governed; that wheneverany Form of Government becomes destructive ofthese ends, it is the Right of the People to alter orto abolish it, and to institute new Government, lay-ing its foundation on such principles and organizingits powers in such form, as to them shall seem mostlikely to effect their Safety and Happiness.Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governmentslong established should not be changed for lightand transient causes; and accordingly all experiencehath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suf-fer, while evils are sufferable, than to right them-selves by abolishing the forms to which they areaccustomed. But when a long train of abuses andusurpations [wrongful exercises of authority], pur-suing invariably the same Object, evinces a designto reduce them under absolute Despotism [a gov-ernment in which the ruler exercises absolutepower], it is their right, it is their duty, to throw offsuch Government, and to provide new Guards fortheir future security.

Such has been the patient sufferance of theseColonies; and such is now the necessity which con-strains them to alter their former Systems ofGovernment. The history of the present King of

Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries andusurpations, all having in direct object the estab-lishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States.To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candidworld. . . .

We, therefore, the Representatives of the UnitedStates of America, in General Congress, Assembled,appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world forthe rectitude [righteousness] of our intentions, do,in the name, and by the Authority of the goodPeople of these Colonies solemnly publish anddeclare, That these United Colonies are, and ofRight ought to be, Free and Independent States;that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to theBritish Crown, and that all political connectionbetween them and the State of Great Britain is,and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that as Freeand Independent States, they have full Power tolevy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, estab-lish Commerce, and do all other Acts and Thingswhich Independent States may of right do.

And for the support of this Declaration, with afirm reliance on the protection of divine Providence,we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, ourFortunes, and our sacred Honor.

Discussion QuestionsDetermining Main Ideas

1. According to the first paragraph, what is the pur-pose of this document?

2. According to the second paragraph, what is thepurpose of government, and when do peoplehave the right to alter or abolish it?

3. Making Inferences Why do you supposeJefferson felt that it was not only the right, butalso the duty, of a people to overthrow a despoticgovernment? How would the history of the worldbe affected if despotism were allowed to reignunchecked?


The Enlightenment, Part I

European scientists and thinkers of the 17th and18th centuries redefined how humans looked at thephysical world—everything from animals to plants,stars to bacteria. In the process, the new sciencebegan to create systems to explain and categorizeinformation. They developed new equations and lawsof nature, all of which weredesigned to explain howthings work in our world andin the universe.

This scientific movementeventually led to a widespreadrethinking of other aspects ofhuman life. Leading Europeanintellectuals and thinkersapplied the same approachesscientists were using toexplain the natural world tosocial questions. Theyreasoned that if nature runs bya set of established rules or laws which cannot bebroken, should not the same be true of humansociety?

Such philosophers created the period in Europeanhistory known as the Enlightenment. It is alsosometimes referred to as the Age of Reason. The termenlightenment was used to refer to the dawning of anew age. This age of light intended to take away thedarkness in people's minds. The new light wassupposed to destroy the darkness of ignorance,intolerance, misinformation, superstition, and blindfaith.

The men and women who led the way in this newrevolution were known as philosophes [filo ZOFS].They took the newly developed scientific method(which argued that the only true knowledge camefrom experience and observation) and applied it tosociety, religion, and government. This approach toreligion formed the basis for the philosophes'rejection of traditional Christian thought. Just asChristianity and the structures of both Protestantismand Catholicism were criticized, the philosophes alsocriticized the secular institutions of Europe. Bycriticizing existing institutions, they hoped to changethem, seeking to rebuild society to reflect natural law.In the end, these great thinkers were suggesting new

approaches and new ideas which ultimately changedthe face of European society.

The new religious ideas developed by thephilosophes came to be known as deism. By applyingscientific methods to their religion, philosophesrejected traditional religious ideas such as divine

inspiration. The philosophes nolonger accepted the authority ofthe Bible, and scoffed at thosewho believed in revelation fromGod. They did not accept theexistence of miracles becausesuch spiritual gifts violated thenatural laws of the universe. Thegreat scientist, Isaac Newton,eventually rejected the idea ofChrist's divinity altogether.

Deists also turned their backson the validity of the Bible.Instead, they believed the only

source of true knowledge was the study of nature.Deists and philosophes argued that the only wayhumans could know what was good or virtuous intheir lives was by looking at the natural world. Thisapproach led them to criticize traditional Christianityand many of the secular institutions of the time,including Absolutism.

Despite such prejudices against organizedreligion, many of the Deists continued to believe inthe existence of God. However, to further theirconcept of a world (philosophes called it the "greatworld-machine") which ran by regular laws andstructures, the Deists began to describe God as the"Great Mechanic."

Others referred to God as simply the Creator orPrime Mover. With this definition, philosophessometimes had a difficult time explaining God'spurpose. Many did not believe He was involved inthe lives of humans or heard their prayers. (Again,Newton believed that God existed for only tworeasons: to fix the great world-machine when neededand to keep the stars fixed in space.) This caused thephilosophes to place their emphasis on this world, notthe spiritual world. They emphasized that the goal ofhumans should be to seek happiness in this life, notsalvation in Heaven.

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The Enlightenment, Part II

The philosophes of the Enlightenment did notalways agree on everything. Most adopted deistideas. Most rejected the role of the supernatural inthe natural world. Many were outspoken critics oftraditional Christianity—especially the CatholicChurch. They had a wide audience. Many of themlived in Paris—the center of the Enlightenment.

Many of the philosophes wrote and publishedtheir ideas, which were widely read. With moreEuropeans literate than ever before, the ideas of thephilosophes circulated rapidly. In England, famousmagazines such as the Spectator helped spreadEnlightenment thought. Hundreds of regularpublications circulated from the British Isles to theGerman states promoting the message of thephilosophes.

Although the Catholic Church attempted to limitthe spread of the Enlightenment by censorship, manyEuropean countries of the late 17th and early 18thcenturies had a free press. Keeping such ideas out ofthe hands of readers proved impossible.

As the philosophes preached against the wrongsof society and of oppressive governments (such asthose ruled by absolute monarchs), they came toview England as a good example of how a societyand its government should exist. Many observers ofEngland's systems thought the English politicalsystem of constitutional monarchy was a sound one,one which should serve as the model to all others.The philosophes also promoted the existence inEngland of civil rights and liberties.

One of the leading French philosophes whoadmired the English system was Voltaire(1694-1778). Voltaire lived in England from 1726 to1729 after being jailed and beaten for his ideas.While there, he developed his philosophy based ondeism, admiration for English rights and freedom,and a hatred of the Catholic Church. He became thesymbolic voice of the Enlightenment.

Few philosophes wrote more than Voltaire. Hiswork, Letters Concerning the English Nation, washighly critical of the French monarchy. Despite hiscriticism of absolute kings, queens, and emperors, heexchanged letters with some of the leading monarchsof his day—Catherine the Great of Russia andPrussia's Frederick II among them. In his

correspondence, he tried toconvince rulers to treat theirsubjects fairly, to promote justiceand happiness at home,and to promoteliberties. (Suchmonarchs did notalways follow hisadvice completely.)

Other leadingphilosophes includedMontesquieu [mahn tuhsKYOO] (1689-1755), Voltairewho was a member of the French aristocracy. Hewrote against the abuses of Absolutism. In hiswritings, he promoted the English system. His book,Spirit of the Laws (1748), was a comparison of thepolitical systems of modern Europe. Montesquieutraveled through several countries to observe theirpolitical structures firsthand. He, too, liked theEnglish model of parliamentary monarchy. As aDeist, Montesquieu described the systems of Englishgovernment as a great machine.

Another important Enlightenment leader wasJean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). The son of aSwiss watchmaker, Rousseau suffered from manypersonal problems, which made him highlyemotional. Sometimes he seemed to suffer frommental illness. (He was so maladjusted that heturned all five of his children over to an orphanage.)Rousseau believed his problems stemmed fromliving in a corrupt society. He believed that thenatural state of humans was to be free. Yet he lookedaround him and saw government control andtyranny. In his book, The Social Contract (1762), hewrote that society must abandon all history andtradition and create a "natural" social order. Underthis system, the individual loses identity and abidesby the "general will" of the whole of society.

Review and Write

Based on your reading of the Enlightenment,make a list of the ideas of the philosophes withwhich you agree and disagree.

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