Describe & Evaluate the Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression. (8 + 16 marks)

Describe & Evaluate the Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression. (8 + 16 marks)A01

Lorenz 3 functions of aggressionAdaptive Increase reproductive success & thus inclusive fitnessKey words Sexual Jealousy CuckoldryMate-Retention StrategiesMale-male competitionTerritorial Aggression

Try and write a paragraph now including all key words1

Describe & Evaluate the Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression. (8 + 16 marks)A02:

Shackleford More mate-retention strategies = more violence(supports notion of sexual jealousy driving aggression)Daly & Wilson Age / Male-male homicide / Resources / Status(supports idea of reproductive competition driving aggression)Female Aggression = verbal (females less physical, verbal aggression reduces status and deters males)Other types of Aggression Xenophobia (Waller, 2002)(supports idea that aggression is created by drive for in-group to survive)

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Group Displays of AggressionApply Knowledge of Aggression to Aggressive Group displays

Group Displays of Aggression

Groups displays of aggression

Other types of Aggression?

Other types of AggressionLorenz (1966)

Functions of Aggression1. Ensure only the fittest & strongest mates selected for reproduction2. Ensure survival of offspring3. Distribute a species in a balanced way in territories

Lorenz - Xenophobia & Genocide Violence towards other cultures is common

Lorenz believes this is due to Territorial Aggression driven by evolved, primal survival tactics.

Xenophobia & GenocideWaller (2002)

Humans have evolved living in groups which need defined boundaries creating in-groups and out-groupsAllows for resources to be shared equally, reduces potential of free-ridersReduces reproductive competition We have evolved xenophobic attitudes towards out-group members to protect our ownGenocide is the consequence of this xenophobia

However Individual Differences (not all men act aggressively towards unfaithful partners)Suggests that violence is not a universal response to sexual jealousy, thus not completely evolutionary

Cultural Differences in Aggressive Behaviour

Cultural Differences in Aggressive Behaviour (Buss & Shackleford, 1997)

Yanomami of South AmericaMale violence is required to attain status

Kung San of NamibiaAggression leads to irreparable damage of the aggressor

Group Displays of Aggression 1. Sports Crowds

2. Lynch Mobs

*3. Religious/Cultural Displays of Aggression*

Group Displays of aggression Sports EventsInvolves 2 (or more) teams and supporters

Usually arises as a result of group unity against the other team

Sports crowds aggressionDemonstrates advantage of being in an in-group (an adaptive trait)

Barkey (1997) Analyzed Baseball, Hockey & Basketball scores for home and away games

Found that sporting teams win more home games due to support from home crowds (result found even when other factors were taken into account)

Sports Crowd AggressionEvolutionary explanation supports the idea of an in-group advantage

Aggression occurs to deter out-group members Support for in-group increases group survival successSupport=win : win = higher status, more mates, more resources

Aggression can be used to withhold in-group boundary

Maxwell & Viscek (2009)Questioned 144 Rugby Union players about their aggression in the game.

Those high in professionalism placed more emphasis on winning and were more likely to use unsanctioned aggression

Cheating (but not getting caught) is adaptive. Aggression = increase chance of winning [higher status, more resources, more mates]

Football Hooliganism (equivalent of ceremonial conflict in animals)

Intention: - Humiliate opposition.Have highest statusBe most desirable

Cialdini et al (1976) Studied fans of University football teams

Found that after a victory, students were more likely to wear University scarves and hoodies.

Victory in matches also brings higher status to fans.

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GenderReductionistEthical Guidelines?Nature vs. NurtureAnimal StudiesDeterminsm vs. Free WillEthnocentricism

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Group Displays of Aggression 1. Sports Crowds

2. Lynch Mobs

*3. Religious/Cultural Displays of Aggression*

Lynch MobsA group who illegally kill a person for a presumed offence

Adaptive Explanations for Lynch MobsBetween 1882 1930 In Southern States of the USA

2805 victims were killed by lynchingMostly African-American malesMotives included demanding respect and being disrespectful

Evolutionary Explanation of Lynch MobsThe Power-Threat Hypothesis

Blalock (1999) Suggests that as minority groups grow, Majority groups try harder to maintain dominance.

Power-Threat is the fear of the minoritys POLITICAL power.Group displays of aggression from lynch mobs is likely to occur when groups feel at risk

Support for P-T hyp.Tolnay & Beck (1989)

Found consistent reasons for lynchings in Southern States USA during the early 20th century to be;Trying to VoteVoting for the Wrong Party

The fear of African-American power meant white mobs used Lynch Law as a form of control. When slavery was abolished, white people felt at risk

Against the P-T Hyp Clark et al (1996)

Studied Lynch Mob murders in Sao Paolo, Brazil.Main victims were Afro-Brazilians who were not a political or economical threat to the dominant community.Fear of minority was not seen as the causal factor in these ritualised murders.

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GenderReductionistEthical Guidelines?Nature vs. NurtureAnimal StudiesDeterminsm vs. Free WillEthnocentricism

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A03 example: Nature vs. nurtureThe Power-Threat Hypothesis itself can be argued to be a reductionist approach and not fully consider other possible explanations for lynch mob behaviour beyond feeling threatened.Clark et al found evidence suggesting the power-threat hypothesis may not be universal after researching motives behind lynchings of Afro-Brazilian victims in Sao Paolo which could not be explained by political or economic threat. This suggests other possible reasons behind group aggression that the Power-Threat hypothesis cannot explain.

Group Displays of Aggression 1. Sports Crowds

2. Lynch Mobs

*3. Religious/Cultural Displays of Aggression*

Religion/Cultural Displays of AggressionSelf-directed aggression during religious & cultural displays

Signals commitment to the in-group

Cultural/Religious AggressionExamplesAustralian aborigines perform a ritual operation on adolescent boys in which a bone or stone is inserted into the penisIn many tribal cultures, bamboo tattoos are common for boys coming of ageAmong native Americans, Apache boys were forced to bathe in icy waterInitiation rituals usually involve aggressive acts.

Religious displays of aggressionSelf-inflicted violence (self-flagellation) is common during Ashura, a recreation of the suffering experienced by Hussein, grandson to Prophet Mohammed

Shia Muslims cut their foreheads to demonstrate their joint suffering

Self-violence seems to go against the principle of natural selection how can it be explained as a supporting argument to evolutionary aggression?

(A Pakistani Shiite Muslim performs ritual self-flagellation during a religious procession on the holy day of Ashura).

Kurdish Sufis (An Islamic sect).

Filipino Catholics

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Self-FlagellationBecause the patterns of behaviour are very similar & occur in so many racial groups, Evolutionary Psychologists conclude they must have some Adaptive Advantage

Religious/Cultural AggressionEvolutionary Psychologists come up with 2 evolutionary explanations of religious self-flagellation:

1. Cooperative Gain2. Costly Signaling

1. Cooperative GainBenefits from living in groups: Food sharingHuntingProtection from outside threats

Irons (2001) argues that groups that encourage aggressive rituals promote cooperation

Irons argues that the Primary Adaptive Benefit of Religions is the ability to facilitate within a group

1. Cooperative GainHe believes rituals are a form of Communication

Engaging in Rituals allows the group member to show that they Identify with the group and believe in what the group stands for

Painful rituals shows commitment to the group, a committed group member is likely to be a cooperative one

2. Costly SignalingThe costs of cultural/religious displays (i.e. physical health) deters potential free riders who may exploit group membership without contributing.

Zahavi (1998) states that costly signalling rituals indicate status & breeding potential b/c theyre too costly for low-quality individuals to perform.

Ultra-Orthodox Jews (Haredi) *example*Haredi men wear thick black coats and hats and grow long beards whilst singing praises to God in the desert sun

Thus the quality these men signal is their level of commitment to their religious group.The Adaptive Benefit of religious displays appears to be promoting cooperation within a group, whilst deterring free-riders who may exploit the group without contributing.

2. Costly SignalingBy making membership costly, they increase group solidarity and deter outsiders from exploiting membership.

However, it also accentuates inter-group conflict

Sosis (2000)Data from 60 different societies on costs of group rituals and frequency of warfareResults showed freq. of warfare was the strongest predictor of the costliness of societies male ritual displays.

In societies where extreme warfare was common, groups focused on uniting males with permanent, costly group displays of commitment (e.g. tattoos/scars) to demonstrate commitment, remove chance of free-riders and reduce chance of males escaping to other groups.

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GenderReductionistEthical Guidelines?Nature vs. NurtureAnimal StudiesDeterminsm vs. Free WillEthnocentricism

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A03 example: Nature vs. nurtureThe Evolutionary Approach focuses on the nature side of the nature/nurture debate only and doesnt consider the role of other factors.Social Psychologists would focus on situational factors. They would argue group behaviour in terms of conformity to group norms in order to be accepted by the group (normative conformity) A more rounded explanation would take into account both evolved/inherited factors as well as the social influences which are likely to affect how an individual behaves .

1. Power Threat Hypothesis (Lynch Mobs)

2. Costly Signalling (Religious/Cultural Displays)

Exam Question:

Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression

8 + 16 marks