8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

1/54

SOME FUNDAMENTALPROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF

TRANSFER

? Problems of definition

? Problems of comparison? Problems of prediction

? Problems of generalization

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

2/54

SOME FUNDAMENTALPROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF

TRANSFER

Language transfer refers to

speakers or writers applying knowledgefrom their native language to a secondlanguage.

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

3/54

Problems of Definition

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

4/54

Transfer is not simply aconsequence of habit formation

Rooted habits in L1 can hinder the formation of

habits in L2, thus Behaviorists believed transfer

implies the extinction of earlier habits (Odlin. T,

1989).

This notion is inappropriate because:

- Habits in L1 are supposed to be impossible for

L2 learners to get rid of

- Acquisition of L2 does not lead to any

replacement of the learners L1

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

5/54

Transfer is not simplyinterference

Interference was the result of proactive inhibition(Ellis. R, 1985), i.e. previous learning prevents or

inhibits the learning of new habits, thus, error is

likely to arise in L2E.g. Jai froid I have cold

This is unable to cover the issue of transfer

because there are both differences and similarities

in L1 and L2. If a certain aspect in L1 is similar to

that in L2, there will be no error.

E.g. Elle est belle She is beautiful

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

6/54

Transfer is not simply a fallingback on the native language

Krashen claims that : Transfer can still be regarded aspadding, or the result of falling back on old knowledge

of L1 rule, when new knowledge is lacking. It may be aproduction strategy that cannot help acquisition.

This is problematic because of :

- The ignorance of the head start that speakers of somelanguages have in coming to a new language.

- The fact that there is no neat correspondence betweenlearners L1 patterns and their attempts to use L2

- Failure to recognize that cross-linguistic influences canbe beneficial in listening or reading comprehension

- Inability of accounting for the long-term results oflanguage contact in some settings

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

7/54

Transfer is not always nativelanguage influence

Knowledge of three or morelanguages can lead to three or more

different kinds of source languageinfluence, and it is hard to discover theexact influences in multilingual

situation

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

8/54

Definition

Transfer can be defined as theinfluence resulting from similarities and

differences between the target languageand any other language that has beenpreviously (and perhaps imperfectly)acquired (Odlin, 1989: 27)

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

9/54

2. PROBLEMS OF COMPARISON

.

2.1. Descriptive and

theoretical adequacy

2.2. Some problems incontrastive description

2.3. Structural andnonstructural factors

2.4. Comparison ofperformances

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

10/54

2.1 Descriptive and theoretical adequacy

What is descriptive adequacy ?

Descriptive adequacy is the satisfactionwhich shows how a language is actuallyspoken or written

Ex: - /d /: voiced, stop, alveolar

[ li:d] devoiced

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

11/54

- An ideal grammar would be both descriptively andtheoretically adequate, and the same criteria apply toa contrastive analysis. Accurate and throughdescriptions are important.

Theoreticaladequacy

I bought a

book. (pen)I bought a

pen

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

12/54

Theoretical adequacy

- While many contrastive analyses provide useful

and sometimes highly perceptive information

about languages they compare, none comes close

to meeting in full the criteria of descriptive andtheoretical adequacy.

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

13/54

- Despite this lack of consensus,certain theoretical approach havefound much favor among contrastive

analyses and students of secondlanguage acquisition.

Theoretical adequacy

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

14/54

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

15/54

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

16/54

2.2.Some problems in contrastive description

- One of the most fundamental problems is IDEALIZATION

-Idealization of linguistic data is unavoidable since there aremany minute variations in the speech of individuals whoconsider themselves to be speakers of the same language.

* EX: contrastive descriptions of Arabic speakers in

Iraq and Egypt in pronunciation

-Social variation can matter as much as regionalvariation in contrastive descriptions

The characterization of the most important aspects of alanguage with the elimination of unneeded details.

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

17/54

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

18/54

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

19/54

- That linguistic difference is equivalent to linguistic difficulty.EX: Apprendre (French) &Teach, learn (English)

- A fully developed contrastive analysis would include anaccurate hierarchy of difficulty, that is, a definitive statement

about which contrastive most and least likely to causeproblems. That hierarchy would have to account for, amongother things, those cases in which similarities betweenlanguages prove to be more troublesome than somedifferences.

EX: the resemblance between English embarrassed andSpanish embarazado (which means "pregnant")( I am very pregnant # I am embarrassed)

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

20/54

-Another challenge for any contrastive description isthe INTERACTION OF SUBSYSTEMS.Psycholinguistic research has demonstrated astrong interdependence among discourse, syntax,

phonology, and other subsystems in thecomprehension and production of language.

EX:You are a teacher, arent you?

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

21/54

2.3. Structural and nonstructural factors

-the term structure is roughly synonymous with the termTAGMEME(a unity of form and function) (Pike 1954).

Ex: The baby bit Mary (SVO)

- Discourse involves much more than what apurely structural analysis covers.

Is she a good student ?

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

22/54

Politeness is an aspect of discoursethat is very important for any cross-

linguistic comparison, but it is also onethat involves many nonlinguisticfactors.

Apologies in JapaneseApologies in English

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

23/54

- Another problematic factors is LANGUAGE DISTANCE,

-There are clear resemblances between languages

whose historical relationships are not certain

EX: Korean and JapaneseJapanese and Quechua

EX: English = French> Eskimo- Spanish = French > English

( the degree of similarity between two languages.)

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

24/54

- Objective measures of the distance between

languages can be established through careful

comparisons of structural similarities whichwould show

Ex: - Lhopital (in French)- Hospital (in English)

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

25/54

The subjective judgments of languagedistance by learners can matter

considerably.

mund

weib

donner

mond

wiif

donder

mouth

wife

thunder

GermanDutchEnglish

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

26/54

2.4. Comparison of performances

- While a contrastive analysis is a necessary condition toestablish the likelihood of transfer, it is not always asufficient condition. By comparing the performances ofspeakers of at least two different native languages,researchers can better determine any effects of negativetransfer

Ex: I know the man that John gave the book to

resumptive pronouns.(A contrastive analysis of a relative clause in Persian)

him

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

27/54

-In some cases the need for a formal comparison ofperformances is not very great.

EX: the spelling of playing as blayingis more likely

be the spelling error of an Arabic speaker than of aSpanish speaker

EX: - He's after telling a lieHe has told a lie"

The anomalous verb formfound in Hiberno-Englishsentences

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

28/54

While explicit comparisons are often desirable indetermining negative transfer, they are indispensable in

determining positive transfer.

EX: :- El cuadro es muy oscuro.

The picture is very dark

The contrastive ofSpanish and English

( word- for- word- grammaticalcorrespondence betweenSpanish & English)

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

29/54

- Regardless of how much or how little any training intranslation or other second language behaviors mayencourage substratum transfer, there is strongevidence that different acquisition patterns are

associated with different native languagebackgrounds.

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

30/54

3.3 Problems of prediction

Forecasts andexplanations

A classificationof outcomes

Transfer andsimplification

Individualoutcomes

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

31/54

3.3.1 Forecasts and explanations

ForecastsPrediction is frequently based on dataabout learner performances already knownto a linguist who has interpreted the data

record with the help of cross

linguisticcomparisons.

Eg:A record of errors in French made byEnglish-speaking students in previous

years can serve as predictor of errors thatEnglish-speaking students will make in aFrench course next year

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

32/54

ExplanationsGood contrastive analysis should make it easier to

explain why transfer will or will not occur in anygiven instance

* Relation between Prediction andExplanations

Without a clear understanding of the conditions thatoccasions transfer, there is a little hope ofdeveloping highly sophisticated contrastiveanalyses that make predictions

While good predictions may be the ultimate goal,good explanations are crucial part of achieving thatgoal

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

33/54

Contrastive analyses

Forecasts Explanations

develop

understand

Possible outcomes of cross- linguisticsimilarities and differences

3 3 2 A l ifi i

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

34/54

3.3.2 A classificationof outcomes

Positive transfer Differing lengthsof acquisitionNegative transfer

Underproduction Overproduction Production errors Misinterpretation

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

35/54

I.Positive transferThe effects of positive transfer are only determinablethrough comparisons of the success of groups withdifferent native languages.Such comparisons oftenshow that cross- linguistic similarities can produce

positive transfer in several ways.* Similarities between native language and targetlanguage vocabularycan reduce the time needed todevelop good reading comprehension.

Eg: Similarities betweenEnglish & French

vocabularies ( sport, volleyball, football, baby-sitter,pay/payer,admire/admirer,finish/finir,arrive/arriver,impatience,simple....)

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

36/54

* Similarities between vowel systemscan make theidentification of vowel sounds easier.

Eg:English and Vietnamese vowel systems

( monothongs; u,e,o,a,i -> how to use articals a/an)

Similarities between writing systemscan give learners ahead start in reading and writing in the target language

Eg:How to write a compositon in English and Vietnamese( 3 main parts: introduction, body, conclusion),how towrite a letter...

* Similarities in syntactics structurescan facilitate theacquisition of grammar

English: I played sports.S V O

French: J ai fait du sport .

S V COD

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

37/54

II.Negative transfer

Since Negative transfer involves divergencesfrom norms in the target language, it is oftenrelatively easy to identify.

A.Underproduction:

Learners may produce very few or noexamples of a target language structure.There isgood evidence for one form of underproductionrelated to language distance: avoidance

Eg: Chinese and Japanese students tended touse fewer relative clause structures more like thoseof English

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

38/54

II.Negative transfer

B.Overproduction

Overproduction is sometimes simply aconsequence underproduction.

Eg: In an effort to avoid relative clauses,Japansese students may violate norms of writtenprose in English by writing too many simplesentences in the native and target languages

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

39/54

In speech and writing there are 3 types oferrors especially likely to arise fromsimilarities and differences

substitutions calques alterations

Production errors

II.Negative transferC.Production errors

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

40/54

Production errorsSubstitutions

Substitutions involve a use of native language forms in the

target language.Eg:

English: Now I live home with my parents but sometimes I mustgo away

Swedish: Now I live home with my parents but sometimes I

must go bort.( bort is the Swedish word)Arabic speakers sometimes make ESL spelling errors:

Letter b & p as in playing -> blaying, habit -> hapit

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

41/54

Production errors

CalquesCalques are errors that reflect very closely a

native language structure

Eg:

English: 1. I like you very much

2. Nams house

Vietnamese: 1. I very like you.

2. Houses Nam

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

42/54

Production errors

AlterationsEg: Intonation between English and

Vietnamese

1.Yes/No Questions: Do you live here?

Are you happy?

2.WH Questions : Where do you live?

What is your name?

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

43/54

D.Misinterpretation

Native language structures can influence theinterpretation of target language messages,and sometimes that influence leads to learnersinferring something very different from whatspeakers of the target language would infer.

Misinterpretations may also occur when nativeand target language word- order differ

Eg:Vietnamese: She is a girl beautifulEnglish: She is a beautiful girl

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

44/54

II.Negative transfer

Misinterpretations may also occur whencultural assumptions differ

Eg:

Vietnamese: Ask questions:(Age,Marriage,Salary)

English: Avoid asking these questions

( considered private questions)

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

45/54

III.Differing lengths of acquisition

The distinction between positive and negativetransfer is useful, but the study of these typesof transfer tends to focus on specific detailsand not on the cumulative effects of cross-

linguistic similarities and differences on theacquisition process.

One way of assessing such effects is to look atthe length of time needed to achieve a high

degree of mastery of a language

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

46/54

III.Differing lengths of acquisition

Little reseach: The length of language coursesoffered to member of the U.S diplomatic corps.

Language Number of weeks

Chinese 44

Dutch 24 French 20

Indonesian 32

Italian 20

Japanese 44

Similar to Englishin many respects

Share fewer structuralsimilarities with English

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

47/54

3.3.3 Transfer and simplification

There are cases in which cross-linguistic influenceis not very compelling explanation

?Eg: The omission of pronouns of a Spanishspeaker

In Saturday no like, no time, watch TV...

On Saturday I dont like ( to go to the movies), I

dont have any time. I watch TV...

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

48/54

3.3.4 Individual outcomes

Individuals vary in many ways,including in their

experience and aptitude for learning languages andsuch variation can definitely affect transfer .

In the study of complex individuals who speakcomplex languages, predictions are statements of

probabilities.Progress will result from refiningcontrastive predictions so that they more frequentlytally with actual outcomes

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

49/54

SOME FUNDAMENTALPROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF

TRANSFER

PROBLEMS OF GENERALIZATION

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

50/54

Problems ofgeneralization

Laguageuniversals

Linguistictypologies

Universalistsassumptions

LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

51/54

LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS Chomskyan approach: Children are hypothesized to have

an innate knowledge of the basic grammatical structure

common to all human languages. This innate knowledge is

often referred to as universal grammar (retrieved from

Wikipedia) which is available to guide the progress of

adults learning L2 (Odlin, 1989: 44)

Greenbergian approach: involves the cross-linguistic

regularities which include the finding of the most common

word-order patterns in the world languages such as SVO,

SOV, VOS (Odlin, 1989: 44)

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

52/54

LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGIES

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

53/54

LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGIES(cont.)Typological analyses contributions to

the study of transfer: (3 ways)

- Provide basis for estimating language

distance.- Encourage the study of transfer in

terms of systemic influences

- Provide a clearer understanding ofrelation between transfer anddevelopmental sequences

UNIVERSALIST

8/2/2019 Group 5 Tu (2)

54/54

UNIVERSALISTASSUMPTIONSThere are categories (e.g. Subject are

universal) applicable to the analysis ofall languages

There are certain meanings that areequivalent in the discourse andsemantic systems of all humanlanguages. Without some notion of

translation equivalence, there can beno useful cross-linguistic comparisonof structures (e.g. Negation is found inall language)