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GREEN CHEMISTRY FOR GREENER ENVIRONMENT

Editor- in-chief Dr. Raghvendu Pathak

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Green Chemistry for

Greener Environment

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Green Chemistry for Greener

Environment

Editor- in- Chief

Dr. Raghvendu Pathak

Department of Chemistry

Pachhunga University College

Aizawl-796001, Mizoram, India.

EDUCREATION PUBLISHING (Since 2011)

www.educreation.in

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v


EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor- in- Chief


Department of Chemistry,

Pachhunga University College,


Board Members

Prof. Lambodar Thakur Ph. D (London), Ex Prof & Head


T. M. Bhagalpur University

Bhagalpur, Bihar, India

Prof. S. F. Patil

Former Vice Chancellor

North Maharashtra University,

Jalgaon and Bharati Vidyapeeth

University, Pune, Maharashtra,

India

Prof. Lokesh Chandra Prasad Pro-vice Chancellor

J. P. University

Chapra, Bihar

Dr. Snehasikta Swarnakar Senior Scientist

Indian Institute of Chemical

Biology

Kolkata-700032, West Bengal,

India

Prof. R. K. Sharma Honorary Secretary,

Royal Society of Chemistry (London);

North India Section In charge; International Chapter of American

Chemical Society‟s Green Chemistry

Institute Coordinator, Green Chemistry Network Centre, Department of

Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am extremely grateful to Prof. R. Lalthantluanga, Hon‟ble Vice

Chancellor, Mizoram University, who provided me all the necessary

facilities and support for holding the seminar in the Mizoram University

Campus, Tanhril, Aizawl.

I wish to express my profound sense of indebtedness and gratitude to

Prof. R. P. Tiwari, Dean, School of Engineering & Technology, Mizoram

University, for his constant guidance, support, and encouragement

throughout the period of the seminar.

No words are apt enough to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr.

Tawnenga, Principal, Pachhunga University College, Aizawl, Mizoram,

whose constant advice & support goaded me to hold the seminar. Without

his help the national event could not have been organized.

My sincere thanks to all the contributors who have made untiring

efforts to contribute to the cause so that the publication could see the light of

the day. Due thanks must be given to the publisher and the printing staff for

their dedication and efficient compilation of the papers in the form of book.


Editor- in- Chief


Pachhunga University College


viii


ix


PREFACE

The residual wilderness & beauty of nature excites not only me but each one

of us from our core & any damage to the „mother earth‟ wittingly or

unwittingly by our own actions certainly move us & create an intrinsic

desire to protect our nature & environment. Right from nomadic or pastoral

economy to the settled economy & to this date of so called unbridled

development for our own comfort, we have been exploiting our nature with

unbridled greed & impunity without realizing the fact that these dastardly

acts of ours inflict irreparable damage to our „mother earth‟ & environment.

From industry to chemistry & from desires to development - all lead

somehow or other to air, water, soil & several other forms of pollution &

finally to global climate change & species extinction. Moreover, the

“evolutes” from fossil-fuels to those from labs & coal-fired electricity

generating units inflict considerable damage to our environment.

From this state of desperation & desolation & conflict between so

called development & conservation issues, arose a host of committed

individuals worldwide who took the onus to protect our environment from

further degradation. In fact, damage to the environment over the years has

become so savage & brute due to uncontrolled exploitation of the nature,

that the environmental protection has become one of the prime concerns of

the humanity these days. In this context the publication of this

book/compilation on „Green Chemistry for Greener Environment‟ has

become so important.

Well, green chemistry, as we all know, also called sustainable

chemistry, one of the fast emerging disciplines of chemical science, is a

philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design

and development of products and processes that minimize the use and

generation of hazardous substances.

Green chemistry seeks to reduce and prevent pollution at its source. It

helps create a modus operandi for dealing with pollution in an original and

innovative way and aims at avoiding problems before they happen & thereby

lends credence to the philosophy that „prevention is better than cure‟. The

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focus is on minimizing the hazard and maximizing the efficiency of any

chemical choice or process. Bioengineering is also seen as a promising

technique for achieving green chemistry goals.

In fact green chemistry is based on 12 tenets or principles developed

by Paul Anastas, then of the United States Environmental Protection

Agency (USEPA), and John C. Warner which helped explain the meaning

& concepts of green chemistry elucidated below:

• The design of processes to maximize the amount of raw material that ends

up in the product;

• The use of safe, environment-benign substances, including solvents,

wherever & whenever possible;

• The design of energy efficient processes;

• The best form of waste disposal: not to create it in the first place.

The 12 principles are:

1. It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is

formed.

2. Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation

of all materials used in the process into the final product.

3. Wherever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to

use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human

health and the environment.

4. Chemical products should be designed to preserve efficacy of function

while reducing toxicity.

5. The use of auxiliary substances (e.g. solvents, separation agents, etc.)

should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when

used.

6. Energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental

and economic impacts and should be minimized. Synthetic methods

should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure.

7. A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting

wherever technically and economically practicable.

8. Reduce derivatives – Unnecessary derivatization (blocking group,

protection/ de-protection, temporary modification) should be avoided

whenever possible.

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9. Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to

stoichiometric reagents.

10. Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their

function they do not persist in the environment and break down into

innocuous degradation products.

11. Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for

real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of

hazardous substances.

12. Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process

should be chosen to minimize potential for chemical accidents,

including releases, explosions, and fires.

The main objective of this compilation/book is to induce research among the

scientific community and other stake holders to look for alternative sources

of energy, particularly green energy, which will not only be sustainable but

also preserve our precious natural resource including environment as

resources of carbon energy (non-renewable fossil fuel energy) is fast

depleting. Nano chemistry is one such vast & great area of research which

could help mitigate the problems afflicting our environment in a significant

way.

The compilation also intends to discuss the recent developments in the

fields of green technology for greener environment and tries to facilitate

research on the development of cheap, clean & green energy, particularly

solar & wind energy. It intends to create general awareness among the

people about the efficacy & use of the green economy and to make them

aware about the deleterious effect of environmental degradation due to

evolution of green-house gases into the atmosphere as result of burning of

non- renewable highly toxic fossil fuels. It is heartening to note that the

scholarly contributors from different parts of the country have contributed

through their original & innovative research & the outcome of their

painstaking efforts is in the form of this book on „Green Chemistry For

Greener Environment‟.

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With these few words, I sincerely thank each one of the contributors

& hope that they would continue their efforts in protecting the environment

with their innovative thinking & research.

Sincerely


Editor-in-chief

Department of Chemistry,

Pachhunga University College,

Aizawl - 796001, Mizoram, India.

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CONTENTS

S.No. Topics Page

01 Some Reflections on Climate Change and Green Energy Options

Prof. L. Thakur

01

02 Distribution of heavy metals in coastal sediment of Kalpakkam,

Southeast coast of India

S. N. Bramha, A. K. Mohanty and K. Satpathy

04

03 An approach on modification of indigenous rural water filtration

technique for arsenic mitigation using different bamboo charcoals

B. K. Baruah, B. Das, A. Haque, J. C. Kalita and A. K. Misra

10

04 Bio-diesel-A Green alternative fuel made from non-edible oils

N. K. Yadav, Arvind Lal, R. P. Singh, Arvind Kumar,

A. K. Gupta, and Anil Kumar

21

05 Phyto-remediation of Arsenic - A Chemical Perspective

R. Pathak. M. Pathak and Ruchi Shrivastava

43

06 Novel hybrid material of polymer entrapped binary metal oxides for

removal of fluoride from water bodies

R. K. Dey, Tanushre Patnaik and S.K.Swain

57

07 Studies of the strength of the ortho- and meta- substituted benzoic

acids in apolar aprotic media

Ruchi Shrivastava, Jay Prakash Rajan & Raj Kumar Mishra

64

08 Environmental toxicity caused by polychlorobiphenyls and its

bioremediation

D. K. Das & A. K. Jha

68

09 Nuclear Energy with Thorium

Sanjeeve Thakur & Raghvendu Pathak

81

10 Assessing the Municipal Solid Waste management practices in

Aizawl city, India

Samuel Lalronunga & Lalnuntluanga

84

11 Radiation effects of nuclear waste: challenges and government

initiatives

Sukanta Sarkar

91

12 Solid waste management: An issue and potability of

water R. Prasad

112

13 Statistical Mechanical Studies on Liquid Metals

R. Pathak, R. Lalneihpuii and Raj Kumar Mishra

117

xiv


Green Chemistry for Greener Environment

1


Some Reflections on Climate Change and

Green Energy Options

*Lambodar Thakur*

Ex. Head, Chemistry Department

T.M. Bhagalpur University Bhagalpur, Bihar, India.

MIG-39, Housing Board, Barari, Bhagalpur – 812003, Bihar, India

ABSTRACT

Well-meaning scientists, engineers, economists and politicians have all agreed to cap the carbon

dioxide emission within 50 years from now. World is growing more than 70 million people each

year. The quality of life in the developing world is also improving daily. Our demand of energy is

thus growing exponentially. There are methods to produce electricity without emission. There is

paradigm shift in our energy perceptions and the world energy business is racing towards a

carbon neutral and zero-carbon energy options. We may briefly mention some of the important

features as below: Hydel power in Indian context is very important. Himalaya alone can provide

over one lakh megawatt electricity and that will be emission free. There are rushing river in the

whole of the Indian sub-continent and there is huge potential for harnessing hydroelectricity for

the benefit of our country. Nuclear energy in electricity generation presents another promising

scenario. India has at present only 18 nuclear reactors producing 4000 MW electricity while

USA, Japan, France, Germany and other European countries have each of them over 100. The

global oil market fluctuation does not affect the economic health of above countries. The fuel

needed in nuclear reactor is uranium, plutonium and thorium. India has one of the world largest

thorium reserves. There is a hope for future in harnessing nuclear energy in the context of green

energy scenario. A massive switch over from fossil fuel and nuclear power plant is presented by

solar power plants. In the past few years the cost to produce photo voltaic cells and modules has

dropped significantly opening the way for large scale deployment specially the thin film made of

cadmium telluride. The state of California in USA has committed a million solar roofs to create

3000 MW by 2018. Another promising field is presented by wind industry. Large and efficient

turbines each capable of producing 4-6 MW have been commissioned. European Union Nations

have been generating 40 thousand MW from wind turbines alone. Gasohol a substitute of

gasoline in automobile is a Brazilian success. And recently the United States has got the largest

bio-fuel industry of the world. Corn is largely used in brewing ethanol in the USA, while a semi

tropical crop Sugarcane is used in Brazil and elsewhere to brew alcohol for its large transport

industries. Corn is also used as animal feed and corn ethanol is not favoured in many parts of the

world because of consumer resistance. Other promising scenarios shall also be discussed.

Keywords: Hydel power, nuclear energy, photo voltaic cells, carbon neutral, thorium,

gasohol, etc.


2


INTRODUCTION

At the Bali conference in December 2007 scientists and politicians of all hues and shades

unanimously supported the doctrine of global warming and climate change exhorting the

world community to produce electricity as much required with minimal emissions and

switch over to carbon neutral or zero –carbon energy options kicking out the old carbon

habit. Global warming is produced by large accumulation of greenhouse gases chiefly the

carbon dioxide, methane, oxides of sulphur(SOX), nitrogen(NOX), particulates due to

burning of fossil fuels coal, oil and natural gas. Extreme happenings such as failure of

monsoon resulting in droughts, extreme happenings such as failure of monsoon resulting

in droughts, melting of Himalayan glaciers, deluge, cloud bursts, torrential rains,

hurricanes, typhoons and many other harsher weather conditions are some of the

examples of climate change which as interested observer may watch with dismay,

anguish and helplessness. It is to be noted that carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere

regulates the earth temperature to less will make global cooling to large of this causes

global warming. The process of photo-synthesis fixes the CO2 to carbohydrates of one

kind or the other which is the food for the animal kingdom and the bio-mass cellulose and

lignin and releases pure oxygen to the atmosphere fair. CO2 is also slowly absorbed by

the sea and ocean to create bio-mass such as algae which support fish and marine lives.

The bio-mass continuously keeps a balance with nature regulating the carbon balance of

absorbing and expelling in such a way that the system is carbon neutral.

Plant matter changes due to metamorphosis over milling to coal in layers under

the earth. Similarly petroleum such as crude oil and natural gas were produced by debris

of dead marine animals deposited over the sea bed under heat and pressure. Man began

exploiting these fossilized products coal, oil and natural gas buried under the earth for

energy production. Today increasingly huge amounts of coal are needed for the

generation of electricity in our thermal power plants, for smelting metals, for our brick

kilns, for our cement industries and the host of other plants. Petrol and diesel mainly

sustain the vast network of the transport sector and the natural gas supports the fertilizer

industries. All these fossil fuels emit the greenhouse gas causing global warming. If CO2

level in the atmosphere is not gradually brought down to the pre-industrial revolution

level as envisaged in the Kyoto protocol 1997 and the Copenhagen accord 2009, then the

world civilization will be heading for a self-destructive catastrophe in not too distant

future.

Well-meaning scientist, engineers, economists and politicians have all agreed to

cap the greenhouse emissions within 50 years from now. World is growing more than 70

million people each year. The quality of life in the developing world is also improving.

There are methods to produce electricity without emissions. It may be briefly mentioned

below:-

Hydel power in Indian context is very important. Himalaya alone can provide

over one lakh megawatts electricity and that will be emission free. There are rushing

rivers in the whole of the Indian sub-content and there is huge potential for harnessing

hydel power. The German scientist Otto Hahn in 1939 discovered that the atom was a

potential source of energy. Subsequent knowledge was utilized in making nuclear bombs

which devastated Nagasaki and Hiroshima but during the same period an Italian Enrico

Fermi in 1942 created history by making a device of controlled chain reaction called


3


Atomic reactor which is assembly of nuclear fuel, control rod, a coolant and a heat

exchanger. Now a day’s nuclear energy in electricity generation present a very promising

picture all over the world during the past over 60 years it has come of age. India has at

present only 19 nuclear reactors producing 4000 MW electricity while USA, Japan,

France, Germany and many other European countries has each over 100 reactors. Oil

market fluctuations do not seriously affect the economic health of the above countries.

The fuel needed in nuclear reactor is uranium, plutonium A and thorium. India has one of

the world largest thorium reserves. There is a hope for future in harnessing nuclear

energy in the context of green energy options.

A massive change from fossil fuel and nuclear power plant is presented by solar

power plants. In the past few years the cost to produce photo voltaic cells and modules

has dropped significantly opening the way for large scale deployment of solar-cells

specially the thin film made of cadmium telluride and even by spraying Nano- material

plastics on the roof-tiles. The state of California in USA has committed a million solar

roofs to create 3000 MW by 2018.

Another promising field is presented by wind industry. Large and efficient

turbines each capable of producing 4-6 MW have been commissioned. European Union

Nations have been generating 40 thousand MW from wing turbines alone.

According to a report the global bio-fuel production is over 50 billion litres of

Ethanol and 10 substitute of gasoline in automobile is a Brazilian success. And recently

the United States has got the largest bio-fuel industry of the world. Corn is largely used in

brewing ethanol in the USA. While a semi tropical crop Sugarcane is used in Brazil and

in our countries and elsewhere to brew alcohol for its large transport industries. Corn is

also use as animal feed and corn ethanol is not favoured in many parts of the world

because of consumer resistance.

Chemical and biological engineers are fervently chasing after ways to turn

cellulose material such as wood, grass and agricultural residues into ethanol and other

bio-fuels. It takes far less energy to grow cellulose materials than to grow corn and sugar

cane. Microbiologists have discovered Superbugs to produce ethanol directly from switch

grass, cornstalks and shavings of useless wooding materials.

The contribution of the entire green energy industries mentioned above can also

be significantly improved by better civil administration, good roads, faster traffic, fuel

efficient engines and socio-economic awareness of the public. We also have to join hands

in tapping the most powerful source of energy in the world. That is human resource, i.e.,

we. And watch what the human race can do. An era of emission free, clean energy system

as briefly envisaged above will bring health, happiness and prosperity to all mankind.

REFERENCE

1. Jones P. and Clark, Climate change and solution for tomorrow, Oxford University Press, Oxford, London, 2008.

2. Chakrabrati, S. and Kumar, S., A short appraisal of climate change data, 2009. 3. Dara, S.S., A Text book of Environmental Chemistry and Pollution Control, S. Chand, 1998.

4. Parragon Ed., The Big Book of knowledge, Queen St. Bath, U.K. 2002.

5. Zweibel, ken, Mason, J. and Fathenakis, Scientific American, Jan, 2008, pg. 64 – 73.

6. Rotamn, David, Technology Review, www.technologyreview.com/boiofuels2008, p. 42-51.

http://www.technologyreview.com/boiofuels2008


4


Distribution of heavy metals in coastal Sediment

of Kalpakkam, Southeast Coast of India

S.N. Bramha, A.K. Mohanty and K.K. Satpathy

Environmental Safety Division

Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research,

Kalpakkam- 603 102, India

ABSTRACT

The coastal sediments of Kalpakkam, southeastern India and Bay of Bengal were characterized to

assess the contamination level of heavy metals. The sediment is sand dominated with very low

percentage of clay. Average values showed the following decreasing trend:

Fe>Cr>Pb>Zn>Cu>Co>Cd. Concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn and Co were relatively high during the

pre-monsoon period, whereas, Fe and Cr values were relatively high during the post-monsoon

period.

Station 1 which is affected by a backwater discharge showed typically higher values of

heavy metals in majority of cases than those of other stations, pointing the role of land based

anthropogenic sources. CF and Igeo values indicated that surface sediment is moderately

contaminated with Pb & Cr and moderately to highly contaminated with Cd, whereas, all the

other metal levels were well within the unpolluted limit.

Keywords: heavy metals; marine sediment; geoaccumulation index; east coast of India; Bay of

Bengal.


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INTRODUCTION

Coastal sediments act as the ultimate sink for chemical elements in the hydrological and

geological cycle. Pollution of natural environment by heavy metals is a worldwide

problems as these metals are indestructible and have toxic effects on living organisms

when they exceeds a certain concentration limit (Macfarlance and Burchett 2002).

During the last two decades, the coastal environment of South-east India has

experienced intense developments in industry, urbanization and aquaculture. The present

study is focused on the south east coast of India, Kalpakkam (latitude: 120 30´- 12

0 34´

and longitude: 800

09´- 800

11´) (Fig.1) which is part of the above coastal belt and has

also been witnessing intense hub of industrial activities.

Hence, this study aims to investigate the present levels of contamination in this

region and also it would serve as bench mark data for further impact evaluation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Monthly surface sediment sample were collected from 5 (S1: Opposite site to Sadras

backwater; S2: in between Sadras and MAPS jetty; S3: MAPS Jetty Point; S4; 300m

North of the jetty point (outfall discharge point of MAPS); S5: Opposite to Edaiyur back

water discharge) stations covering a coastal stretch of 10 km around Kalpakkam (Fig.1),

from 2006 to 2008.

Sediment sample were collected using Peterson type grab sampler and were

stored in a sealed polythene bag. Standard methods were followed for grain size analysis

and sand, silt & clay separation (Van Andel and Postma, 1954; Krumbein and Pettijohn,

1938).

(Fig.1: Study area showing the sampling locations)


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A Philips PW 4025 MiniPal energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDXRF),

microprocessor controlled, was used for the detection and measurement of elements in

the sediment sample. The pallets were analyzed in triplicate, average value taking into

consideration. The quality of chemical analysis and the accuracy of the data was assessed

by analyzing a sediment standard (GBW-7305). The results are listed in table–1.

For all the metals except Fe, contamination factor (CF), geoaccumulation index

(Igeo) and pollution load index (PLI) was calculated following standard formulae as

described elsewhere (Satpathy, 2011; Selvaraj et al., 2004).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Textural composition: The grain size distribution shows that the coastal sediment is

carpeted with a mosaic of sand and silty sand with minor amount of clay (Table-1). The

higher sand content in Kalpakkam sediments indicates a higher wave energy regime due

to local topography that prevents sedimentation of fine grained particles. Report by

Srinivasalu et al. (2007, 2008) from the same locality confirmed that the sediments are

mainly of fine to medium grained sand, which they have reported to be of mixed origin,

from beach and offshore regions. Relatively high silt and low sand percentage were

observed at the 1st and 4

th locations. This could be attributed to the fact that these

locations are at close proximity to the Sadras backwater and the outfall discharge point of

MAPS respectively. Relatively high sand content observed during monsoon period

showing that fine grained sediment settlement was prevented by the prevailing coastal

turbulence, generally high during then.

Distribution of heavy metals: Relatively high concentration of all the metals, except Cr,

was observed at the 1st location, which clearly indicated that discharge from Sadras

backwater significantly influenced the sediment metal content spatially. Apart from 1st

location there was hardly any spatial variation in concentration all the metals.

Concentration of almost all the metals observed during the present study is found to be

much lower than those for the Bay of Bengal (BOB) inter tidal sediment (Subramanian

and Mohanachandran (1990), Ennore coast (Muthu Raj and Jayaprakash, 2008) and

Bombay coast (Dilli, 1986). Moreover, the present concentrations are also lower than

those found in Upper Crust, Average Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) and

Average North American Shale Composite (NASC). Interestingly, Fe content reported

earlier (pre-tsunami) from this location (Selvaraj et al., 2004) as well as close to this

location (Mahabalipuram) (Hema Achyuthan et al., 2002) was higher than the present

observation. The most apparent reason for the observed decrease in metal concentrations

during the present study could be Tsunami. In this context, Srinivasalu et al. (2007, 2008)

and Singarasubramanian et al. (2006) observed about 30 cm of sediment deposit on the

land adjoining the coast, after the tsunami. Undoubtedly these deposits are a part of the

sediment which was present in the near-shore region prior to tsunami. This hypothesis

gets strengthened by Srinivasalu et al. (2008) who have reported a two fold increase in

metal concentration in sediment deposited on land after tsunami as compared to the sea-

bed sediment. Thus, the present study coupled with other post-tsunami reports indicated

that the top clayey sediment from the coastal zone rich in trace metals have been

transported to the adjoining land and thus got depleted (Sujatha et al., 2008). It is worth

mentioning here that the clay contents observed during the present study are significantly


7


lower than the pre-tsunami period (4%) (Selvaraj et al., 2003) pointing that the top

surface layer containing relatively high amount of silt and clay has been transported from

coastal bed to the adjoining land. It is important to mention here that this depletion of top

clay layer could have a long-term impact on coastal productivity as this fraction of the

sediment generally holds higher nutrient content and helps in their release to water

column.

Geoaccumulation index (Igeo): Values of Igeo showed that the coastal sediment at

Kalpakkam is largely uncontaminated with respect to most of the metals studied, except

Cd. Igeo values for Cd ranged from 1.94-2.80 spatially (Table-2), which showed the

sediment is moderately to highly contaminated with Cd content (Muller, 1979). Similarly,

among all the seasons, coastal sediment was found to be moderately contaminated with

Cd during the post-monsoon period.

Contamination factor (CF): Relatively unpolluted nature of the coastal sediment at

Kalpakkam was further supported by the values of CF. It showed that Cu, Zn and Co

contaminations were low (1≤CF- low contamination) (Pekey et al., 2004). However, Pb

and Cr showed a moderate contamination (1≤ CF <3- moderate contamination). Similar

to that of the Igeo, CF values also depicted very high Cd contamination and relatively low

contamination during the post-monsoon period.

Pollution Load Index (PLI): In the present study PLI values ranged between 0.71 and

1.02 with the maximum value at station 1 and the minimum at station 5, indicating a low

pollution status for this coastal sediment (Tomlinson et al. 1980). Similarly, all the PLI

values remained <1for all the seasons suggesting relatively low pollution.

CONCLUSION

Concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn and Co were found to be relatively high during the pre-

monsoon period, whereas, Fe and Cr values were relatively high during the post-monsoon

period. Concentration of most of the metals were found to be lower than the values

reported during pre-tsunami period (Selvaraj et al., 2004) which could be due to the

removal of clayey sediment associated with relatively high concentration of metals, by

tsunami (Nagendra et al., 2005; Srinivasalu et al., 2005). Station 1 which is close to the

opening of Sadras backwater, showed typically higher values of heavy metals in majority

of cases than those of other stations, pointing the role of land based anthropogenic

sources. CF and Igeo values indicated that surface sediment is moderately contaminated

with Pb & Cr and moderately to highly contaminated with Cd, whereas, all the other

metal levels were well within the unpolluted limit. Impact of tsunami on productivity due

to depletion of top clay layer could have a long-term socio-economic impact.

REFERENCE

1. Dilli, K (1986) Geochronology and geochemistry of a sediment core from Bombay coast. Mahasagar 19: 87-95

2. Hema Achyuthan, Richardmohan D, Srinivasalu S, Selvaraj K (2002) Trace metals in the sediment cores of estuary and tidal zones from northern part of southeast coast of India. Indian J Mar Sci 31: 141–149

3. Krumbein WC, Pettijohn FJ (1938) Manual of Sedimentary Petrography. Appleton Century-Crofts, New York

4. 4.MacFarlane, G.R., Burchett, M.D., 2002. Toxicity, growth and accumulation relationships of copper, lead and

zinc in the Grey Mangrove Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Veirh. Marine Environmental Research 54, 65–84.


8


5. Mil-Homens M, Stevens RL, Abrantes F, Cato I (2006) Heavy metal assessment for surface sediments from three

areas of the Portuguese continental shelf. Continent Shelf Res 26: 1184-1205 6. G (1979) Index of geoaccumulation in sediments of the Rhine River. Geol J 2: 109–118

7. Muthu Raj S, Jayaprakash M (2008) Distribution and enrichment of trace metals in marine sediments of Bay of

Bengal, off Ennore, south-east coast of India. Environ Geol 56: 207-217

8. Pekey H, Karakas D, Ayberk S, Tolun L, Bakoglu M (2004) Ecological risk assessment using trace elements from surface sediments of Izmit Bay (Northeastern Marmara Sea) Turkey. Mar Pollut Bull 48: 946-953

9. Satpathy, K.K., Mohanty, A.K., Prasad, M.V.R. Natesan, U. and Sarkar. S.K. (2012) Studies on the variations of

heavy metals in the marine sediments off Kalpakkam, east coast of India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 65 (1):

89-101. 10. Selvaraj K, Ram Mohan V (2003) Textural variation and depositional environments of innershelf sediments, off

Kalpakkam, southeast coast of India. J Geol Soc India 61: 449–462

11. .Selvaraj K, Ram Mohan V, Szefer P (2004) Evaluation of metal contamination in coastal sediments of the Bay of

Bengal, India: geochemical and statistical approaches. Mar Poll Bull 49: 174–185 12. .Singarasubramanian SR, Mukesh MV, Manoharan K, Murugan S, Bakkiaraj D, John Peter A, Seralathan P (2006)

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Table-1: Average concentration of heavy metals in the coastal sediment at Kalpakkam, south-eastern India during

2006-2008 (n=48 for each station; n=80 for each season) (all metals in ppm, except Fe in %; organic matter (OM),

sand, silt and clay in %)

Fe Cu Pb Zn Co Cd Cr OM Sand Silt Clay

S 1 2.13 12.06 22.56 21.89 4.39 1.71 48.57 1.53 81.65 18.26 0.09

S 2 1.82 9.36 21.30 16.81 3.34 1.18 50.89 1.49 89.13 10.81 0.06

S 3 1.52 9.34 21.49 16.89 3.23 0.60 52.49 1.62 85.24 14.60 0.16

S 4 1.92 10.03 22.08 17.76 3.53 1.21 50.89 1.74 82.72 17.12 0.16

S 5 1.69 8.22 20.00 12.74 2.66 1.07 51.05 1.66 87.15 12.77 0.08

Pre 1.87 16.13 22.19 21.85 4.21 1.51 45.50 1.56 80.23 19.67 0.10

Mon 1.57 7.79 21.30 16.33 2.71 1.77 52.27 1.63 89.18 10.68 0.14

Post 1.92 7.03 20.78 14.86 3.31 0.48 56.18 1.70 83.42 16.47 0.11

Table-2: Geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor (CF) and pollution load index (PLI) of coastal sediment at

Kalpakkam, south-eastern India during 2006-2008

Igeo CF PLI

Cu Pb Zn Co Cd Cr Cu Pb Zn Co Cd Cr

S 1 -2.02 -0.43 -2.30 -1.80 2.77 -0.42 0.48 1.13 0.31 0.44 17.08 1.39 1.02

S 2 -2.39 -0.50 -2.69 -2.24 2.45 -0.38 0.37 1.07 0.24 0.33 11.78 1.45 0.79

S 3 -2.28 -0.49 -2.71 -2.29 1.94 -0.39 0.37 1.07 0.24 0.32 5.96 1.50 0.73

S 4 -2.20 -0.45 -2.60 -2.12 2.62 -0.59 0.40 1.10 0.25 0.35 12.09 1.45 0.86


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S 5 -2.41 -0.60 -3.07 -2.60 2.56 -0.31 0.33 1.00 0.18 0.27 10.66 1.46 0.71

Pre -1.54 -0.46 -2.29 -2.04 2.76 0.25 0.65 1.11 0.31 0.42 15.09 1.30 0.79

Mon -2.46 -0.50 -2.71 -2.94 2.80 -0.20 0.31 1.07 0.23 0.27 17.66 1.49 0.74

Post -2.74 -0.54 -2.86 -2.22 1.69 -0.05 0.28 1.04 0.21 0.33 4.84 1.61 0.69


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ACADEMIC

The residual wilderness & beauty of nature excites not only me

but each one of us from our core & any damage to the „mother

earth‟ wittingly or unwittingly by our own actions certainly move

us & create an intrinsic desire to protect our nature &

environment. Right from nomadic or pastoral economy to the

settled economy & to this date of so called unbridled development

for our own comfort, we have been exploiting our nature with

unbridled greed & impunity without realizing the fact that these

dastardly acts of ours inflict irreparable damage to our „mother

earth‟ & environment.

From industry to chemistry & from desires to development

- all lead somehow or other to air, water, soil & several other

forms of pollution & finally to global climate change & species

extinction. Moreover, the “evolutes” from fossil-fuels to those

from labs & coal-fired electricity generating units inflict

considerable damage to our environment.

From this state of desperation & desolation & conflict

between so called development & conservation issues, arose a

host of committed individuals worldwide who took the onus to

protect our environment from further degradation. In fact, damage

to the environment over the years has become so savage & brute

due to uncontrolled exploitation of the nature, that the

environmental protection has become one of the prime concerns

of the humanity these days. In this context the publication of this

book/compilation on „Green Chemistry for Greener Environment‟

has become so important.

- Dr. Raghvendu Pathak, (Editor-in-chief)

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