Greek literature.docx

8/14/2019 Greek literature.docx

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Greek literatureGreek literature refers to writings composed in areas of Greek influence, throughoutthe whole period in which the Greek-speaking people have existed.

Ancient Greek literature (before AD 350)

Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in Ancient Greek from the oldestsurviving written works in the Greek language until approximately the fifth century ADand the rise of the Byzantine Empire. The Greek language arose from the proto-Indo-European language, though roughly one-third of its words cannot be derived fromvarious reconstructions of the tongue. A number of alphabets and syllabaries had beenused to render Greek, but surviving Greek literature was written in a Phoenician- derivedalphabet that arose primarily in Greek Ionia and was fully adopted by Athens by the fifthcentury BC.

Preclassical

At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey . Though dates of composition vary, these works were fixedaround 800 BC or after. The other great poet of the preclassical period was Hesiod. Histwo surviving works are Works and Days and Theogony . Some ancients thought Homerand Hesiod roughly contemporaneous, even rivals in contests, but modern scholarshipraises doubts on these issues.

Classical

In the classical period many of the genres of western literature became moreprominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic presentationsofcomedy and tragedy; histories, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, andphilosophical treatises all arose in this period. As the genres evolved, variousexpectations arose, such that a particular poetic genre came to requirethe Doric or Lesbos dialect.The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. The Classical era also saw thedawn of drama. Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classicalage, only a limited number of plays by three authors havesurvived: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Like tragedy, the comedy arose from a ritual in honor of Dionysus, but in this case theplays were full of frank obscenity, abuse, and insult. The surviving playsby Aristophanes are a treasure trove of comic presentation. Menander is considered thebest of the writers of the New Comedy. Two of the most influential historians who had yet lived flourished during Greece'sclassical age: Herodotus and Thucydides. A third historian, Xenophon, began his"Hellenica" where Thucydides ended his work about 411 BC and carried his history to362 BC.
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The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy. Among the tideof Greek philosophy, three names tower above the rest: Socrates even though he didnot write anything himself, Plato, and Aristotle.

Hellenistic

By 338 BC many of the key Greek cities had been conquered by Philip II of Macedon. Philip II's son Alexander extended his father's conquests greatly. The Greek colonyof Alexandria in northern Egypt became, from the 3rd century BC, the outstandingcenter of Greek culture.Later Greek poetry flourished primarily in the 3rd century BC. The chief poetswere Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius of Rhodes. Theocritus, who lived fromabout 310 to 250 BC, was the creator of pastoral poetry, a type thatthe Roman Virgil mastered in his Eclogues. One of the most valuable contributions of the Hellenistic period was the translation ofthe Old Testament into Greek. The work was done at Alexandria and completed by the

end of the 2nd century BC. The name Septuagint is from Latin septuaginta "seventy,"from the tradition that there were 72 scholars who did the work.

Roman Age

The significant historians in the period after Alexanderwere Timaeus, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Appian of

Alexandria, Arrian, and Plutarch. The period of time they cover extended from late in the4th century BC to the 2nd century AD.Eratosthenes of Alexandria, who died about 194 BC, wroteon astronomy and geography, but his work is known mainly from later summaries. The

physician Galen, in the history of ancient science, is the most significant personin medicine after Hippocrates, who laid the foundation of medicine in the 5th centuryBC.The New Testament, written by various authors in varying qualities of Koine Greek hailsfrom this period (1st to early 2nd century AD), the most important works beingthe Gospels and the Epistles of Saint Paul. Patristic literature was written in the Hellenistic Greek of this period. Syria and

Alexandria, especially, flourished.

Byzantine (AD 290-1453)

If Byzantine literature is the expression of the intellectual life of the ByzantineGreeks during the Christian Middle Ages, then it is a multiform organism, combiningGreek and Christian civilization on the common foundation of the Roman politicalsystem, set in the intellectual and ethnographic atmosphere of the Near East. Byzantineliterature partakes of four different cultural elements: the Greek, the Christian, theRoman, and the Oriental, the character of which commingling with the rest.To Hellenistic intellectual culture and Roman governmental organization are added the
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emotional life of Christianity and the world of Oriental imagination, the last enveloping allthe other three .[1]

Aside from personal correspondence, literature of this period was primarily written inthe Atticizing style. Some early literature of this period was written in Latin; some of theworks from the Latin Empire were written in French.

Chronicles, distinct from historic, arose in this period. Encyclopedias also flourished inthis period.

Modern Greek (post 1453)

Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in common Modern Greek, emergingfrom late Byzantine times in the 11th century AD. During this period, spoken Greekbecame more prevalent in the written tradition, as demotic Greek came to be used moreand more over the Attic idiom and the katharevousa reforms.The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this earlyperiod of modern Greek literature, and represents one of its supreme achievements. It

is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553 1613). Themigration of Byzantine scholars and other migrs from southernItaly and Byzantium during the decline of the Byzantine Empire (1203 1453) and mainlyafter the fall of Constantinople in 1453 until the 16th century, is considered by somescholars as key to the revival of Greek and Roman studies and subsequently in thedevelopment of the Renaissance humanism [2] and science. These emigres weregrammarians, humanists, poets, writers, printers, lecturers, musicians, astronomers,architects, academics, artists, scribes, philosophers, scientists, politicians andtheologians .[3] They brought to Western Europe the far greater preserved andaccumulated knowledge of their own civilization.Much later, Diafotismos was an ideological, philological, linguistic and philosophical

movement among 18th century Greeks that translate the ideas and values of EuropeanEnlightenment into the Greek world .Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two ofthe most notable figures.The Korakistika (1819), a lampoon written by Jakovakis Rizos Neroulos and directedagainst the Greek intellectual Adamantios Korais, is a major example of the ModernGreek Enlightenment and emerging nationalism before the Greek War ofIndependence.

Contemporary Greek literature

Contemporary Greek literature is usually (but not exclusively) written

in polytonic orthography, though the monotonic orthography was made official in 1981by Andreas Papandreou. Contemporary Greek literature is represented by manywriters, poets and novelists: Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Kalvos, AngelosSikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Kostis Palamas, Penelope Delta, YannisRitsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Kosmas Politis, AntonisSamarakis, Andreas Embeirikos, Kostas Karyotakis, GregoriosXenopoulos, Constantine P. Cavafy, Demetrius Vikelas, while GeorgeSeferis and Odysseas Elytis have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
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Homer

In the Western classical

tradition, Homer (/ho mr /; Greek: [hm ros], Hmros ) is the author ofthe Iliad and the Odyssey , and is revered as the greatest of ancient Greek epic poets.

These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had anenormous influence on the history of literature. When he lived is unknown. Herodotus estimates that Homer lived 400 years before hisown time, which would place him at around 850 BC ,[1] while other ancient sources claimthat he lived much nearer to the supposed time of the Trojan War, in the early 12thcentury BC .[2] Most modern researchers place Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC.The formative influence of the Homeric epics in shaping Greek culture was widelyrecognized, and Homer was described as the teacher of Greece .[3] Homer's works,which are about fifty percent speeches, provided models in persuasive speaking andwriting that were emulated throughout the ancient and medieval Greek worlds.Fragments of Homer account for nearly half of all identifiable Greek

literary papyrusf inds .[4]

Period

For modern scholars "the date of Homer" refers not to an individual, but to the periodwhen the epics were created. The consensus is that "the Iliad and the Odyssey datefrom around the 8th century BC, the Iliad being composed before the Odyssey , perhapsby some decades, "[5] i.e. earlier than Hesiod ,[6] the Iliad being the oldest workof Western literature. Over the past few decades, some scholars have argued for a 7th-century BC date. Oliver Taplin believes that the conclusion of modern researchers isthat Homer dates to between 750 to 650 BC .[7] Some of those who argue that theHomeric poems developed gradually over a long period of time give an even later datefor the composition of the poems; according to Gregory Nagy for example, they onlybecame fixed texts in the 6th century BC . [8] The question of the historicity of Homer theindividual is known as the "Homeric question" ; there is no reliable biographicalinformation handed down from classical antiquity .[9] The poems are generally seen asthe culmination of many generations of oral story-telling, in a tradition with a well-developed formulaic system of poetic composition. Some scholars, such as MartinWest, claim that "Homer" is "not the name of a historical poet, but a fictitious orconstructed name. "[10]

Life and legends

"Homer" is a Greek name, attested in Aeolic-speaking areas ,[11] and although nothingdefinite is known about him, traditions arose purporting to give details of his birthplaceand background. The satiris tLucian, in his True History , describes him asa Babylonian called Tigranes, who assumed the name Homer when taken "hostage"(homeros ) by the Greeks .[12] When the Emperor Hadrian askedthe Oracle at Delphi about Homer, the Pythia proclaimed that he was Ithacan, the sonof Epikaste and Telemachus, from the Odyssey .[13] These stories were incorporated into
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omer#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/850s_BChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_canonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_traditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_tradition


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the various [14] Lives of Homer compiled from the Alexandrian period onwards . [15] Homeris most frequently said to be born in the Ionian region of Asia Minor, at Smyrna, or onthe island of Chios, dying on the Cycladic island of Ios .[15][16] A connection with Smyrnaseems to be alluded to in a legend that his original name was Melesigenes ("bornof Meles" , a river which flowed by that city), and his mother the nymph Kretheis. Internal

evidence from the poems gives evidence of familiarity with the topography and place-names of this area of Asia Minor; for example, Homer refers to meadow birds at themouth of the Caystros ,[17] a storm in the Icarian sea ,[18] and mentions that womenin Maeonia and Caria stain ivory with scarlet .[19][20] The association with Chios dates back to at least Semonides of Amorgos, who cited afamous line in the Iliad (6.146) as by "the man of Chios" .[21] An eponymous bardic guild, known as the Homeridae (sons of Homer), or Homeristae ('Homerizers' )[22] appears tohave existed there, tracing descent from an ancestor of that name , [23] or upholding theirfunction as rhapsodes or "lay-stitchers" specialising in the recitation of Homericpoetry. Wilhelm Drpfeld [24] suggests that Homer had visited many of the places andregions which he describes in his epics, such as Mycenae, Troy, the palace of

Odysseus at Ithaca and more. According to Diodorus Siculus, Homer had evenvisited Egypt .[25] The poet's name is homophonous with (hmros ), "hostage" (or "surety"), whichis interpreted as meaning "he who accompanies; he who is forced to follow", or, in somedialects, "blind" .[26] This led to many tales that he was a hostage or a blind man.Traditions which assert that he was blind may have arisen from the meaning of the wordin both Ionic, where the verbal form (homre ) has the specialized meaningof "guide the blind" ,[27] and the Aeolian dialect of Cyme, where (hmros ) issynonymous with the standard Greek (tuphls ), meaning 'blind' .[28] Thecharacterization of Homer as a blind bard goes back to some verses in the Delian Hymnto Apollo, the third of the Homeric Hymns ,[29] verses later cited to support this notion

by Thucydides .[30]

The Cymean historian Ephorus held the same view, and the ideagained support in antiquity on the strength of a false etymology which derived his namefrom ho m hor n ( : "he who does not see"). Critics have long taken as self -referentia l[31] a passage in the Odyssey describing a blind bard, Demodocus, in thecourt of the Phaeacian king, who recounts stories of Troy to theshipwrecked Odysseus .[32] Many scholars take the name of the poet to be indicative of a generic function. GregoryNagy takes it to mean "he who fits (the Song) together" . [33] (homr), anotherrelated verb, besides signifying "meet", can mean "(sing) in accord/tune" . [34] Someargue that "Homer" may have meant "he who puts the voice in tune" withdancing .[35][36] Marcello Durante links "Homeros" to an epithet of Zeus as "god of the

assemblies" and argues that behind the name lies the echo of an archaic word for"reunion", similar to the later Panegyris, denoting a formal assembly of competingminstrels .[37][38] Some Ancient Lives depict Homer as a wandering minstrel, like Thamyris [39] or Hesiod, who walked as far as Chalkis to sing at the funeral games of Amphidamas .[40] We aregiven the image of a "blind, begging singer who hangs around with little people:shoemakers, fisherman, potters, sailors, elderly men in the gathering places of harbourtowns" .[41] The poems, on the other hand, give us evidence of singers at the courts of
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the nobility. There is a strong aristocratic bias in the poems demonstrated by the lack ofany major protagonists of non-aristocratic stock, and by episodes such as the beatingdown of the commoner Thersites by the king Odysseus for daring to criticize hissuperiors. That Odysseus is described as beating Thersites, not with any object of hisown, but rather with Agamemnon's sceptre, could be seen as leaving the implications of

the event open to the listener's imagination or point of view. In any event, scholars aredivided as to which category, if any, the court singer or the wandering minstrel, thehistoric "Homer" belonged .[42]

Works attributed to Homer

The Greeks of the sixth and early fifth centuries BC understood by "Homer", generally,"the whole body of heroic tradition as embodied in hexameter verse" .[43] Thus, inaddition to the Iliad and the Odyssey, there are "exceptional" epics which organize theirrespective themes on a "massive scale" .[44] Many other works were credited to Homer inantiquity, including the entire Epic Cycle. The genre included further poems on

the Trojan War, such as the Little Iliad , the Nostoi , the Cypria, and the Epigoni , as wellas the Theban poems about Oedipus and his sons. Other works, such as the corpusof Homeric Hymns , the comic mini-epic Batrachomyomachia ("The Frog-Mouse War"),and the Margites were also attributed to him, but this is now believed to be unlikely. Twoother poems, the Capture of Oechalia and the Phocais were also assigned Homericauthorship, but the question of the identities of the authors of these various texts is evenmore problematic than that of the authorship of the two major epics.

Identity and authorship [edit source | editbeta] .

The idea that Homer was responsible for just the two outstanding epics, the Iliad andthe Odyssey , did not win consensus until 350 BC . [45] While many find it unlikely thatboth epics were composed by the same person, others argue that the stylisticsimilarities are too consistent to support the theory of multiple authorship. One viewwhich attempts to bridge the differences holds that the Iliad was composed by "Homer"in his maturity, while the Odyssey was a work of his old age.The Batrachomyomachia , Homeric Hymns and cyclic epics are generally agreed to belater than the Iliad and the Odyssey .Most scholars agree that the Iliad and Odyssey underwent a process of standardisationand refinement out of older material beginning in the 8th century BC. An important rolein this standardisation appears to have been played by the Athenian tyrant Hipparchus,

who reformed the recitation of Homeric poetry at the Panathenaic festival. Many classicists hold that this reform must have involved the production ofa canonical written text.Other scholars still support the idea that Homer was a real person. Since nothing isknown about the life of this Homer, the common joke also recycled with regardto Shakespeare has it that the poems "were not written by Homer, but by another manof the same name. "[46][47] Samuel Butler argues, based on literary observations, that ayoung Sicilian woman wrote the Odyssey (but not the Iliad ),[48] an idea further pursued
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by Robert Graves in his novel Homer's Daughter and Andrew Dalby in RediscoveringHomer .[49] Independent of the question of single authorship is the near-universal agreement, afterthe work of Milman Parry ,[50] that the Homeric poems are dependent on an oral tradition, a generations-old technique that was the collective inheritance of many singer-poets

(aoidoi ). An analysis of the structure and vocabulary of the Iliad and Odyssey showsthat the poems contain many formulaic phrases typical of extempore epic traditions;even entire verses are at times repeated. Parry and his student Albert Lord pointed outthat such elaborate oral tradition, foreign to today's literate cultures, is typical of epicpoetry in a predominantly oral cultural milieu, the key words being "oral" and"traditional". Parry started with "traditional": the repetitive chunks of language, he said,were inherited by the singer-poet from his predecessors, and were useful to him incomposition. Parry called these repetitive chunks "formulas".Exactly when these poems would have taken on a fixed written form is subject todebate. The traditional solution is the "transcription hypothesis", wherein a non-literate"Homer" dictates his poem to a literate scribe between the 8th and 6th centuries BC.

The Greek alphabet was introduced in the early 8th century BC, so it is possible thatHomer himself was of the first generation of authors who were also literate. Theclassicist Barry B. Powell suggests that the Greek alphabet was invented ca. 800 BC byone man, whom he calls the "adapter," in order to write down oral epic poetry .[51] Moreradical Homerists like Gregory Nagy contend that a canonical text of the Homeric poemsas "scripture" did not exist until the Hellenistic period (3rd to 1st century BC).New methods try also to elucidate the question. Combining information technologiesand statistics stylometry analyzes various linguistic units: words, parts of speech, andsounds. Based on the frequencies of Greek letters, a first study of DietmarNajock [52] particularly shows the internal cohesion of the Iliad and the Odyssey . Takinginto account the repartition of the letters, a recent study of Stephan Vonfel t[53]highlightsthe unity of the works of Homer compared to Hesiod. The thesis of modern analystsbeing questioned, the debate remains open.

Homeric studies [edit source | editbeta] Main article: Homeric scholarship

The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity.The aims and achievements of Homeric studies have changed over the course of themillennia. In the last few centuries, they have revolved around the process by which theHomeric poems came into existence and were transmitted over time to us, first orallyand later in writing.

Some of the main trends in modern Homeric scholarship have been, in the 19th andearly 20th centuries, Analysis and Unitarianism (see Homeric Question) , schools ofthought which emphasized on the one hand the inconsistencies in, and on the other theartistic unity of, Homer; and in the 20th century and later Oral Theory , the study of themechanisms and effects of oral transmission, and Neoanalysis , the study of therelationship between Homer and other early epic material.
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Homeric dialect [edit source | editbeta] Main article: Homeric Greek

The language used by Homer is an archaic version of Ionic Greek, with admixtures fromcertain other dialects, such as Aeolic Greek. It later served as the basis of Epic Greek,

the language of epic poetry, typically in dactylic hexameter.

Transmission and publication

Though evincing many features characteristic of oral poetry, the Iliad and Odyssey wereat some point committed to writing. The Greek script, adapted froma Phoenician syllabary around 800 BC, made possible the notation of the complexrhythms and vowel clusters that make up hexameter verse. Homer's poems appear tohave been recorded shortly after the alphabet's invention: an inscription from Ischia inthe Bay of Naples, ca. 740 BC, appears to refer to a text of the Iliad ; likewise,illustrations seemingly inspired by the Polyphemus episode in the Odyssey are foundon Samos, Mykonos and in Italy, dating from the first quarter of the seventh century BC.We have little information about the early condition of the Homeric poems, but in thesecond century BC, Alexandrian editors stabilized this text from which all modern textsdescend.In late antiquity, knowledge of Greek declined in Latin-speaking western Europe and,along with it, knowledge of Homer's poems. It was not until the fifteenth century AD thatHomer's work began to be read once more in Italy. By contrast it was continually readand taught in the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire where the majority of theclassics also survived. The first printed edition appeared in 1488 (edited by DemetriosChalkokondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius, Nerius Nerlius, and DemetriusDamilas in Florence, Italy) .

One often finds books of the Iliad and Odyssey cited by the corresponding letter ofthe Greek alphabet, with upper-case letters referring to a book number of the Iliad andlower-case letters referring to the Odyssey . Thus 200 would be shorthandfor Iliad book 14, line 200, while 200 would be Odyssey 14.200. The following tablepresents this system of numeration:

Iliad

book no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Odyssey
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