Graziano & Raulin (2000) Naturalistic Observation and Case-Study Research Graziano and Raulin...

Graziano & Raulin (2000)

Naturalistic Observationand Case-Study Research

Graziano and Raulin

Research Methods: Chapter 6


Challenge of Low-Constraint Research Usually involves careful observation of

participants in their natural surroundings– Can be very difficult to observe behavior in natural

surroundings– Often we are not sure what behaviors are important

until after we have observed for a while– Without the controls of the laboratory, participants are

free to do what they want to do, and not what we are hoping to observe


Naturalistic Observation Examples Charles Darwin’s voyage on the HMS

Beagle (the basis for his theory of natural selection)

Jane Goodall's study of chimpanzees Dian Fossey’s study of the mountain gorilla Adeline Levine’s study of the Love Canal Rosenhan’s study of psychiatric

hospitalization


Case-Study Examples

Sigmund Freud’s study of patients, which formed the basis for his psychoanalytic theory

E. L. Witmer’s study of children in the first psychology clinic in North America

Jean Piaget’s study of the development of children, which led to numerous theories of child development


Value of these Methods

When to use low-constraint research– For questions involving the natural flow of behavior– When first studying a new research area– When testing the feasibility of a procedure– To test the generalizability of laboratory findings

Information gained from these methods– Provides new descriptive information– Can negate a general proposition– Provides information about contingencies


Problem Statementsand Hypotheses Problem statements are often general and

flexible in low-constraint research studies– Problem statements and hypotheses may evolve

(i.e, start out general and become more specific) as the study progresses, building on new observations

Unable to test causal hypotheses with low-constraint research


Making Observations

Unobtrusive observation: observing behavior without participants’ knowledge

Participant observation: observing behavior while participating in the situation

Want to reduce measurement reactivity– People behaving differently when observed

Reactive measures: enhance reactivity Nonreactive measures: minimize reactivity


Archival Records

Exist independent of a research study– Kept for purposes other than research, but they

may be valuable in some research studies– May include government records, school and

hospital records, census data, etc. Access to such archival records are

restricted by legal and ethical constraints Valuable data source for some studies


Ethical Issues

Use of unobtrusive measures (including archival records) raises ethical issues– Participants are not given the right to consent– Some of the archival records contain sensitive data

Researchers need to show the necessity for unobtrusive measures and safeguards to protect the rights of the participants– Must have IRB approval


Sampling of Participants

Try to obtain a representative sample– Representative samples allow us to generalize

findings to the larger group Sampling is often not under the control of the

researcher in low-constraint research– Therefore, caution is required in interpreting the

results– Generalize only to similar participants and NOT to

the general population


Sampling of Situations

People (and animals) behave differently in different situations– To get an adequate picture of behavior, we need

to sample the behavior in many situations Sampling many situations will give us an

idea of how consistent behavior is It also gives clues about what factors may

be affecting the behavior


Sampling of Behaviors

Even in the same situation, people may behave differently on different occasions– Repeated sampling of behavior in a specific

situation will indicate the consistency of the behavior

Repeated observation (essentially a replication) prevents us from developing theories based on a single, unusual behavioral response of the organism


Evaluating the Data

The data from low-constraint research is a rich set of information– Data usually needs to be coded to provide

simplification and organization– The analyses will depend on the questions and

the level of data produced after coding Must be cautious in interpreting data from

low-constraint research


Limitations

Poor representativeness Poor replicability Ex post facto fallacy Limitations of the observer Going Beyond the Data


Poor Representativeness

Most low-constraint studies have small samples that were not randomly selected from the population

Rarely do the samples represent the population

Consequently, it is dangerous to generalize your findings to the population


Poor Replicability

Studies can be replicated only if– The procedures are clearly specified– The procedures were followed exactly

In low-constraint research– Procedures are often not specified – They may change as the study continues– They are often unique to the observer

Therefore, replication is very difficult


Ex Post Facto Fallacy

Interpreting an observed contingency as if it represented a causal connection– Low-constraint observation will never provide

the controls for such strong conclusions If ex post facto conclusions are interpreted

as hypotheses for further research, and not as established facts, then they serve a useful scientific purpose


Limitations of the Observer

Low-constraint studies often rely on the observational skills of the researcher

Detailed procedures are not specified– Specific procedures would decrease flexibility– However, detailed procedures could constrain

the observer in a way that would limit experimenter biases

Give up some control for the flexibility


Experimenter Bias

Without the controls found in higher constraint research, it is difficult for the researcher to avoid influencing participants– Experimenter reactivity is the term used to

describe this unwanted influence on the participants’ behavior

Experimenter effects can be controlled in higher-constraint research


Going Beyond the Data

Low-constraint data are often intriguing Nevertheless, one must be careful in drawing

strong conclusions Rosenhan has been criticized for broadly

over-interpreting his data, even distorting the data

Interpretation should take into account other information we know about a phenomenon


Survey Research

A widely used research technique– Provides information about people’s attitudes,

experience, and knowledge– Used extensively today by researchers,

politicians, and news organizations First introduced in the 1830s in England

– Study the impact of the Industrial Revolution on people’s lives


Types of Surveys

Status surveys– Descriptive survey about the current status of

the population sampled– Descriptive information can guide policy and

inform policy makers Survey research

– Seeks to identify relationships among the variables studied in the survey


Steps in Survey Research

Determine what you want to study Define the population to be studied Design, construct, pilot, and refine the survey

instrument Select a representative sample Administer the survey Analyze, interpret, and communicate the

results


Form of the Survey Instrument

Group-administered survey– Written survey with instructions included– Administered in groups or through the mail

Individual survey schedule– Administered in person or over the phone– Can be rather complex, provided there is a clear

procedure for the interviewer to follow– Allows clarification more easily than in group-

administered surveys


Developing a Survey Instrument

Use clear language and explicit instructions Types and number of questions will depend

on the purpose and the type of survey planned

Types of items– Open-ended items– Multiple-choice items– Likert-scale items


Sample Open-Ended Questions

How do you typically handle interpersonal difficulties with your co-workers?

What are the most important values to instill into today’s children?

If you were president, what issues would you make your top priority?

What situations are particularly stressful for you?


Sample Multiple-Choice Questions How frequently do

you take a sick day from work?a) never

b) once or twice a year

c) 3 to 5 times a year

d) 6 to 12 times a year

e) at least once a month

Identify the issue that you believe is most critical to this country’s future.a) the economy

b) education

c) integrity in government

d) national defense

e) some other issue


Sample Likert-Scale Questions

Rate each item on the scale shown to indicate your level of agreement:

I believe in the Bill of Rights.strongly agree agree uncertain disagree strongly disagree

I think that everyone should vote.strongly agree agree uncertain disagree strongly disagree

Most politicians cannot be trusted.strongly agree agree uncertain disagree strongly disagree


Issues in Sampling

Need to clearly define the population and then develop a strategy for adequately sampling from the population– Identify each member of the population– Sample from the comprehensive list

The more representative the sample, the more valid our conclusions from the survey


Sampling Procedures

Nonprobability samples– Convenience sample gathered quickly, but with

little interest in drawing strong conclusions Probability samples

– Simple random sampling Every person has an equal chance of being included

– Stratified random sampling Random sampling within clearly defined strata

(subdivisions of the population)


Sample Size

Sample size is based on several factors– Costs and time constraints– Degree of precision needed

Larger samples will provide more precise estimates of population parameters

More heterogeneous populations require larger sample sizes

The larger the sample, the more narrow the confidence intervals


Research Design of Surveys

Cross-sectional designs– Administer the survey once to a sample

Longitudinal designs– Repeatedly survey the same participants– Allows us to see changes in attitudes,

experience, and knowledge over time– Difficult to get participants to submit to such

long-term research


Summary

Low-constraint research methods provide valuable information

Types of low-constraint research– Naturalistic observation – Case-study research– Surveys

Appropriate caution must be used because of the inherent limitations of these methods

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