Grammar Points on Bio-medical Writing - Dr. Steve Wallace
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Transcript of Grammar Points on Bio-medical Writing - Dr. Steve Wallace
Introduction
Teach at CUHK, NTU, NCU, NTHU and ITRI technical writing teacher and editor
Spoken at over 70 universities in Taiwan
Written 13 textbooks used in 28 universities, including:
“How to write and submit your paper in 18 weeks: a textbook for Taiwanese academic writers”
華樂絲學術英文編修
Introduction and outline of speech
- Active and passive voice in medical writing - “Hedging” in medical writing - The ambiguous antecedent - The missing antecedent - The vague antecedent - Dangling modifiers - Misplaced modifiers - Latin and Greek plurals - Using numbers and 16 other Grammar points
What Is Active Voice?
The active voice emphasizes the performer of the action:
Wind disperses plant seeds.
Smith et al. investigated the relationship.
We have analyzed the results.
The active voice is direct (performer–verb–receiver), clear, and concise.
What Is Passive Voice?
The passive voice, emphasizes the receiver of the action:
Plant seeds are dispersed [by wind].
The relationship was investigated [by Smith et al].
The results have been analyzed [by us].
The passive voice is indirect and can be weak, awkward, and wordy.
Tradition and the Passive Voice
More than a century ago, scientists wrote in the first-person pronouns I and we.
Example: Charles Darwin
“I have called this principle by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection.”
Beginning in the 1920s scientists adopted a passive writing style.
The passive voice was thought to be objective, impersonal, and well suited to science writing.
Exception
“We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.).”
Watson and Crick's classic article is simple, direct, and clear.
“In this paper, a structure is suggested for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.).”
Emphasize the Active Voice
Currently, most medical and scientific style manuals prefer active voice
Some journals ask authors to limit first-person pronouns or restrict them to certain sections.
Other journals prefer authors to use first-person pronouns over passive voice.
AMA Manual of Style
recommends that:
“In general, authors should use the
active voice, except in instances in which the author is unknown or the interest focuses on what is acted upon.“
AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors. 10th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2007.
The Journal of Trauma and
Dissociation:
"Use the active voice whenever possible: We will ask authors that rely heavily on use of the passive voice to re-write manuscripts in the active voice.“
Guidelines for authors. International Society for the Study of Trauma Web site: The Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. http://www.isst-d.org/jtd/journal-trauma-dissociation-info-for-authors.htm. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Ophthalmology
"Active voice is much preferred to passive voice, which should be used sparingly....Passive voice...does notrelieve the author of direct responsibility for observations, opinions, or conclusions (e.g., 'The problem of blood flow was investigated...' vs. 'We investigated the problem of blood flow...').“
Guide for authors. Elsevier Web site: Ophthalmology: Journal of the American Academy of Ophthalmology.http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/620418/authorinstructions. Accessed March 5, 2009.
The Journal of Neuroscience
"Overuse of the passive voice is a common problem in writing. Although the passive has its place—for example, in the Methods section—in many instances it
makes the manuscript dull by failing to identify the author's role in the research....Use direct, active-voice sentences.“
Westbrook G, Cooper L. Writing tips: Techniques for clear scientific writing and editing. The Society for Neuroscience Web site:The Journal of Neuroscience. http://www.jneurosci.org. Accessed March 5, 2009.
British Medical Journal
"Please write in a clear, direct, and active style....Write in the active [voice] and use the first person where necessary.“
The essentials of BMJ style. BMJ Publishing Group Web site: British Medical Journal.http://resources.bmj.com/bmj/authors/bmj-house-style. Accessed March 5, 2009.
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (APA) has similar advice:
"Prefer the active voice....The passive voice is acceptable in expository writing and when you want to focus on the object or recipient of the action rather than on the actor.“
American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Behavioral Ecology
“Active voice is preferable to
the impersonal passive voice.“Instructions to authors. Oxford Journals Web site: Behavioral Ecology.http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/beheco/for_authors/general.html. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Science
"Use active voice when suitable, particularly when necessary for correct syntax (e.g., 'To address this possibility, we constructed a lZap library ...,' not 'To address this possibility, a lZap library was constructed...').“
http://www.sciencemag.org/about/authors/prep/res/style.dtl. Accessed March 4, 2009.
Nature
"Nature journals like authors to write in the active voice as experience has shown that readers find concepts and results to be conveyed more clearly if written directly.“
How to write a paper: writing for a Nature journal. Nature Publishing Group Web site: Nature. http://www.nature.com/authors/author_services/how_write.html.
Accessed March 4, 2009.
1. If the performer is unknown,
irrelevant, or obvious
“Up to 90% of the energy in light bulbs is wasted in the form of heat.”
“The first edition of Freud's earliest writings on dreams was published in 1899.”
“Drosophila melanogaster has been one of the most extensively studied species in genetics research.”
2. If the performer is less
important than the action“The honey bees were kept in a humidified chamber at room temperature overnight.”
“The solution was heated to 90°C for approximately 30 minutes and then allowed to cool.”
If active:
“We kept the honey bees in a humidified chamber at room temperature overnight.”
“We heated the solution to 90°C for approximately 30 minutes and then allowed it to cool.”
Passive Voice in the Methods
Section
In the methods section the active voice changes the focus from the research to the researchers, an emphasis the author may not want in the Methods section, where the general topic is the research materials and procedures.
Most sentences will begin with we, which is distracting.
The passive voice redirects attention to the action (or the recipient).
3. If the recipient is the main
topicPut important information at the beginning of a sentence. The following active-voice sentence begins a new section in
which the topic is "green plants" (the performer):
Green plants produce carbohydrates in the presence of light and chlorophyll.
If, "carbohydrates" (the receiver of the action) is the opening topic, passive is better:
Carbohydrates are produced by green plants in the presence of light and chlorophyll.
Watson and Crick (1953)
The topic must identify the subject and prepare the reader for upcoming material by connecting it to the previous discussion.
“We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.). This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest. A structure for nucleic acid has already been proposed by Pauling and Corey.”
The authors used the active voice in the first and second sentences, but the passive in the third. If the third sentence is changed to active voice, it becomes:
Pauling and Corey have already proposed a structure for nucleic acid.
Summary on Passive Voice
Choose the active voice whenever possible.
Choose the passive voice when: 1) The performer is unknown, irrelevant,
or obvious. 2) The performer is less important than
the action. 3) The recipient is the main topic. You can also use the passive voice to
hedge (i.e., to be noncommittal). Not recommended
"Hedging" in Scientific Writing
Hedging is using cautious language to make noncommittal or vague statements to:
Report the limits of their findings
Protect themselves from the risk of error
Show humility
Cautious language is important in scientific writing, but authors should not use it too much.
3 hedging techniques:
Qualifiers (modifiers)
Passive voice
Apologetic quotation marks
1. Word choice: Unnecessary
qualifiers Qualifiers modify or limit the meaning of other
words. Qualifiers are added to scientific writing to
express:
approximation probability doubt limit the scope of a statement
Examples of qualifiers
Adjectives: apparent, certain, consistent with, few, many, most, possible, presumed, probable, putative, several, some, supposed
Adverbs: about, apparently, arguably, fairly, in general, largely, likely, more or less, mostly, often, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, quite, rather, somewhat, unlikely, usually
Nouns: appearance, indication, inference, likelihood, possibility, probability, suggestion, tendency, to my knowledge
Verbs: aim, appear, assume, can, could, estimate, indicate, infer, intend, may, might, presume, propose, seem, seen as, should, speculate, suggest, suppose, tend
Unnecessary qualifiers (continued)
In moderation, qualifiers reduce a researcher's certainty about a method or observation.
However, double, triple, and quadruple synonyms are unnecessary
Example: may be possible seems to suggest rather likely to indicate may be seen as rather likely
To strengthen your argument and increase clarity, limit the number of qualifiers in each sentence.
How would you modify
this sentence?
“A possible cause is likely the apparent tendency of a certain number of patients with diabetes to develop indications of retinopathy.”
“A possible cause is the tendency of patients with diabetes to develop retinopathy.”
2. Point of view: Unnecessary
passive voice A noncommittal form of the passive voice occurs
when authors fail to name themselves (with the personal pronouns I, we) or other researchers as the performers.
This type of passive often begins with the word It Example: It was apparent... It has been noted... It was decided... It is known to be... Who reported the results? To whom was it
apparent? The reader is forced to guess who holds the view.
Passive in the Methods Section
“It was concluded that sleep deprivation has three effects on cognitive performance.”
The passive voice protects the authors from the risk of uncertainty. However, who concluded?.
The reader may find it difficult to determine who did the action when authors use the passive voice to describe their own work other researcher’s work.
Unless you have good reason to write in the passive voice, use the active voice to identify the performer (e.g., We concluded that...).
3. Punctuation: Unnecessary
quotation marks
Some authors add quotation marks to emphasize expressions that are being used for irony or in a nonstandard sense:
“Many patent "medicines" in the 1800s contained little more than alcohol and water.”
Apologetic quotation marks tell the reader that an expression is not being used in the usual way.
Summary on Hedging
Devices for hedging include qualifiers, passive voice, and quotation marks.
These devices are useful when used carefully. However, to reduce ambiguity and improve readability:
1) Eliminate unnecessary qualifiers 2) Use the active voice when
necessary 3) Seldom apply apologetic quotation
marks
The Ambiguous Antecedent
A pronoun (e.g., you, ours, she, this, whom, which, himself) takes the place of a noun. The noun, pronoun, or clause that a pronoun refers to, called an antecedent, usually appears earlier in the sentence.
A pronoun should refer to one specific antecedent.
An ambiguous pronoun antecedent occurs when a pronoun has two or more possible antecedents.
Example: Does the pronoun it refer to the first
study or to the second study?
“The second study was designed to enroll 2000 more participants than the first study. It tested three dose levels of the study drug.”
Correction 1The second study, which tested three dose levels of the study drug, was designed to enroll 2000 more participants than the first study.
Correction 2The second study, designed to enroll 2000 more participants than the first study, tested three dose levels of the study drug.
Example of an unclear
antecedent
Smith et al. compared their study results with those of previous researchers and presented them at the conference.
At the conference, Smith et al. presented their study results, which they had compared with those of previous researchers.
Quick Tips: The Ambiguous
Antecedent
Make sure that each pronoun refers to only one antecedent.
To correct:
remove the pronoun,
shorten the sentence, or rearrange sentence elements.
You may need to do all three.
The Missing Antecedent
A missing pronoun antecedent is when the author implies an antecedent but does not include it in the sentence.
The true antecedent, or reference, is missing.
How can we modify this
sentence?After reading the nursing professor's recent publication on patient care, the students contacted her to obtain more information.
Correction 1 After reading the recent publication on patient care by their nursing professor, the students contacted her to obtain more information.
Correction 2After reading the recent publication on patient care by Johnson, the students contacted her to obtain more information.
Correction 3The students contacted the nursing professor to obtain more information after reading her recent publication on patient care.
Quick Tips: The Missing
Antecedent
Look for missing antecedents when the implied antecedent of a pronoun is in possessive case (and thus an adjective).
To correct a missing antecedent
1) Replace antecedent adjectives with nouns or noun phrases; or
2) Replace pronouns with nouns or noun phrases.
The Vague Antecedent
Sometimes authors use the pronouns this,that, it, or which to refer to a noun or clause (called an antecedent) in the previous sentence.
If the reference is not obvious readers may not review the previous sentence to understand what the author is saying.
A vague pronoun antecedent occurs when a pronoun refers to one or more groups of words and the reference is not clear.
The Vague AntecedentExample 1Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease. This diminishes over time.
orExample 2
Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease, which diminishes over time.
The Vague Antecedent
Correction 1Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease. This risk diminishes over time.
Correction 1Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease. The need to monitor these patients diminishes over time.
Correction 1Patients with a latent infection may need to be monitored for several months because they are at risk of developing the active form of the disease. As the risk diminishes over time, so too does the need to monitor these patients.
Quick Tips: The Vague
Antecedent
Be careful with the pronouns this, that, it, and which.
Correct vague pronoun antecedents by:
changing the pronoun into anadjective,
replacing the pronoun with a noun or noun phrase, or
revising the sentence more extensively.
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies the wrong subject in a sentence. This occurs because the implied subject is missing. The resulting sentence can be unclear.
Most dangling modifiers are verbal phrases:
Participles (verbs used as adjectives)Gerunds (verbs used as nouns)Infinitives (verbs used as nouns
adjectives, or adverbs)
Dangling Participles
(end in “ing” or “ed”) Example
Using the survey data, the effects of education on job satisfaction were examined.
(Who is using the data? Implied subject = we/researchers; grammatical subject = the effects)
CorrectionUsing the survey data, we examined the effects of education on job satisfaction.
Dangling Participles
(end in “ing” or “ed”)Example
Based on the results, we concluded that the drugs are equally effective.
(What is based on the results? Implied subject = conclusion; grammatical subject = we)
Correction 1On the basis of the results, we concluded that the drugs are equally effective.
Correction 2We concluded from the results that the drugs are equally effective.
Correction 3Based on the results, our conclusion is that the drugs are equally effective.
Dangling Gerunds (end
in “ing”) Example
After preparing the samples, our focus was on collecting the data.
(Who did the preparing? Implied subject = we/ researchers; grammatical subject = our focus)
CorrectionAfter preparing the samples, we focused on collecting the data.
Dangling Infinitives
(include the word “to”) Example
To investigate the relationship, a series of experiments were designed.
(Who is going to investigate? Implied subject = we/researchers; grammatical subject = a series)
CorrectionWe designed a series of experiments to investigate the relationship.
Quick Tips: Dangling Modifiers
Watch for dangling modifiers at the beginning of sentences.
Ask who or what is doing the action and make sure the implied subject is doing it.
Write in the active voice whenever possible. The passive voice "encourages" dangling modifiers to appear.
Misplaced Modifiers
Misplaced modifiers are an error in sentence structure involving the order of words.
A misplaced modifier has been incorrectly placed in a sentence, describing the wrong word or phrase.
Adjectives and adverbs are easily misplaced, producing unclear results.
Example: Misplaced
Modifier
ExampleThe 49-year-old patient experienced severe pain in the left heel when walking for two months.
CorrectionFor two months, the 49-year-old patient experienced severe pain in the left heel when walking.
The word only modifies the word that
directly follows it. Example
Only eradication of this disease can be achieved through immunization. (Eradication, but no other outcome, can be achieved.)
Alternative 1Eradication of only this disease can be achieved through immunization. (Eradication of this disease, but not of any other, can be achieved.)
Alternative 2Eradication of this disease can only be achievedthrough immunization. (Eradication can be achieved, but no other action can occur.)
Alternative 3Eradication of this disease can be achieved only through immunization. (Eradication can be achieved through immunization but not by any other means.)
The word only modifies the
word that directly follows it.
They were only asking about the deliverable. (As if it were a minor issue)
They were asking only about the deliverable. (They asked about nothing else.)
Only they were asking about the deliverable. (No one else asked.)
Quick Tips: Misplaced Modifiers
Place words and groups of words as close as possible to the words that they are describing.
Place words such as only, almost,and even just before the word that you want them to describe.
Latin and Greek Plurals
Common in scientific and medical writing.
The preferred plural form of many of these words is the same as in the original language. But for other plurals, the usual English rules of adding "s" or "es" now apply.
The acceptability of an English plural form may differ by journal
Caution: Read the dictionary entry carefully. Sometimes the English plural is used for only a narrow definition of the term.
Common traditional endings for Latin or
Greek singular nouns and their
corresponding plural endings Singular ending Plural ending -a → -ae -en→ -ina -ex→ -ices -is → -es -itis→ -itides -ix → -ices -on→ -a -um→ -a -us→ -i
Singular and Plural Nouns Derived From
Latin and Greek
Singular form Plural form
alga algae or algas analysis analyses bacterium bacteria basis bases criterion criteria or criterions datum data focus foci or focuses foramen foramina or foramens formula formulae or formulas fungus fungi or funguses genus genera hypothesis hypotheses index indices (math) or indexes
Singular and Plural Nouns Derived From
Latin and Greek (continued)
Singular form Plural form
larva larvae or larvas
matrix matrices or matrixes
medium media
nephritis nephritides
nucleus nuclei or nucleuses
parenthesis parentheses
phenomenon phenomena
radius radii or radiuses
stimulus stimuli
stratum strata
synthesis syntheses
vertebra vertebrae or vertebrasa
Do not insert a comma before but also in a
sentence with not only...but also
Correlative conjunctions are pairs (not only...but also, either...or,
neither...nor, and both...and). These conjunctive pairs are used when
there is a continuous flow of ideas. A comma signifies a pause in the line
of thinking so no comma should be used to separate the elements joined by correlative conjunctions.
Do not insert a comma before but also.
How would you change
this sentence? We observed that poor drug
efficiency was due to not only lack of absorption, but also increased clearance.
We observed that poor drug efficiency was due to not only lack of absorption but also increased clearance.
How would you change
this sentence? Radiotherapy is valuable not only in
reducing the number of courses of chemotherapy, but also in producing superior overall survival.
Radiotherapy is valuable not only in reducing the number of courses of chemotherapy but also in producing superior overall survival.
Avoid double negatives
Double negatives are used in English to make a very positive statement, but this is not appropriate for a scientific paper.
In Chinese a double negative can actually strengthen the negativeness of a statement, which does not translate into English.
How would you change
this sentence?
"No background staining was not seen..."
"No background staining was seen..."
Hyphens
Hyphenation joins ordinarily separate words into compound words
Incorrect use of compound adjectives can lead to confusion
“twenty-four hour reactions”
has a different meaning from
“twenty four-hour reactions”
Do not use a hyphen in a compound adjective
when the first word is an adverb ending in ly
No hyphen is required to make a compound adjective when the first word is an adverb ending in “ly”
“intensely colored crystals” = “intense-colored crystals”
Not “intensely-colored crystals”
How would you change
this sentence?
We developed a fully-automated method that estimates the position of the diaphragm.
We developed a fully automated method that estimates the position of the diaphragm.
How would you change
this sentence?
The surgically-removed tissue specimen was then subjected to histopathological examination.
The surgically removed tissue specimen was then subjected to histopathological examination.
Do not use the same or similar
word/phrase in quick succession in two
consecutive sentences
The baseline characteristics are shown in Table 1. Table 2 shows the body temperature of all female subjects.
The baseline characteristics are shown in Table 1, and the body temperature of all female subjects are shown in Table 2.
Table 1 and Table 2 show the baseline characteristics and body temperature of all female subjects, respectively.
How would you change
these sentences? Percutaneous RF ablation of the lung
tumors was approved by our institutional review board. The institutional review board also approved tumor biopsy and specimen analysis with the novel approach.
Our institutional review board approved percutaneous RF ablation of the lung tumors as well as tumor biopsy and specimen analysis with the novel approach.
Numbers
The numbers one to nine should be written in full in text except when used with units of measurement or in a range including a number greater than nine
“The control group (three males and two females)…”
“Patients were administered 3 mg/kg TNF…”
“There were 5–10 patients in each group”
Numbers
Numbers at the beginning of a sentence should be spelled out or the sentence should be restructured
Spelled out numbers require spelled out units
“Thirty-three sections were cut from each block using a cryostat”
“Ten microliters of drug was administered to each patient”
“Drug (10 μl) was administered to each patient”
Numbers
Always use a space between numbers and units (this includes % if the journal follows SI guidelines, exceptions are plane angular degrees, minutes and seconds. The Chicago manual asks for no space between the % sign and the number)
20 mg, 40 mL, 25 °C, 2°3’4’’
Use “of” to follow amounts but not concentrations
5 g of NaOH was added to the solution
5 mol/L NaOH was added to the solution
Insert a space between a numeral and its
corresponding unit of measurement and
before and after mathematical operators
The body weight of the Beagles ranged between 5kg and 10kg; their average body weight was 7.5kg.
The body weight of the Beagles ranged between 5 kg and 10 kg; their average body weight was 7.5 kg.
How would you change
this sentence? Of the 91 participants (average age
60±5years), 51 and 40 were divided into 2 groups based on their response to the drug.
Of the 91 participants (average age 60 ±5 years), 51 and 40 were divided into 2 groups based on their response to the drug.
Repeat the percentage sign
(%) in a series or range of
percentages The range of annual incidence rates
of URTI was 0.4-1.9 %.
The range of annual incidence rates of URTI was 0.4 %-1.9 %.
How would you change
this title? Approximately 60.0, 14.3, and
16.7% patients in Groups A, B, and C, respectively, showed significant improvement.
Approximately 60.0 %, 14.3 %, and 16.7 % patients in Groups A, B, and C, respectively, showed significant improvement.
Do not begin a sentence
with a numeral 24 patients were assigned to receive
radiotherapy and 30 to receive a combination of radio- and chemotherapy.
Twenty-four patients were assigned to receive radiotherapy and 30 to receive a combination of radio- and chemotherapy.
A total of 24 and 30 patients were assigned to receive radiotherapy and a combination of radio and chemotherapy, respectively.
Do not begin a sentence
with a numeral 60 % of the enrolled subjects
continued their participation until the end of the study.
Sixty percent of the enrolled subjects continued their participation until the end of the study.
Of the enrolled subjects, 60 % continued their participation until the end of the study.
Do not use a plural verb with a
spelled-out unit of measurement
Use the singular form of the verb with units of measurement
Note: Although milligrams ends in s, a singular verb should be used because units of measurement are treated as singular collective nouns.
How would you change
this sentence?
Fifty milligrams of the pulverized crude drug were mixed with 100 mL of the solvent.
Fifty milligrams of the pulverized crude drug was mixed with 100 mL of the solvent.
How would you change
this sentence?
Twenty milliliters of blood were drawn from the affected and unaffected (control) individuals.
Twenty milliliters of blood was drawn from the affected and unaffected (control) individuals.
Do not use nonstandard
mathematical symbolsIn MS Word, these symbols can be obtained from Insert > Symbol.
Symbol errors: An apostrophe (') is incorrectly used to represent
the prime sign (’) in chemical names and gene sequences.
While representing standard deviation, +/-(plus/minus) or + (an underlined plus sign) is used instead of the symbol ±.
>= and <= are used to represent greater than or equal to (>-) and less than or equal to (<-) signs.
x is used instead of the multiplication sign ( × ).
How would you change
this sentence?
The equation for estimating this value is A = 3.56 x 10-2 γ [a + b].
The equation for estimating this value is A = 3.56 × 10-2 γ [a + b].
Insert > Symbols > Multiplication sign
Useful links on numbers
Typefaces for symbols in scientific manuscripts:
physics.nist.gov/Document/typefaces.pdf
SI guidelines:
physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/rules.html
Asian Fonts
Asian fonts such as MS Mincho and SimSum possess characters with different widths from those of Latin fonts
Do not use Asian fonts in your manuscripts
Frequently encountered problems include those caused by Asian-font brackets, plus and minus signs and other mathematical symbols, and units of temperature
“temperature was increased (1 ° C/min”)
Colon and semicolon
The colon “:” is used to introduce a list or a clause that explains what precedes it
The semicolon “;” is used to separate the elements in a list too long for commas or where commas could be ambiguous. Use ‘and’ before the last item in the list.
“There are a number of journals for organic chemistry manuscripts: Organic Electronics, produced by Elsevier; The Journal of Polymer Science, produced by Wiley; The Journal of…”
Use a colon (:), not a semicolon (;) to introduce a list
How would you change
this sentence? The following parameters were used as
outcome measures; morning stiffness, number of tender joints, and ESR.
The following parameters were used as outcome measures: morning stiffness, number of tender joints, and ESR.
How would you change
this sentence?
The article includes the following sections; Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.
The article includes the following sections: Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.
Use the present tense
for in-text reference to
figures and tables
The vital signs upon presentation were summarized in Table 1.
The vital signs upon presentation are summarized in Table 1.
How would you change
this sentence?
Figure 1 showed the relationship between age and incidence of dementia.
Figure 1 shows the relationship between age and incidence of dementia.
Do not use a period at the end of
the title of a manuscript
Title and subtitles are not full sentences and do not need a period at the end.
Do not insert a period after the title
How would you change
this title?
Prespondylosis and some Pain Syndromes following Denervation Supersensitivity.
Prespondylosis and some Pain Syndromes following Denervation Supersensitivity
How would you change
this title?
Acupuncture and the Peripheral Nervous System: A Radiculopathy Model.
Acupuncture and the Peripheral Nervous System: A Radiculopathy Model
Do not use a comma after a salutation in
a formal letter written in the American
style
In American English, the salutation ends in a colon in a formal letter and ends in a comma in an informal letter.
In the British style of writing, a salutation is followed by a comma in both formal and informal letters.
References in the AMA style
Book, single author Shepard TH. Catalog of Teratogenic
Agents. 7th ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press; 1992.
Book—more than one author(list all authors if six or less, otherwise list first three followed by "et al.")
Baselt RC, Cravey RH. Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man. 4th ed. Foster City, CA: Chemical Toxicology Institute; 1995.
References in the AMA style
Monographic series
Davidoff RA. Migraine: Manifestations, Pathogenesis, and Management. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis; 1995. Contemporary Neurology Series, No. 42.
References in the AMA style
Article from journal—single author
Moldofsky H. Sleep, neuroimmune and neuroendocrine functions in fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome. Adv Neuroimmunol.1995;5:(1):39-56
Article from journal--more than one author(list all authors if six or less, otherwise list first three followed by "et al.")
Raux H, Coulon P, Lafay F, Flamand A. Monoclonal antibodies which recognize the acidic configuration of the rabies glycoprotein at the surface of the virion can be neutralizing. Virology.1995;210(2):400-408.
References in the AMA style
Online journals with volume and page information
Simon JA, Hudes ES. Relationship of ascorbic acid to blood lead levels. JAMA. 1999;281:2289-2293. http://url. Accessed July 11, 2009.
Online journals without volume and page information
Mast CT, DeMuro-Mercon C, Kelly CM, Floyd LE, Ealter EB. The impact of rotavirus gastroenteritis on the family. BMC Pediatrics. 2009;9:11. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-9-11
(Based on AMA Manual of Style, 10th ed., 2007.)
Tenses in the Introduction
Stage one: Current knowledge or previous studies - Present tense or Present perfect
Stage two: Literature review - Present, (information prominent citation) Present perfect (weak author prominent citation) or Past (author prominent) • Complement verb difference: present, past or modal
Stage three: Knowledge gap - Present, (for fact) Present perfect, (for studies)
Stage four: Problem statement - Present, (report focused) Past, (research focused)
Stage five: Rational for study - Present tense and modal
Stage one: Current knowledge or previous
studies - Present tense or Present perfect
“Motor skills require action based on rapid change in the environment.”
“Clean water is a basic human need”
“Previous studies have indicated the need for further research in X.”
Stage two: Literature Review - Present,
Present perfect or Past
Information prominent:- “In most deserts of the world, transitions
between topographic elements are abrupt (Kramer, 1993).”
Weak author prominent:
- “Several researchers have studied the relationship between classroom adjustment and mobility (Madsen, 2009).
Author prominent:
- Allington (1998) found that teachers allocated equal time to all groups.
Complement verb difference in
Author prominent citation: present,
past or modal
Johnson found that X affects Y
Johnson found that X affected Y
Johnson suggested that X may affectY
Stage three: Present or present
perfect
“However, few studies have reportedon the effects of computer assisted instruction.”
“But there is little information available on the air flow rates on simple solar collectors.”
Stage four: Present or past
“The aim of this paper is to determine whether and automatic measurement system can be applied to educational settings.”
“The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not genetic differences exist at low temperatures in pepper species.”
Stage Five: Present tense and
modal
“This research may provide an alternative to the problem of manually demonstrating instrumentation principles in classroom environments.”
Methods
Describing conventional material: Present tense
Describing modified material: Past tense
Describing populations: Present tense
Specific samples: Past tense
Procedures: Past tense
Describing conventional material:
Present tense
“A typical chemical reactor includes a helical, tube-in-tube heat exchanger.”
Describing modified material: Past
tense
“For the testing program this collector was protected from weather by an outer window of .10 mm tedlar.
Describing populations: Present
tense
“All students who apply for admission to NCTU take the General English Proficiency Test.”
Results
Locating figures: Present tense
Presenting the findings: Past tense
Comparing results with the results of other studies: Present tense and modals
Commenting on results: Present tense and/or tentative verbs:
Presenting the findings: Past tense
As a group, divorced mothers spentover twice as much time in employment as married mothers (Figure 2).
Presenting different types of
results: Past Tense
“The highest incidence of Otitis Media was found among Australian Indians.”
“Prices showed a tendency to increase over the three year period.”
“Dry weight of top growth was not highly related to total nitrogen.”
Commenting on results: Present
tense and/or tentative verbs:
“Hyperactive children may be generally responsive to amphetamines.”
“Hyperactive children appear to be generally responsive to amphetamines”
Limiting findings: Past tense or
present with modals
“The sample was small.”
“Other industries may producedifferent results.”
Discussion
Referring to the purpose, Referring to the hypothesis, Restating the findings: Past tense
Explaining findings: Present tense with modals or past tense
Limiting findings: Past tense or present with modals
Comparing findings: Present tense Implications: Present tense and tentative
verb Recommendations and applications:
Present and modal or tentative verbs
Referring to the purpose, Referring
to the hypothesis, Restating the
findings: Past tense “This research attempted to assess two
theories of behavior.”
“We originally assumed that physical decrements would be more apparent in speed jobs that in skill jobs.”
“The principle of readability was not followed in the income tax booklet on any of the counties studied except Hsinchu.”
Explaining findings: Present tense
with past or present in the
complement These results indicate that microbial
activity caused some immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.
These results indicate that microbial activity cause some immobilization of labial soil phosphorus.
Comparing findings: Present tense
“These results are in substantial agreement with those of Bates (2).”
Implications: Present tense and
modal/tentative verb
“Squatter housing markets appear to behave as economically rational entities.”
Recommendations and
applications: Present and modal or
tentative verbs “The approach outlined in this study
should be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”
“We recommend that the approach outlined in this study be replicated in other manufacturing plants.”
Sources
Zeiger M. Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers. 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2000.
Gopen GD, Swan JA. The science of scientific writing. Am Scientist.1990;78:550-558.
Watson JD, Crick FHC. Molecular structure of nucleic acids. Nature.1953;171:737-738.
Iverson C, Christiansen S, Flanagin A, et al. AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors. 10th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2007.
American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Instructions to authors. Oxford Journals Web site: Behavioral Ecology.http://www.oxfordjournals.org/our_journals/beheco/for_authors/general.html. Accessed March 5, 2009. Accessed March 4, 2009.
Sources (continued)
The essentials of BMJ style. BMJ Publishing Group Web site: British Medical Journal.http://resources.bmj.com/bmj/authors/bmj-house-style. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Westbrook G, Cooper L. Writing tips: Techniques for clear scientific writing and editing. The Society for Neuroscience Web site:The Journal of Neuroscience. http://www.jneurosci.org. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Guidelines for authors. International Society for the Study of Trauma Web site: The Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. http://www.isst-d.org/jtd/journal-trauma-dissociation-info-for-authors.htm. Accessed March 5, 2009.
How to write a paper: writing for a Nature journal. Nature Publishing Group Web site: Nature. http://www.nature.com/authors/author_services/how_write.html. Accessed March 4, 2009.
Guide for authors. Elsevier Web site: Ophthalmology: Journal of the American Academy of Ophthalmology.http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/620418/authorinstructions. Accessed March 5, 2009.
Some notes on Science style. American Association for the Advancement of Science Web site: Science. http://www.sciencemag.org/about/authors/prep/res/style.dtl
Sources (continued)
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 11th ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.; 2007.
Sternberg RJ. The Psychologist's Companion: A Guide to Scientific Writing for Students and Researchers. 4th ed. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 2005.
Matthews JR, Bowen JM, Matthews RW. Successful Scientific Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide for the Biological and Medical Sciences. 2nd ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2000.
Iverson C, Christiansen S, Flanagin A, et al. AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors. 10th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2007.
American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009.
The Chicago Manual of Style. 15th ed. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press; 2003.
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