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2D PAGETwo-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The most common techniquefor protein separation. Proteins are separated in one dimension according to theirsize, and in the second dimension, according to their charge (that is, theirisolectric point). After separation, the gel is stained so that protein spots can beseen.

22q deletion syndromeA syndrome associated with a small deletion (missing section of DNA) onchromosome 22.

ActA law made by Parliament or a provincial legislature. The process of making anAct of Parliament begins with the introduction of a proposed Act, or bill, in one of the two houses of Parliament (the Senate or the House of Commons). A billbecomes an Act if it is passed (approved) by both houses and receives royalassent.

AlleleA form of a gene. We inherit one allele of a gene from our mother and the otherallele from our father. These two alleles can be the same (homozygous) or theycan be different (heterozygous).

Allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridizationThe use of an oligonucleotide probe to determine which of the two alternativenucleotide sequences is contained in a DNA molecule.

Amino acidThe building block of proteins. The messenger RNA tells the cell what amino acidsare needed and what order they must be arranged in to build a particular protein.

There are 20 different amino acids used in the human body.

AmniocentesisA procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to look at the chromosomes of thedeveloping fetus. A flexible needle is inserted into the mother's uterus through theabdomen to remove a sample of the fluid surrounding the fetus (amniotic fluid).This sample can then be analysed by karyotype to look for changes in thechromosomes. The procedure can be done after 15 weeks of pregnancy. There isa 0.5% risk of miscarriage associated with this procedure, which means one in200 women will miscarry following this procedure.

AneuploidA cell where the total number of chromosomes is not an exact multiple of 23. The

haploid number of chromosomes is 23, which is found in the egg and sperm cells.The diploid number is 46, which results from the joining of the egg and sperm.The triploid state of 69 chromosomes rarely occurs and is not compatible with life.The most common aneuploid numbers are 45 (one chromosome is missing) and47 (one chromosome is added).

AntibioticA natural or synthetic chemical that is used to kill bacteria in order to treatdiseases in humans and animals.

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Antibiotic resistanceThe ability of bacteria to tolerate an antibiotic and survive being exposed to it.Bacteria may develop this resistance naturally after being exposed to it overmany years.7

Antibody

A protein made by the immune system that is specific to an antigen. When anantibody detects this antigen in the body, it will start an immune response to ridthe body of the antigen.

AntigenA foreign substance that binds to an antibody and starts an immune response inthe body.

AssayA method for determining the presence or quantity of a component.

Assisted human reproduction (AHR)Any activity undertaken for the purpose of facilitating human reproduction.Examples include in vitro fertilization, donor insemination and intra-cytoplasmicsperm injection (ICSI).

Autosomal dominantDescribes a type of inheritance where an individual with a mutation in only onecopy of a gene will develop the associated trait or disorder.

Autosomal recessiveDescribes a type of inheritance where an individual must inherit a mutation inboth copies of a gene in order to develop the associated trait or disorder.

AutosomeA chromosome that is not a sex chromosome (X or Y); chromosomes 1 through22.

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Bacillus thuringensis (bt)A naturally occurring soil bacterium that makes an endotoxin that is toxic tolarvae of the European corn borer (Lepidoptera). The gene for this endotoxin hasbeen incorporated into corn to produce a genetically modified corn plant that candefend itself against the European corn borer. The endotoxin is very specific inthat it only affects the corn borer larvae. It is not toxic to people, domesticanimals, fish or wildlife.

BioassayA method of determining the effect of a compound by quantifying its effect onliving organisms or their component parts.

BioenergyEnergy choices using a wide range of biomass sources (for example, agriculture,forestry, industry and municipal waste) and conversion technologies such asfermentation (alcohol production) and co-firing (co-combustion of biomass andcoal). Also identifies linkages to wider sustainable development outcomes, critical

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economic, environmental and security benefits (such as adding value to farm,forestry and other industries) and reducing fossil fuel use (product displacement),waste streams, emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.

BioengineeringEngineering applied to biological and medical systems, such as biomechanics,

biomaterials and biosensors. Bioengineering also includes biomedical engineering,as in the development of aids or replacements for defective or missing bodyorgans.

Bioethics (and biomedical ethics)A discipline that studies the ethical implications of biological applications.

BiohazardA biological agent, such as an infectious microorganism, or a condition thatconstitutes a threat to humans, especially in biological research orexperimentation. The potential danger, risk, or harm from exposure to such anagent or condition.

BioinformaticsThe generation/creation, collection, storage (in databases), and efficient use of data/information from genomics from biological research to accomplish anobjective (for example, to discover a new pharmaceutical or a new herbicide).

Biological products / Biologicals / BiologicsAny virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, or analogous product used in theprevention, treatment or cure of diseases or injuries in humans.

BiomassAny organic matter, particularly available on a renewable or recurring basis suchas trees and plants (residues and fibers containing cellulose or lingo-cellulose),but also poultry litter and animal residues and waste, and industrial and municipalsolid waste (for example, sawdust, wood chips, paper, grass and leaf compost).

Biomedical ethicsSee Bioethics.

BiosensingTechnology for the detection of a wide range of chemical and biological agents,including bacteria, viruses and toxins, in the environment and humans.

BiopesticidesA product made from natural sources such as bacteria, animals or plants that isused for pest control. They tend to have less of an impact on the environment andhuman health because they are less toxic than conventional pesticides and usuallyaffect only one specific pest instead of being broad-range. They can also work in

low amounts, they break down quickly and when used properly, they can reducethe use of conventional pesticides while maintaining crop yields.

BiopharmaceuticalsThis term is sometimes used for biologic drugs produced through rDNAtechnology, but essentially they also fall under the regulatory definition of abiologic.

Bioremediation

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The use of organisms, usually microorganisms, to break down pollutants in soil,air or groundwater.

BiosensorAn electronic device that uses biological molecules to detect low levels of substances like proteins in the body or pollutants in water.

BiotechnologyA general term used to describe the use of biological processes to make products,in contrast to purely chemical processes. Biotechnology has been in practice forcenturies and includes such traditional applications as the use of yeast in makingbeer, as well as modern applications like recombinant DNA techniques to improvecrops.

Biotherapeutic strategyA plan or program to contribute to the cure of disease or to general, especiallymental, well-being.

BioterrorismThe use of bacteria, viruses or toxins with the intent of causing harm to people,animals or food to achieve certain political, religious or ideological goals throughintimidation.

Blastocyst stageFour to five days after the union of the sperm and the egg, before the embryoimplants in the uterus.

BloodThe fluid that circulates in the heart, arteries, capillaries and veins of a vertebrateanimal carrying nourishment and oxygen to and taking away waste products fromall parts of the body.

Blood componentsAt its subcomponent level, blood is comprised of such components as: blood cells,platelets, plasma

Blood productsProducts derived from blood. These products are made from plasma likecoagulation factors, plasma proteins and albumin.

BRCA1/BRCA2Two genes that are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer when theyhave mutations. Every human being has these two genes, which make proteinsthat are responsible for preventing cancer from forming. When mutations happenin these genes, the protective proteins do not work as well and the individual isthen at increased risk of developing cancer. A mutation in the BRCA1/2 genes can

be inherited or it can be acquired during our lifetime.

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Cancer

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A disease where cells grow out of control, often developing a tumour. Cancer cellscan spread to other areas of the body and interrupt normal processes.

CarrierAn individual who has a gene mutation for a recessive disease on one allele whilethe other allele is normally functioning. This individual most often does not

develop symptoms of the disease, but is at risk of having a child with the diseaseif their partner is also a carrier.

CellThe smallest structural unit of living organisms that is able to grow and reproduceindependently. The cell consists of a membrane that encloses the DNA-containingnucleus and the mitochondria, the cell's energy source.

CellomicsA study that combines information from genomics and proteomics with thecomplex chemical and molecular relationships of cell components. Research aboutwhat goes on within a cell can give us valuable information about drug targetsand drug development. Microarray technology is an important part of cellomicsresearch.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)A procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to look at the chromosomes of thedeveloping fetus. A sample is removed from the chorion, which is part of theplacenta and contains cells from the fetus. This sample can then be analyzed bykaryotype to look for changes in the chromosomes. The procedure can be done at10 to 12 weeks into the pregnancy. There is a 1% risk of miscarriage associatedwith this procedure, which means one in 100 women will miscarry following thisprocedure.

ChromosomeA structure found in the cell nucleus that carries the genetic information inhumans and animals. It is composed of a long strand of DNA that is greatly

condensed for storage. Humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell of their bodyexcept the sperm and egg cells. We inherit 23 chromosomes from our mother and23 from our father.

Clinical trialMedical research undertaken with informed and consenting human subjects in acontrolled environment. The intent of a clinical trial is for the sponsoring companyor research institution to gather information on the safety and effectiveness of new drugs or therapies before seeking approval of a procedure or product for useby the Canadian public.

CloneA genetically identical copy of an organism or of a specific piece of DNA for use in

research. See also Human clone.

CloningThe process of creating a genetically identical copy (clone) of an animal or plant.Cloning is the process of making copies of a specific piece of DNA, usually a gene.There are two recognized forms of cloning related to humans -- reproductivecloning and therapeutic cloning. When geneticists speak of cloning, they do notusually mean the process of making genetically identical copies of an entireorganism.

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Complementary DNA (cDNA)DNA synthesized from a messenger RNA rather than from a DNA template. Thistype of DNA is used for cloning or as a DNA probe for finding specific genes.

Cystic fibrosisA hereditary disease whose symptoms usually appear shortly after birth. They

include faulty digestion, breathing difficulties and respiratory infections due tomucus accumulation, and excessive loss of salt in sweat. In the past, cysticfibrosis was almost always fatal in childhood, but treatment is now so improvedthat patients commonly live into their 20s and beyond.

CytogeneticsThe study of the structure, function and abnormalities of human chromosomes.

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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

The molecule that carries the genetic information in most living organisms. It is adouble-stranded helix held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of nucleotides. The nucleotides in DNA (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine) arearranged in different combinations to represent each gene. The genes act likerecipes in that they contain the information necessary for the cell to make thecorresponding proteins.

Diagnostics / Diagnostic productsA test, drug, medical device or kit used to diagnose a disease or medicalcondition.

DiploidA cell with two full sets of chromosomes. In humans, the total number of 

chromosomes in a diploid cell is 46.

Dominant inheritanceSee Autosomal dominant.

Drug Identification Number (DIN)A number issued to a drug indicating that it is authorized for sale in Canada.

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E. coli (Escherichia coli)A bacterium found in the intestinal tracts of most vertebrates. It is usedextensively in recombinant DNA research because it has been genetically wellcharacterized.

ElectrophoresisA technique used to separate molecules such as DNA or proteins using an electriccurrent. The mixture of molecules is added to one end of a gel-like medium. Whena current is applied to it, the molecules will travel through the medium to theother end at different speeds depending on the charge and size of the molecule.

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Once the molecules are separated, the gel can be used in a blot (Southern,Northern and Western).

EmbryoDefined in the Assisted Human Reproduction Act as a human organism during thefirst 56 days of its development following fertilization or creation, excluding any

time during which its development has been suspended. It includes any cellderived from such an organism that is used for the purpose of creating a humanbeing.

Embryonic stem cellsCells that are removed from the early embryo and are able to become any of the210 cell types found in the human body. Researchers are looking at the greatpotential stem cells have in developing new treatments for disease and injury.

EnzymaticActivity of an enzyme which is a substance produced by a living organism andacting as a catalyst to promote a specific biochemical reaction.

EnzymeA protein that facilitates a biochemical reaction. Many essential reactions in thebody require the help of enzymes and would not proceed on their own.

Enzyme-Linked Immuno Assays (EIA)Enzyme-Linked Immuno Assays (EIA) are use to measure the amount of aparticular substance by virtue of its binding to a specific antibody. Examples of EIA include ELISA and Western blotting.

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent AssayThe ELISA is a fundamental tool of clinical immunology, and is used as an initialscreen for HIV detection. Based on the principle of antibody-antibody interaction,this test allows for easy visualization of results and can be completed without theadditional concern of radioactive materials use.

Ex vivo (testing)The testing of a substance by exposing it to (excised) living cells (but not to thewhole, multicelled organism) in order to ascertain the effect of the substance (forexample, pharmaceutical) on the biochemistry of the cell.

ExpressionThe process of converting genetic information into RNA and protein for use in thecell. Every gene is not expressed at the same level and at the same time.Expression patterns, easily analyzed using microarray technology, can give a lotof information about the roles genes play in different situations, such as diseaseand health.

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FermentationA process of growing microorganisms to produce various chemical orpharmaceutical compounds. Microbes are usually incubated under specific

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conditions in large tanks called fermenters. Fermentation is a specific type of bioprocessing.

Fetal tissueThe tissue from the unborn offspring of a human in the post-embryonic period(from eight weeks after fertilization to birth), after major structures have been

outlined. Fetal tissue research is conducted using fetal tissue from cadavers tostudy birth anomalies, carcinogenesis, infectious disease, genetic anomalies, etc.Human fetal tissue in culture is used by pharmaceutical and biotechnologycompanies to develop vaccines, to test the efficacy and developmentalmalformations caused by new pharmaceutical products, and to conduct researchinto viruses. Emerging medical practices use fetal tissue to treat neurologicalconditions such as Parkinson's disease. There are also other potential medicaluses for fetal tissue.

FetusDefined in the Assisted Human Reproduction Act as a human organism during theperiod of its development beginning on the 57th day following fertilization orcreation, excluding any time during which its development has been suspended,and ending at birth.

FoodAny substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended forhuman consumption. It includes drinks, chewing gum and any substance whichhas been used to manufacture, prepare or treat "food". It excludes cosmetics,tobacco and substances used only as drugs.

Food biotechnologyThe application of biotechnology to the production of food.

Functional foodOrdinary food that has components or ingredients added to give it a specificmedical or physiological benefit, other than a purely nutritional effect. Also known

as nutraceutical.

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GameteA mature reproductive cell (sperm or egg cell) that contributes to fertilization.

GeneThe basic unit of heredity, located on a chromosome. It is made up of DNA thatacts as a blueprint to make a particular protein. The Human Genome Project

estimates that humans have over 30,000 genes in their genome. Each one isresponsible for a different part of our biology. Every human being (exceptidentical twins) has a unique set of genes, half of which came from their motherand the other half from their father.

Gene expressionSee Expression.

Gene therapy

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An evolving technique used to treat genetic diseases. The medical procedureinvolves replacing, manipulating or supplementing non-functional genes withhealthy genes so that they can function normally.

Genetic diseaseA disease or condition caused by a change or mutation in a gene, or a change in

the chromosomes.

Genetic engineeringThe technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a DNA molecule tochange the information it contains. By changing this information, geneticengineering changes the type or amount of proteins an organism is capable of producing. Genetic engineering allows scientists to isolate a specific gene for aparticular trait - such as resistance to insect attack - in a plant or animal, andtransfer it into another plant.

Genetic mappingA research method that collects genetic information to determine the relativeposition of a gene or a phenotype in the genome.

Genetic markerA DNA sequence at a unique physical location in the genome, which variessufficiently between individuals that its pattern of inheritance can be trackedthrough families and/or it can be used to distinguish among cell types. A markermay or may not be part of a gene. Markers are essential for use in linkage studiesand genetic maps to help scientists to narrow down the possible location of newgenes, and to discover the associations between genetic mutations and disease.

Genetic modificationA general term which refers to any intentional change to the heritable traits of anorganism. This includes both traditional breeding and recombinant DNAtechniques.

Genetic privacyThe freedom from unauthorized intrusion. Often referred to as the right to be letalone, it protects territorial, bodily, psychological and informational integrity anddecision making. Many of these interests are directly implicated by genetictesting. Informational privacy protects the access, control and spread of personalinformation. Privacy is essential to maintaining relations of trust. The SupremeCourt of Canada has indicated that confidential therapeutic relations enjoy someCharter protection but they are not absolute. Recognized exceptions include thoseauthorized in law, an individual's consent or waiver of privacy, and overridingduties to third parties.

Genetic testingA laboratory test, done most often on a blood sample, but also on cheek cells,

skin cells, bone marrow, amniotic fluid or a placenta sample. It looks at aparticular gene for changes, or mutations, that might confirm the diagnosis of agenetic disease or that show a predisposition to a genetic disease.

Genetic toxicologyA research field in which genetic samples from a living organism (includinghumans) are placed on a DNA microarray (gene chip) and tested in acomputerized device for the presence of toxic substances from the environment.It is done to determine if the organism providing the sample has been exposed to

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specific chemicals which have caused problems such as mutations, cancer andbirth defects. The study of the pattern of occurrence of such biomarkers in asample of individuals or a community is called genetic epidemiology.

Genetically modified organism (GMO)An organism produced from genetic engineering techniques that allow the transfer

of functional genes from one organism to another, including from one species toanother. Bacteria, fungi, viruses, plants, insects, fish and mammals are someexamples of organisms whose genetic material has been artificially modified tochange some physical property or capability. Living modified organisms (LMOs)and transgenic organisms are other terms often used instead of GMOs.

GeneticsThe study of how traits are passed on in families and how genes are involved inhealth and disease.

GenomeAll of an organism's genetic information, including all of the DNA that makes upthe genes that are carried on the chromosomes.

GenomicsThe study of the entire genome (chromosomes, genes and DNA) and howdifferent genes interact with each other.Genomics and molecular biology form the basis for modern biotechnology and,more specifically, pharmacogenomics, or the application of genetic analysis toidentify potential targets for therapeutic products (drugs, vaccines).

GenotypeThe genetic make-up of an individual, usually referring to a particular pair of alleles for a gene that can be related to a particular phenotype of interest.

Germ cellA reproductive cell (sperm or egg cell), which has 23 chromosomes in humans

(haploid).See also Gamete.

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Half-lifeThe time required for the decay of half of a sample of particles of aradionucleotide or elementary particle.

Haploid

A cell with one set of chromosomes. In humans, the egg and sperm cells arehaploid cells and have only 23 chromosomes. Once they join during fertilization,the resulting cell will be diploid with 46 chromosomes.

Haplotype characterizationThe characterization of SNPs by coherent packages (SNPs that are usuallytransmitted together).

Health care

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Canada's health care system provides access to universal, comprehensivecoverage for medically necessary hospital, inpatient and outpatient physicianservices. Provincial and territorial governments are responsible for the delivery of Canada's health care and hospital services; the federal government shares in thecost of these services.

Health productEncompasses products subject to the Food and Drugs Act, and are managed alongthe following broad categories:1. Biologics (both regular and biotechnology-based products)2. Pharmaceuticals (both regular and biotechnology-based products)3. Medical devices4. Natural Health Products

Health surveillanceThe ongoing, systematic use of routinely collected health data to guide publichealth action in a timely fashion. Health surveillance tracks and forecasts theoccurrence of health events or determinants through ongoing data collection. Italso involves the collation, analysis and interpretation of those data into a productthat is disseminated to those who need to know.

HepatocyteAny of the polygonal epithelial parenchymatous cells of the liver that secrete bilecalled also hepatic cell , liver cell 

HeredityThe transfer of genetic information from parents to children.

HeterozygoteAn individual with two different alleles at a particular locus on a pair of chromosomes.

Homozygote

An individual with two identical alleles at a particular locus on a pair of chromosomes.

HormonesA chemical that is made by one type of cell in the body and acts on another.Hormones act as messengers to tell the target cell to stop or start certain cellularprocesses.

Host genomicsThe genetic makeup of a person (host or patient).

Human cloneDefined in the Assisted Human Reproduction Act as "an embryo that, as a result

of the manipulation of human reproductive material or an in vitro embryo,contains a diploid set of chromosomes obtained from a single -- living or deceased- human being, foetus or embryo". The Act, which received royal assent on March29, 2004, states that "no person shall knowingly create a human clone by usingany technique, or transplant a human clone into a human being or into any non-human life form or artificial device".

Human genetics

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The study of how traits are passed on in families and how genes are involved inhealth and disease.

Human Genome ProjectAn international research effort that aims to identify, map and sequence allhuman genes.

Human healthThe World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of completephysical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease orinfirmity.

HybridizationThe creation of RNA-DNA hybrids by a heating process, so that the RNA becomesassociated with the complementary DNA.

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Immune systemA network of molecules, cells and organs that work together to protect the bodyagainst infection and disease.

ImmunoTherapies and/or treatments that stimulate the immune system.

ImmunodeficiencyAn innate, acquired, or induced inability to develop a normal immune response.

ImmunosuppressionThe prevention or lessening of the immune response, for example, by irradiation

or by administrating certain substances.

ImmunotoxicityThe toxicity of a therapeutic agent because it could cause immune reactions orallergy.

ImmunotypingThe process of screening patients specimens to identify the specific viral antigenon antigen presenting cells or detecting specific viral antibodies.

InsulinA hormone made by the pancreas that controls the level of sugar in the blood.

Intellectual propertyA form of creative endeavour that can be protected through a trademark, patent,copyright, industrial design or integrated topography. The patent system offersthe only protection available for the intellectual products of research. There isincreasing pressure on the patent system to patent life forms.

InterferonA protein first recognized in animals for its action in inhibiting viral replication andinducing resistance in host cells. The interferons (IFNs) are a highly conserved

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family of multi-functional, species-specific, secreted proteins originally classifiedon the basis of cellular origin including: leucocyte IFN (alpha), fibroblastic IFN(beta) and immune IFN (gamma). Examples from each of these classes havebeen cloned and commercialized.

The IFNs have been reclassified based on their recognition of cell-surface

receptors. In humans there are three major classes: Type I consists mainly of theoriginal types alpha (including various isoforms) and beta; Type II consists of IFNgamma; Type III consists of IFN lambda.

The IFNs have multiple biological activities demonstrated to greater or lesserdegree by the various types. These include: the induction of intracellularmechanisms having anti-viral effects (affecting viral protein synthesis) and anti-proliferative effects (affecting cell replication); the stimulation of cellular immuneresponses against viruses, bacteria and tumours; and, the regulation of immuneand inflammatory responses.

In vitroDescribes a biological process that takes place in a laboratory instead of in a livingcell or organism.

In vitro fertilizationA procedure to help infertile couples conceive. Eggs are removed from the womanand fertilized with the man's sperm in the laboratory. Fertilized eggs can then betransferred to the woman's uterus to try to establish a pregnancy or they can befrozen for future use.

In vivoDescribes a biological process that takes place in a living cell or organism.

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KaryotypeA picture of an individual's chromosomes as seen under a microscope. Thechromosomes can be identified by their unique banding patterns and arranged inorder of size (1 is the largest and 22 is the smallest). The 23rd pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes -- a female has two X chromosomes anda male has one X and one Y chromosome. The karyotype is a test sometimesrequested by a physician to look for major changes in the chromosomes, such asa change in the number (for example, trisomy or monosomy) or the structure.

Karyotyping (traditional)A laboratory technique that allows scientists to view all of the human

chromosomes at one time in black and white. It is useful for observing thenumber, size and shape of the chromosomes. Interpreting these karyotypesrequires an expert, who might need hours to examine a single chromosome.

Spectral karyotyping, on the other hand, "paints" each pair of chromosomes in adifferent fluorescent colour. Even non-experts can see instances where achromosome, painted in one colour, has a small piece of a different chromosome,painted in another colour, attached to it.

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LegislationA collection of written and approved laws that "guide" behaviours in society.

Legislative processSee Legislation.

LipidsWater-insoluble (fat) biomolecules that are highly soluble in organic solvents suchas chloroform. Lipids serve as "fuel" molecules in organisms, highly concentratedenergy stores, "signalling" molecules, and are basic components of cellmembranes.

Living modified organism (LMO)Any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic materialobtained through modern biotechnology. A living organism is a biological entitythat can transfer or replicate genetic material.

LocusThe position of a gene or a marker on a chromosome.

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Marker geneGenes that identify which plants have been successfully transformed.

MeiosisThe process of cell division in human sperm and egg cells during their

development. One cell gives rise to four new daughter cells, which each has 23chromosomes (it is haploid).

Messenger RNA (mRNA)RNA that is complementary to the DNA of a gene and acts as a template to makethe protein.

MetabolomeThe quantitative complement of all the low molecular weight molecules present incells in a particular physiological or developmental state.

Metabonomics and metabolomicsThese very similar terms have arisen at about the same time in different areas of 

bioscience research, mainly animal biochemistry and microbial/plant biochemistry,respectively. Although both involve the multiparametric measurement of metabolites, they are not identical. Metabonomics deals with integrated,multicellular and biological systems, including communicating extracellularenvironments. Metabolomics deals with simple cell systems and, at least in termsof published data, mainly intracellular metabolite concentrations.

MicroarrayA glass or plastic slide with many DNA spots attached to it, which allowsresearchers to study how many genes act and interact in different conditions.

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Microbial geneticsThe study of genetics in microorganisms.

MicrobiologyThe study of microorganisms and how they interact with the environment andother organisms.

MicroorganismAn organism that is visible only under a microscope, such as protozoa, bacteria,fungi and viruses.

MitochondriaThe cell organelles responsible for energy production.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)The genetic material found in the mitochondria, which is different from the cell'sDNA in the nucleus. Mitochondria are passed on from one generation to the nextin the cytoplasm of the egg, so they are inherited from the mother.

MitosisThe process of cell division in most cells in the human body. Mitosis results in twodaughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the original cell.

Molecular PharmingThe application of biotechnology to produce selected pharmaceutical compoundsor other health or industrial compounds within a living organism (for example,microbe, agricultural crop, livestock).

Pharming: The manufacture of medical products from genetically modified plantsor animals.

Molecular geneticsThe study of the molecular structure and function of genes.

MonitoringActivities conducted to measure levels, concentrations or quantities of materialand the use of these measurement results to evaluate potential exposures anddoses, and to determine existing environmental conditions, pollutant levels(rates) and effects on species in the environment.

Monoclonal antibodiesAntibodies derived from a single source (a group of cloned cells) and recognizeonly one kind of antigen. They are made in the laboratory from hybridoma cells,hybrids of antibody-producing cells and immortal cancer cells.

Monosomy

One chromosome of a pair is missing. In humans, this would result in a total of 45chromosomes. An example of monosomy is 45, X, also known as Turnersyndrome.

MoratoriumA temporary prohibition or suspension of an activity.

Mosaicism

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The presence of two or more cell populations that have a different genetic orchromosomal makeup in a single individual or tissue.

MultifactorialDescribes a trait that is determined by the interaction of multiple genetic andenvironmental factors.

MutagenisisThe formation or development of a mutation.

MutationA change in the DNA sequence that can interfere with protein production. Amutation can arise in a germ cell and be passed on to an individual's children,who will then carry it in every cell of their body. A mutation can also arise in onecell in the body, such as a skin or heart cell. Mutations like these can lead tocancer if they interrupt the cell cycle.

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NanotechnologyA precise molecule-by-molecule control of products and byproducts in thedevelopment of functional structures.

From the Latin nanus = "dwarf", so it literally means "dwarf technology". Theword was originally coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, to refer to high precisionmachining. However, Richard Feynman and K. Eric Drexler later popularized theconcept of nanotechnology as a new and developing technology in which humansmanipulate objects whose dimensions are approximately 1 to 100 nanometers.Theoretically, it is possible that in the future a variety of human-made "nano-assemblers" (that is, tiny [molecular] machines smaller than a grain of sand)

could manufacture those things that are produced in factories today. For example,enzyme molecules function essentially as jigs and machine tools to shape largemolecules as they are formed in biochemical reactions. The technology alsoencompasses biochips, biosensors and manipulating atoms and molecules in orderto form (build) bigger, but still microscopic functional structures and machines.

Notice of ComplianceOnce a product submission has been reviewed, assessed and deemed by HealthCanada to meet the Food and Drug Regulations it is given a Notice of Compliance.Health Canada concludes that the benefits of the health product outweigh therisks and that the risks can be mitigated and/or managed, Health Canadaprovides the manufacturer with a market authorization to sell the product inCanada.

Novel fooda) a substance, including a microorganism, that does not have a history of safeuse as a food;b) a food that has been manufactured, prepared, preserved or packaged by aprocess that has not been applied before to that food, and causes the food toundergo a major change; orc) a food that is derived from a plant, animal or microorganism that has beengenetically modified.

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Novel trait in a plantA plant with characteristics not normally found in that species in which the newcharacteristic has been created through specific genetic manipulation,transformation, mutation, etc.

Nucleotides

The substances that make up the chromosomes and the genes.

NucleusThe structure in eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus) that contains thecellular DNA.

NutraceuticalA product isolated or purified from food that is generally sold in medicinal formsnot usually associated with food. A nutraceutical has been demonstrated to havea physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.

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O

OncogeneA gene that has the potential to make a normal cell become cancerous.

OncologyThe study of tumours.

OrganismA living thing that can function independently.

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P

PatentA government grant giving exclusive rights to the inventor to make, use or sell aninvention for a period of 20 years from the date when a patent application is filed.Patents are granted for products and processes that are considered new, workableand ingenious - that is, novel, useful and inventive - or for useful improvementsto some existing invention.

Patenting lifeSee also Patent.

One still unresolved court case involves a claim that a life form that has beengenetically modified (the so-called "oncomouse," which has been modified tomake it more genetically susceptible to cancer) should be able to hold a patent.

The Canadian Patent Office has a policy of not granting patents on "higher lifeforms", plants or animals beyond the level of a microorganism. The issue thecourts are considering is whether or not a particular, modified life form may beconsidered intellectual property -- the access to and use of which would beprotected through trademark, patent or copyright. A related area isbioprospecting, a type of research in which investigators look for biological and

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The ability of adult-derived stem cells to be capable of developing into cells typesoutside of the tissue of origin (for example, human blood stem cells have beenshown to differentiate into liver cells.

Platform technologyTechnology that has a common starting point but diverges once it is put into

actual practice.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)A laboratory method used to make many copies of a DNA fragment in minutesusing an enzyme called polymerase.

Precautionary principleA principle associated with risk management. It states that where there arethreats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty shall not beused as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmentaldegradation.

PrenatalExisting or occurring before birth: prenatal medical care

PrionA protein particle found in brain cell membranes. Changes in its structure appearto be related to infectious diseases of the nervous system, such as Creutzfeld-Jakob disease in humans, bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cows, and sheepscrapie.

ProkaryotesOrganisms whose genetic material is not enclosed by a nucleus. The mostcommon examples are bacteria.

ProteomicsThe study of the protein products of genes, protein-protein interactions andprotein sub-cellular localization. Examples could include engineering of newsystems to sequence proteins or study protein interactions with other proteins orDNA, developing faster and cheaper detectors, such as high-density capillaries orhigh throughput mass spectrometers, and developing centres with expertise andaccountability for protein analysis, such as 2D protein databases.

ProteinRequired for the structure, function and regulation of body cells, tissues andorgans. A large molecule is made up of one or more chains of amino acids in aspecific order. The order is determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in thegene coding for the protein. Each protein has unique functions. Examples arehormones, enzymes and antibodies.

Proto-oncogeneA normal gene that has the potential to become an oncogene.

Public healthThe public health system in Canada is responsible for helping to protect Canadiansfrom injury and disease and for helping them to stay healthy. A good publicsystem means fewer people become sick or injured, and more people can livelonger, healthier lives.

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R 

RadiopharmaceuticalsA radioactive compound used in radiotherapy or diagnosis

Recessive inheritanceSee Autosomal recessive.

Recombinant DNAThe DNA formed when DNA fragments from more than one organism are splicedtogether in vitro.

RegulationA law made by a person or body that has been granted (delegated) law-makingauthority. A regulation is used both to indicate a specific type of delegatedlegislation as well as to refer generically to all forms of delegated legislation. The

Department of Justice issues a special number to indicate that it is a regulation.More broadly, regulation may refer to all government intervention in the lives of citizens.

Reproductive cloningThe cloning of an embryo for transplantation into a uterus with the intention of producing offspring genetically identical to the donor.

Reproductive materialsHuman male or female reproductive cells (sperm or egg), and human embryosand their derivatives.

Reproductive technology

See Assisted human reproduction.

Restriction enzymeAn enzyme used to cut DNA at specific sites. The resulting fragments can then bespliced together to form recombinant DNA, which can be separated out on a gel orinserted into a plasmid.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)A change in the DNA of an organism that changes how a restriction enzyme cutsthe DNA into pieces. Two or more organisms can be compared based on thepattern of their DNA fragments when they are run on a gel (by electrophoresis). If the organisms have different spaces between their restriction enzyme sites, theyproduce different lengths of fragments when the restriction enzyme is used to cut

up the DNA. When their fragments are run on a gel, they produce differentpatterns because the shorter fragments will move further than the longer ones.

RetrovirusA virus with RNA as its genetic material. When the retrovirus infects a cell, its ownenzyme reverse transcriptase makes viral DNA from the RNA template. This viralDNA can then be integrated into the host cell's genome to produce more viralparticles.

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Ribonucleic acid (RNA)Like DNA, a type of nucleic acid. There are three major types: messenger RNA,transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. All are involved in the synthesis of proteinsfrom the information contained in the DNA molecule. Synonyms: gene splicing,genetic engineering.

S

Sequencing of DNA MoleculesThe process of finding the order of nucleotides (guanine, adenine, cytosine andthymine) that make up a DNA or RNA fragment.

Sex chromosomeThe 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans are the sex chromosomes. Femaleshave two X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome.

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)Individual differences at a single nucleotide of DNA. This genotypic difference cancause a phenotypic difference in hair colour, height or response to a drug,depending on the gene.

Somatic cellAny cell in the body except the germ cells (egg and sperm).

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)A cloning technique where the nucleus from an unfertilized egg is removed andreplaced with the nucleus from a somatic cell. The resulting egg will carry the fullcomplement of genetic material of the host organism. This is how Dolly the clonedsheep was produced; she was genetically identical to her "mother". This techniquecan be used both for reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning.

Stem cellA fundamental cell that has the potential to develop into any of the 210 differentcell types found in the human body. Human life begins with stem cells, whichdivide again and again and branch off into special roles, like becoming liver orheart cells. They are an important resource for disease research and for thedevelopment of new ways to treat disease.

Stem cell differentiationThe process by which a stem cell can become a specific cell type. Stem celldifferentiation begins when they are exposed to certain biochemical cues -whether physiological or experimental. Biochemical cues in different parts of thebody stimulate stem cells to grow into the specific cells needed in that location.

All stem cells have the capacity to differentiate, but to different degrees.

• Totipotent stem cells can become any cell in the human body.

• Pluripotent stem cells can become almost any cell in the humanbody, but they cannot become placental tissue needed for development inthe human uterus.

• Multipotent stem cells can become only a certain type of cell, suchas blood cells.

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StewardshipThe preservation of public good by ensuring that the social and the ethical issuesrelated to biotechnology are addressed, and that the federal government has aneffective regulatory regime and the science capacity to protect human and animalhealth and the environment.

SurveillanceSystematic collection, analysis, interpretation and dissemination of data(generated by the laboratory and private and public domain literature) related tothe biotechnology field to assist in the planning and implementation of research,evaluation and management of risks and public health interventions and programs(if needed).

T

TemplateA strand of DNA or RNA (mRNA) that specifies the base sequence of a newlysynthesized strand of DNA or RNA, the two strands being complementary.

Therapeutic cloningThe cloning of an embryo for the purpose of deriving stem cells for use inresearch and treatment of disease.

Totipotent Stem CellsBone marrow cells that (when signalled) mature into both red blood cells andwhite blood cells. Receptors on the surface of totipotent stem cells "grasp"passing blood cell growth factors (for example, Interleukin- 7, Stem Cell GrowthFactor), bringing them inside these stem cells and thus causing the maturationand differentiation into red and white blood cells. These receptors are called FLK-Zreceptors.

ToxicogenomicsA fusion of genomics and toxicology disciplines intended to identify, classify andmanage the latent (inherent susceptibility), incipient and overt adverse (toxic)effects on genome structure and expression levels (RNA, protein, cell/tissue/organtype) as a consequence of an organism's exposure to environmental substances(contaminants such as chemicals, drugs and micro/multicellular organisms and/orcomponents) and stressors (for example, quality of air, climate, soil, solarradiation and water).

TraitA characteristic of an organism.

TranscriptionA process in the cell where the DNA is used as a template to make the messengerRNA.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)RNA molecules that bind to amino acids and carry them to the ribosomes whereproteins are made.

Transformation

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A process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed by theaddition of foreign DNA.

TransgenicsThe insertion or splicing of specific genetic sequences from one species into thefunctioning genome of an unrelated species to transfer desired properties for

human purposes. This may be viewed as a more precise form of hybridization orplant/animal breeding, with the added consideration that genetic material fromspecies significantly different from one another is involved (for example, theinsertion of genetic material from an animal into a plant or vice versa). Anotherpossibility is the transfer of genetically controlled properties between differentanimal species, such as the breeding of goats whose milk yields spider silk forpossible development of new structural materials.

See Genetically modified organisms and Living modified organisms.

TransplantationThe implanting of cells, tissues, or organs which have been retrieved from a livingor deceased donor into a recipient.

TrisomyThe presence of an extra chromosome, in addition to the normal pair. In humans,this would result in a total of 47 chromosomes. An example of trisomy is trisomy21, which is also known as Down syndrome.

TumourAn abnormal benign or malignant mass of tissue that is not inflammatory, ariseswithout obvious cause from cells of pre-existent tissue, and possesses nophysiological function.

V

VaccineA preparation that contains an agent or its components, administered to stimulatean immune response that will protect a person from illness due to that agent. Atherapeutic (treatment) vaccine is given after disease has started and is intendedto reduce or arrest the progress of the disease. A preventive (prophylactic)vaccine is intended to prevent disease from starting. Agents used in vaccines maybe whole-killed (inactive), live-attenuated (weakened) or artificiallymanufactured. It can be created using the recombinant DNA process.

VectorA vehicle that carries foreign genes into an organism and inserts them into the

organism's genome. Modified viruses are used as vectors for gene therapy.

VirusA submicroscopic particle that can infect other organisms. It cannot reproduce onits own but infects an organism's cell in order to use that cell's reproductivemachinery to create more viruses. It usually consists of a DNA or RNA genomeenclosed in a protective protein coat.

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X

Xenogeneic organsXenogeneic literally means "strange genes". Refers to genetically engineered (forexample, "humanized") organs that have been grown within an animal of anotherspecies.

XenograftsA type of tissue graft in which the donor and recipient are of different species.Also called heterographs.

XenotransplantationThe transplantation of living cells, tissues and organs from one species to another.The term is usually used to describe animal-to-human transplants. An example isthe transplant of a kidney from a pig to a human. The principal reason for medicaland scientific inquiry in this area is to find alternatives to human organs andtissue transplants.

Xenosis (xenozoonoses)

A term coined from the word "xenozoonoses". It describes the transfer of infections by transplantation of xenogeneic tissues or organs. It potentially posesunique epidemiological hazards due to the efficiency of transmission of pathogens,particularly viruses, with viable, cellular grafts

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Biotechnology Glossary / Biotech Dictionary

• A

• B

• C

• D

• E

• F

• G

• H

• I 

• J

• K

• L

• M

• N

• O

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• P

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• U

• V

• W

• X

• Y

• Z

A

Agrobacterium Tumefaciens

A genus of bacteria that researchers can use to transfer DNA to plants. Agrobacterium

tumefaciens can infect plants and cause crown gall disease – a tumerous growth at the base of 

plants. The DNA transfer occurs naturally during the crown gall disease, and can be used as a

method of transformation.

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B

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)

A naturally occurring bacterium present in soil and used successfully by home gardeners and

organic farmers to control certain insects for more than 40 years. When ingested by a target

insect, the protein produced by Bt controls the insect by disturbing the digestive system. The Bt 

protein is harmless to other insects, people and animals.

Biodiversity

The word – a contraction of ‘biological diversity’ – refers to the number, variety and variability of 

living organisms. It encompasses three basic levels of organization in living systems: the

genetic, species and ecosystem levels. Plant and animal species are the most commonly

recognized units of biodiversity.

Biotechnology

A broad term used to describe any technique that uses living organisms or parts of organisms to

solve problems or develop new products. Biotechnology is used in a wide range of applications

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including the production of foods and medicines, testing for disease, removing wastes in the

environment, and improving agricultural plants. Modern biotechnology includes the tools of 

genetic engineering, although it is only one of many applications.

Bt crops

Crops that are genetically engineered to carry a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus

thuringiensis (Bt). The bacterium produces proteins that are toxic to target pests but non-toxic to

humans and other mammals. Crops containing the Bt gene are able to produce this toxin,

thereby providing protection for the plant. Bt corn and Bt cotton are examples of commercially

available Bt crops.

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C

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

A colorless, odorless, unreactive gas that is a normal part of the atmosphere. It is produced

during the combustion of fossil fuels when the carbon in the fuels reacts with oxygen. It is also

produced when living organisms respire. It is essential for plant nutrition. While relatively

innocuous in itself, carbon dioxide and other  greenhouse gases can trap the sun’s heat in the

atmosphere and contribute to Global Warming. 

Chromosome

Tightly coiled strands of genes (DNA) located in the nucleus of every cell that determines the

inheritance of traits. Each chromosome has a fixed number of genes, and every species has a

characteristic number of chromosome pairs – humans have 23 pairs, mice have 19 and pea

plants have 7.

Conservation tillage

An approach to the cultivation of agricultural land, which reduces or eliminates plowing of soil for 

crop planting and weed control. In addition to reducing soil erosion, conservation tillage retains

soil carbon and reduces greenhouse gases, which can trap the sun’s heat in the atmosphere

and contribute to Global Warming.

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D

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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A complex molecule that contains, in chemically coded form, all the information needed to build,

control and maintain a living organism. DNA is a ladder-like double-stranded nucleic acid that

forms the basis of genetic inheritance in all organisms except for a few viruses. In organisms

other than bacteria, it is organized into chromosomes and contained in the cell nucleus.

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E

Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ)

A universal indicator that integrates the various environmental impacts of individual pesticides

into a single field value per acre (hectare). EIQ incorporates the impact of the key toxicity and

environmental exposure data on farm workers, consumers and ecology, providing a consistent

and comprehensive measure of the non-intentional impact of different pesticides on the

environment. EIQ is not universally accepted and is an indicator only; it does not take into

account all environmental issues and impacts.

Erosion

A process by which rock particles and soil are detached from their original site, transported and

deposited in a new location. The main agents of erosion are water and wind.

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F

Field trial

A test of a new technology or  variety, including biotech-derived varieties, done outside the

laboratory but with specific limitations and requirements on location, plot size, methodology, etc.

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G

Gene

A specific segment of DNA in a chromosome that produces a specific product or has an

assigned function.

Genetic engineering

The technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a living organism. Also referred to as

gene splicing, recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology or  genetic modification.

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Genetically engineered organism (GEO)

A new variety of plant produced using traditional plant breeding techniques, supplemented by

the insertion of a specific beneficial gene or genes. Also referred to as genetically modified

organism (GMO).

Genetic modification

The technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a living organism via genetic

engineering or other more traditional methods. Also referred to as gene splicing, recombinant

DNA (rDNA) technology or genetic engineering.

Genetically modified organism (GMO)

A new variety of plant produced using traditional plant breeding techniques, supplemented by

the insertion of a specific beneficial gene or genes. Also referred to as genetically engineered

organism (GEO). 

Genetics

The study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits.

Genome

All the genetic material in all the chromosomes of a particular organism. It is the master 

blueprint for the total set of an organism’s genes. 

Global warming

The consequences of the greenhouse effect, caused by the rising concentrations of  greenhouse

gases. The suspicion is that global warming will disrupt weather and climatic patterns. It could

lead to droughts in some areas and flooding in others, and is seen as one of the major 

environmental problems facing the world.

Glyphosate tolerant (Roundup Ready) crops

The most common herbicide-tolerant crops, which provide tolerance to glyphosate, a herbicide

effective on many species of grasses, broadleaf weeds and sedges. Roundup Ready crops

(cotton, corn, soybeans, canola) contain the Roundup Ready gene, which allows glyphosate to

be applied to the crop to provide effective weed control without damaging the crop itself.

Greenhouse effect

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Process whereby greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere cause heat to be trapped in

the atmosphere rather than escaping into space. The greenhouse gases form an insulating

blanket around the planet. This blanket allows light and heat from the sun through, but prevents

some of the heat, which radiates back from the earth from escaping. The same effect occurs in

greenhouses, hence the name. The effect is natural and vital to current life forms on earth.

Without it, the planet would be frozen.

Greenhouse gases

Some gases – such as carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor – trap the sun’s heat in the

lower atmosphere and prevent it from escaping into space. A major source of the increased

concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is the combustion of fossil fuels.

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H

Herbicide

A substance used to kill plants, especially weeds.

Herbicide-tolerant crops

Crops that have been developed to survive application(s) of particular  herbicides by the

incorporation of certain gene(s) either through genetic engineering or traditional breeding

methods. The genes allow the herbicides to be applied to the crop to provide effective weed

control without damaging the crop itself.

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I

Insecticide

A substance used to control certain populations of insect pests. In agriculture, insecticides are

used to control insect pests that feed on crops or carry plant disease.

Insect-resistant crops

Plants with the ability to withstand, deter or repel insects and thereby prevent them from feeding

on the plant. The traits (genes) determining resistance may be selected by plant breeders

through cross-pollination with other  varieties of this crop or through the introduction of novel

genes such as Bt genes through genetic engineering. 

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J

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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K

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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L

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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M

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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N

No-till farming

A method of farming that eliminates plowing to prepare the land for planting seeds and weed

control. Instead, crop residue is left on fields, and seed and nutrients are placed in narrow rows

or in drilled holes. Weed control is accomplished with suitable herbicides. Because the soil is

not disturbed or exposed through plowing, it is much less susceptible to erosion from both water 

and wind.

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O

Organic agriculture / Organic farming

To qualify to use recognized organic labels, farmers must conform to a strict agricultural system

that minimizes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed

additives. As far as practical, organic farming relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal

manure, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral-

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bearing rocks, and biological pest control to sustain soil productivity, supply plant nutrients and

control crop pests.

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P

Pesticide

A substance used to control pests, such as harmful insects, weeds or microorganisms.

Pest-resistant crops

Plants with the ability to withstand, deter or repel pests and thereby prevent them from

damaging the plants. Plant pests may include insects, nematodes, fungi, viruses, bacteria, and

weeds, among others.

Plant biotechnology

The addition of selected traits (genes) to plants to develop new plant varieties. 

Plant breeding

The essential process of constantly developing newer, better and more environmentally suitable

plants for the purpose of food production. Plant breeders use cross-pollination, selection and

other techniques involving crossing plants to produce varieties with particular desired

characteristics (genes) that can be passed on to future plant generations. These become

important starting material for further improvements using genetic engineering.

Plant pests

Organisms that may directly or indirectly cause disease, spoilage or damage to plants, plant

parts or processed plant materials. Common examples include certain insects, mites,

nematodes, fungi, molds, viruses and bacteria.

Protein

A molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order. Proteins are

required for the structure, function and regulation of an organisms’ cells and tissues, and each

protein has a unique function.

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Q

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There are no glossary terms at this time.

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R

Recombinant DNA (rDNA)

Fragments of  DNA from two different organisms, such as a corn plant and a bacterium, spliced

together into a single molecule.

Recombinant DNA technology

Procedures used to join DNA segments in a cell-free system (e.g. in a test tube outside living

cells or organisms). Under appropriate conditions, a recombinant DNA molecule can be

introduced into a cell and copy itself (replicate), either as an independent entity (autonomously)

or as an integral part of a cellular chromosome.

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S

Selective breeding

Making deliberate crosses or matings of organisms so the offspring will have particular desired

characteristics derived from one or both of the parents.

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T

Tillage

Cultivation, including hoeing and plowing. In agriculture, tillage is used to fight weeds.

Traditional breeding

Modification of plants and animals through selective breeding. Practices used in traditional plant

breeding may include aspects of biotechnology such as tissue culture and mutational breeding

(mutagenesis).

Transgene

A gene from one organism inserted into another organism by recombinant DNA techniques.

Transgenic organism

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A plant, animal, bacterium or other living organism, which has had one or more transgenes 

added to it by means of  genetic engineering.

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U

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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V

Variety

A group of individual plants that is uniform, stable and distinct genetically from other groups of 

individuals in the same species.

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W

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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X

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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Y

There are no glossary terms at this time.

  Glossary of Agricultural Biotechnology Terms

  Note: These terms and definitions are intended for general 

educational purposes only. They are not intended to replaceany definitions currently in use in any U.S. Government laws

or regulations, nor are they legally binding on the actions of any Government agency. For specific definitions that apply toany law or regulation of any Government agency, pleaseconsult directly with that agency. 

Agricultural Biotechnology: A range of tools, including

traditional breeding techniques, that alter living organisms, orparts of organisms, to make or modify products; improveplants or animals; or develop microorganisms for specific

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agricultural uses. Modern biotechnology today includes thetools of genetic engineering.

Allergen: A substance, usually a protein, that can cause anallergy or allergic reaction in the body.

Allergy: A reaction by the body's immune system after

exposure to a particular substance, often a protein.

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): A soil bacterium that producestoxins that are deadly to some pests. The ability to produce Bttoxins has been engineered into some crops. See Bt crops.

Biopharming: The production of pharmaceuticals such asedible vaccines and antibodies in plants or domestic animals.

Bt crops: Crops that are genetically engineered to carry a

gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Thebacterium produces proteins that are toxic to some pests butnon-toxic to humans and other mammals. Crops containingthe Bt gene are able to produce this toxin, thereby providing

protection for the plant. Bt corn and Bt cotton are examples of commercially available Bt crops.

Chromosome: The self-replicating genetic structure of cells,

containing genes, which determines inheritance of traits.Chemically, each chromosome is composed of proteins and a

long molecule of DNA.

Clone: A genetic replica of an organism created withoutsexual reproduction.

Cross-pollination: Fertilization of a plant with pollen fromanother plant. Pollen may be transferred by wind, insects,other organisms, or humans.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The chemical substance from

which genes are made. DNA is a long, double-stranded helicalmolecule made up of nucleotides which are themselves

composed of sugars, phosphates, and derivatives of the fourbases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine

(T). The sequence order of the four bases in the DNA strandsdetermines the genetic information contained.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A

technique using antibodies for detecting specific proteins.Used to test for the presence of a particular genetically

engineered organism.

Field trial: A test of a new technique or variety, includingbiotech-derived varieties, done outside the laboratory but with

specific requirements on location, plot size, methodology, etc.

Gene: The fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity. A gene is typically a specific segment of a

chromosome and encodes a specific functional product (suchas a protein or RNA molecule).

Gene expression: The result of the activity of a gene orgenes which influence the biochemistry and physiology of anorganism and may change its outward appearance.

Gene flow: The movement of genes from one individual or

population to another genetically compatible individual orpopulation.

Gene mapping: Determining the relative physical locations

of genes on a chromosome. Useful for plant and animalbreeding.

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Gene (DNA) sequencing: Determining the exact sequenceof nucleotide bases in a strand of DNA to better understandthe behavior of a gene.

Genetic engineering: Manipulation of an organism's genes

by introducing, eliminating or rearranging specific genes usingthe methods of modern molecular biology, particularly thosetechniques referred to as recombinant DNA techniques.

Genetically engineered organism (GEO): An organismproduced through genetic engineering.

Genetic modification: The production of heritable

improvements in plants or animals for specific uses, via eithergenetic engineering or other more traditional methods. Somecountries other than the United States use this term to referspecifically to genetic engineering.

Genetically modified organism (GMO): An organism

produced through genetic modification.

Genetics: The study of the patterns of inheritance of specifictraits.

Genome: All the genetic material in all the chromosomes of a

particular organism.

Genomics: The mapping and sequencing of genetic materialin the DNA of a particular organism as well as the use of that

information to better understand what genes do, how they arecontrolled, how they work together, and what their physicallocations are on the chromosome.

Genomic library: A collection of biomolecules made fromDNA fragments of a genome that represent the genetic

information of an organism that can be propagated and thensystematically screened for particular properties. The DNA

may be derived from the genomic DNA of an organism orfrom DNA copies made from messenger RNA molecules. A

computer-based collection of genetic information from thesebiomolecules can be a "virtual genomic library."

Genotype: The genetic identity of an individual. Genotype

often is evident by outward characteristics, but may also bereflected in more subtle biochemical ways not visuallyevident.

Herbicide-tolerant crops: Crops that have been developedto survive application(s) of particular herbicides by the

incorporation of certain gene(s) either through geneticengineering or traditional breeding methods. The genes allowthe herbicides to be applied to the crop to provide effectiveweed control without damaging the crop itself.

Hybrid: The offspring of any cross between two organisms of 

different genotypes.

Identity preservation: The segregation of one crop typefrom another at every stage from production and processingto distribution. This process is usually performed throughaudits and site visits and provides independent third-party

verification of the segregation.

Insecticide resistance: The development or selection of heritable traits (genes) in an insect population that allowindividuals expressing the trait to survive in the presence of levels of an insecticide (biological or chemical control agent)

that would otherwise debilitate or kill this species of insect.

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The presence of such resistant insects makes the insecticideless useful for managing pest populations.

Insect-resistance management: A strategy for delayingthe development of pesticide resistance by maintaining a

portion of the pest population in a refuge that is free fromcontact with the insecticide. For Bt crops this allows theinsects feeding on the Bt toxin to mate with insects notexposed to the toxin produced in the plants.

Insect-resistant crops: Plants with the ability to withstand,

deter or repel insects and thereby prevent them from feedingon the plant. The traits (genes) determining resistance may

be selected by plant breeders through cross-pollination withother varieties of this crop or through the introduction of 

novel genes such as Bt genes through genetic engineering.

Intellectual property rights: The legal protection forinventions, including new technologies or new organisms

(such as new plant varieties). The owner of these rights cancontrol their use and earn the rewards for their use. This

encourages further innovation and creativity for the benefit of us all. Intellectual property rights protection includes various

types of patents, trademarks, and copyrights.Molecular biology: The study of the structure and functionof proteins and nucleic acids in biological systems.

Mutation: Any heritable change in DNA structure or

sequence. The identification and incorporation of usefulmutations has been essential for traditional crop breeding.

Nucleotide: A subunit of DNA or RNA consisting of a

nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine inDNA; adenine, guanine, uracil, or cytosine in RNA), aphosphate molecule, and a sugar molecule (deoxyribose inDNA and ribose in RNA). Many of nucleotides are linked to

form a DNA or RNA molecule.

Organic agriculture: A concept and practice of agricultural

production that focuses on production without the use of synthetic inputs and does not allow the use of transgenicorganisms. USDA's National Organic Program has established

a set of national standards for certified organic productionwhich are available online.

Outcrossing: Mating between different populations orindividuals of the same species that are not closely related.The term "outcrossing" can be used to describe unintended

pollination by an outside source of the same crop duringhybrid seed production.

Pest-resistant crops: Plants with the ability to withstand,deter or repel pests and thereby prevent them from damagingthe plants. Plant pests may include insects, nematodes, fungi,

viruses, bacteria, weeds, and other.

Pesticide resistance: The development or selection of heritable traits (genes) in a pest population that allowindividuals expressing the trait to survive in the presence of levels of a pesticide (biological or chemical control agent) that

would otherwise debilitate or kill this pest. The presence of such resistant pests makes the pesticide less useful formanaging pest populations.

Phenotype: The visible and/or measurable characteristics of an organism (how it appears outwardly).

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Plant breeding: The use of cross-pollination, selection, andcertain other techniques involving crossing plants to producevarieties with particular desired characteristics (traits) that

can be passed on to future plant generations.

Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs): Pesticidalsubstances introduced into plants by genetic engineering thatare produced and used by the plant to protect it from pests.The protein toxins of Bt are often used as PIPs in the

formation of Bt crops.

Plant pests: Organisms that may directly or indirectly causedisease, spoilage, or damage to plants, plant parts or

processed plant materials. Common examples include certaininsects, mites, nematodes, fungi, molds, viruses, and

bacteria.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): A technique used tocreate a large number of copies of a target DNA sequence of 

interest. One use of PCR is in the detection of DNA sequencesthat indicate the presence of a particular genetically

engineered organism.

Promoter: A region of DNA that regulates the level of 

function of other genes.

Protein: A molecule composed of one or more chains of 

amino acids in a specific order. Proteins are required for thestructure, function, and regulation of the body's cells, tissues,

and organs, and each protein has a unique function.

Recombinant DNA (rDNA): A molecule of DNA formed by joining different DNA segments using recombinant DNA

technology.

Recombinant DNA technology: Procedures used to jointogether DNA segments in a cell-free system (e.g. in a test

tube outside living cells or organisms). Under appropriateconditions, a recombinant DNA molecule can be introduced

into a cell and copy itself (replicate), either as an independent

entity (autonomously) or as an integral part of a cellularchromosome.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): A chemical substance made up of nucleotides compound of sugars, phosphates, and derivatives

of the four bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), anduracil (U). RNAs function in cells as messengers of informationfrom DNA that are translated into protein or as molecules thathave certain structural or catalytic functions in the synthesis

of proteins. RNA is also the carrier of genetic information forcertain viruses. RNAs may be single or double stranded.

Selectable marker: A gene, often encoding resistance to anantibiotic or an herbicide, introduced into a group of cells toallow identification of those cells that contain the gene of 

interest from the cells that do not. Selectable markers are

used in genetic engineering to facilitate identification of cellsthat have incorporated another desirable trait that is not easyto identify in individual cells.

Selective breeding: Making deliberate crosses or matings of 

organisms so the offspring will have particular desiredcharacteristics derived from one or both of the parents.

Traditional breeding: Modification of plants and animalsthrough selective breeding. Practices used in traditional plantbreeding may include aspects of biotechnology such as tissue

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culture and mutational breeding.

Transgene: A gene from one organism inserted into anotherorganism by recombinant DNA techniques.

Transgenic organism: An organism resulting from theinsertion of genetic material from another organism using

recombinant DNA techniques.

Variety: A subdivision of a species for taxonomicclassification also referred to as a 'cultivar.' A variety is agroup of individual plants that is uniform, stable, and distinctgenetically from other groups of individuals in the same

species.

Vector: 1. A type of DNA element, such as a plasmid, or thegenome of a bacteriophage, or virus, that is self-replicatingand that can be used to transfer DNA segments into targetcells. 2. An insect or other organism that provides a means of 

dispersal for a disease or parasite.