Global Exploration
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Transcript of Global Exploration
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Global Exploration
• The motivation: in 1453, Turks take Constantinople (renamed Istanbul), thus blocking direct routes from Europe to Asia.
• Europeans seek all-water routes to Asia– Vasco da Gama (Portugal) sails east around
Africa to India– Columbus (Italian, employed by Spain) sails
west and “discovers” America
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Major Explorations, 15th-16th c.
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Spanish in Americas
• The Conquest: in 1521, Cortes with 600 soldiers overtakes Aztec Empire (Mexico)
• Mexico’s population: – 1521: 25 million– 1600: 1 million
• Bartolome de Las Casas, Very Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies (1552)
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The Catholic Reformation and the Baroque Style
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Christianity in Europe, 1590
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Catholic Reformation
• Beginning in early 16th century
• Two movements:– Internal reform of Church– Expansion of Church’s influence
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Council of Trent (1545-63)
• Reaffirms the 7 sacraments (Protestants had reduced the number)
• Makes guidelines to eliminate abuses by clergy
• Increases preaching to the uneducated, and monastic intellectual life
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Council of Trent (1545-63)
• Revives Inquisition, establishes Index Expurgatorius
• Emphasizes mystical experience
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Jesuits (The Society of Jesus) (1)
• Founded by Ignatius Loyola, a former Spanish soldier, in the 1530s
• Jesuits took special oath of allegiance to pope
• In Europe, defended Catholicism against Protestantism
• In Americas, India, China, and Japan, did missionary work
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Jesuits (2)
• Jesuits functioned according to two principles: “mysticism and militant religious zeal” (509):– Personal, intuitive experience of God (this is
similar to the Protestant sensibility)– Absolute obedience to the Church
• Spiritual Exercises (1548) combines these principles (see 510): mysticism as physically tough practice
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Jesuits (3)
• From 16th to 19th centuries, Jesuits were the main intermediaries between Europe and Asia– Matteo Ricci in China (late 16th, early 17th
centuries): first dressed as a Buddhist priest, later as a scholar
• Jesuits much more successful at conversions in Latin America than in Asia
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Teresa of Avila
• Like Ignatius Loyola, brings together sensual and religious experience
• Like Loyola, she was peripatetic: known as “the roving nun”
• Visions (1611)
• Richard Cranshaw appeals to St. Teresa in his The Flaming Heart (1652)
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Bernini, The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1645-52)
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Mannerist Painting
• Intermediate style between the Renaissance and the Baroque, esp. present in Italy and Spain
• An expression of the Catholic Reformation tendencies of sensuousness and mysticism
• Its characteristics: “spatial complexity, artificiality, and affectation”; also “psychological intensity” (513).
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Leonardo, The Last Supper (1485-98)
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Tintoretto, The Last Supper (1592-94)
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Raphael, Alba Madonna, c.1510
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Parmigianino,
Madonna of the
Long Neck
(1534-40)
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El Greco, The Agony in the Garden (c. 1585-86)
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The Baroque Style
• In general: “ornateness, spatial grandeur, and theatrical flamboyance” (518)
• From Portuguese barocco: pearl of irregular shape, used for decoration/ornament
• Baroque painting: “asymmetric compositions, strong contrast of light and dark, and bold, illusionistic effects” (518)
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Caravaggio, The Supper at Emmaus (c. 1600)
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He sat down to eat with them, took the bread, and said the blessing; then
he broke the bread and gave it to them. Then their eyes were opened
and they recognized him, but he disappeared from their sight.
--Luke 24:30-31
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Baroque Architecture
• Baroque Catholic churches are decorative theaters where Catholic rituals are performed
• See Bernini, Baldacchino, p. 532
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How does the Baroque style differ from Mannerism?
• Both are spatially complex in composition and in human figures.
• Both have strong contrasts of light and dark. However:
• Baroque is more naturalistic, creating life-like illusions
• Mannerism is more artificial and mystical in its effect
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How does the Baroque style reflect the ideas and issues of its time?
• In Southern Europe, reflects the religious zeal of Catholic Reformation, combining sensuousness and mysticism
• In its spatial expansiveness, reflects European exploration of and expansion across the globe
• See Andrea Posso, Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius (1691)
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Pozzo, Apotheosis of Saint Ignatius (1691)
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The Protestant Baroque
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Protestant Baroque• Like Catholic Baroque, Protestant Baroque
is mystical, but:• Unlike the Catholic Baroque (ornamental,
theatrical), the Protestant Baroque style is unornamented and anti-theatrical
• Focus is on private (rather than public) devotion, and internal vision
• Bible is central, rather than later saints• Financed by new commercial class
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Rembrandt,
The Return of the Prodigal Son
(ca. 1662-68)
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English Commonwealth• Elizabeth I (1558-1603) [Tudor]• James I (1603-1625) [Stuart]• Charles I (1625-1649)
--Civil War (1642-48)--• Oliver Cromwell (1649-1660, Puritan
“Commonwealth”)• Charles II (1660-1685); the Restoration [Stuart]• James II (1685-1688 [a Catholic])• William and Mary (1689, “Glorious Revolution”)
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Van Dyck,
Charles I
on
Horseback
(c. 1638)
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King James Bible (1611)
• “authorized” English-language edition
• Written by committee of 54 scholars
• Based on earlier 16th century English versions as well as on Hebrew and Latin manuscripts
• Concision, rhythm, and poetic imagery have influence on English language in general
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John Donne (1571-1631)
• Meditations, Holy Sonnets, and other poems (e.g., “The Flea” and “Valediction: Forbidding Mourning”) employ metaphysical conceits, extended metaphors that bring together two seemingly dissimilar things
• These conceits reflect “the baroque affection for dramatic contrast, for frequent and unexpected shifts of viewpoint, and for the dramatic synthesis of discordant images” (569)
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John Milton (1608-74)
• A Puritan and a defender of Cromwell• His modern epic poems: Paradise Lost and
Paradise Regained • Form: Blank verse• Plot: cosmic account of the relationships between
God, Satan, and humanity• Themes of Paradise Lost: “knowledge, sin, and
free will” (570)• Paradise Lost: possibly an allegory of English
Civil War?