Ginger (Zingiber Oficinale Rosec.): Production, Postharvest Handling, Processing and Marketing - A...

i

GINGER (Zingiber oficinale Rosec.)

PRODUCTION, POSTHARVESTHANDLING,

PROCESSING AND MARKETING:

A COMPREHENSIVE EXTENSION PACKAGE

MANUAL

Organized by:

Tadesse Fikre and Asfaw Kifle (editors)

December, 2013

Hawassa, Ethiopia

ii

GINGER (Zingiber oficinale Rosec.)

PRODUCTION, POSTHARVESTHANDLING, PROCESSING

AND MARKETING:

A COMPREHENSIVE EXTENSION PACKAGE MANUAL

Organized by:

Tadesse Fikre and Asfaw Kifle (editors)

December, 2013

Hawassa, Ethiopia

iii

Copyrights 2013 FARM AFRICA and Authors

All rights reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical

photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher and

Authors.

For permission to use material from this Manual please contact the authors (detailed contact

information under List of Authors) and FARM AFRICA Ethiopia Country Office via:

Telephone: +251114674129

P. O. Box: 5746 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... iv

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. viii

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................... xi

LIST OF AUTHORS ........................................................................................... xiii

TECHNICAL EDITION: ...............................................................................................................................xiii

LANGUAGE EDITION: ........................................................................................................................xiii

CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS ...............................................................................................................xiii

THE NEED FOR THIS MANUAL .................................................................... xiv

PART I ............................................................................................................. 1

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1

1.1 Uses of Ginger .............................................................................................................................. 3

1.2 A Brief Description of Ginger Morphology.................................................................................. 4

1.3 Ginger Production in Ethiopia ...................................................................................................... 6

1.4 Ginger Production in SNNPRS ..................................................................................................... 8

1.5 Trends of ginger production in SNNPRS.................................................................................... 11

1.5.1 Diversity of ginger in SNNPRS .......................................................................................... 12

1.5.2 Climate and soil .................................................................................................................. 19

1.5.3 Temperature ........................................................................................................................ 19

1.5.4 Soil Requirement for ginger production ............................................................................. 20

1.5.5 Rainfall ................................................................................................................................ 20

1.6 References ................................................................................................................................... 21

2. AGRONOMY OF GINGER ...........................................................................23

2.1 Pre-harvest Management of Ginger ............................................................................................ 23

2.1.1 Land Preparation ................................................................................................................. 23

2.1.2 Method of propagation and management of planting materials .......................................... 24

2.1.3 Rhizome Seed size .............................................................................................................. 26

v

2.1.4 Seed rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting ...................................................... 27

2.1.5 Application of organic and inorganic fertilizers ................................................................. 28

2.1.6 Weeding/Cultivation of ginger ............................................................................................ 30

2.1.7 Crop rotation and intercropping .......................................................................................... 31

2.1.8 Mulching ............................................................................................................................. 31

2.2 Perennating /over seasoning and with-in season harvesting of ginger ........................................ 32

2.2.1 With-in-the Season Harvesting ........................................................................................... 33

2.2.2 Extended harvesting/over seasoning/ perennation .............................................................. 34

2.3 Organic Ginger Production ......................................................................................................... 35

2.1.1 Consequences of Modern, intensive agriculture ................................................................. 35

2.1.2 Benefits of Organic farming ............................................................................................... 37

2.1.3 Methods and materials used for organic farming ................................................................ 37

2.1.4 Steps in organic ginger production ..................................................................................... 38

2.2 References ................................................................................................................................... 39

3 PROTECTION OF GINGER .........................................................................41

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 41

3.2 Factors affecting ginger production ............................................................................................ 42

3.2.1 Major diseases of ginger ..................................................................................................... 42

3.2.2 Major Pests of ginger plant ................................................................................................. 49

3.3 References ................................................................................................................................... 52

PART II .........................................................................................................53

4 HARVESTING AND POSTHARVESTHANDLING OF GINGER ..........53

4.1 Harvesting ................................................................................................................................... 54

4.1.1 Harvesting Maturity ............................................................................................................ 55

4.1.2 Harvesting Time .................................................................................................................. 55

4.1.3 During Harvesting ............................................................................................................... 56

4.1.4 Harvesting Methods ............................................................................................................ 56

4.1.5 Harvesting Tools ................................................................................................................. 58

4.1.6 Loosening the soil and Lifting ............................................................................................ 60

4.2 After Harvest ............................................................................................................................... 61

4.2.1 Trimming and Washing ...................................................................................................... 61

vi

4.2.2 Curing ................................................................................................................................. 61

4.2.3 Cleaning .............................................................................................................................. 62

4.2.4 Cleanliness specifications for ginger .................................................................................. 62

4.2.5 Grading, packaging and labeling......................................................................................... 63

4.2.6 Transport ............................................................................................................................. 66

4.2.7 Ginger Storage .................................................................................................................... 66

4.2.8 Storage practices ................................................................................................................. 69

4.3 References ................................................................................................................................... 72

5 GINGER AGRO-PROCESSING ...................................................................73

5.1 Principles of Ginger Processing .................................................................................................. 73

5.2 Major Ginger Processing ............................................................................................................ 73

5.2.1 Green Ginger Processing .................................................................................................... 73

5.2.2 Dried and powdered Ginger Processing .............................................................................. 74

5.2.3 Ginger Essential Oil Extraction .......................................................................................... 83

5.2.4 Ginger Oleoresins ............................................................................................................... 84

5.3 Quality and Safety Requirements for ginger and its products .................................................... 87

5.4 References ................................................................................................................................... 94

6 NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GINGER ......................96

6.1 Nutritional Significance of Ginger .................................................................................................... 96

6.1 Health Benefits of Ginger ........................................................................................................... 97

6.2 References ................................................................................................................................... 98

PART III ....................................................................................................100

7 GINGER VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS ......................................................100

7.1 Ginger Marketing ...................................................................................................................... 100

7.1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 100

7.1.2 Ginger marketing and Market Place ................................................................................. 101

7.1.3 Spice export by country of destination.............................................................................. 107

7.1.4 Future Perspectives of the Ethiopia Spices ....................................................................... 109

7.1.5 Ginger Market requirements of quality standards and grading ......................................... 110

7.2 Ginger Value Chain .................................................................................................................. 112

7.2.1 Over view of ginger Value Chain ..................................................................................... 112

vii

7.2.2 Ginger Value Chain Map .................................................................................................. 113

7.3 Level of Support for ginger Value Chain .................................................................................. 117

7.3.1 Government agencies ........................................................................................................ 117

7.3.2 Government agencies ........................................................................................................ 117

7.3.3 Ethiopian Commodity Exchange (ECX) ........................................................................... 118

7.3.4 Farmers Organizations ..................................................................................................... 119

7.3.5 Some activities initiated by private businesses ................................................................. 120

7.3.6 Development partners and donors ..................................................................................... 120

7.4 Overall issues in Value Chain Analysis .................................................................................... 121

7.4.1 Constraints ........................................................................................................................ 121

7.4.2 Opportunities ..................................................................................................................... 123

7.5 References ................................................................................................................................. 125

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1: Fresh ginger (Left) and dried ginger (Right) ............................................................................ 3

Figure 1-2: Parts of a ginger plant: side tillers (left), foliar and subterranean organs (middle), and

rhizome (right) ........................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 1-3: Ginger Flower ........................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 1-4: Feminine Wolaita (left), Masculine Wolaita (right) ........................................................... 13

Figure 1-5: Subterranean parts of Bilbo with two tap roots (left) and Volvo with a single tap root (right)

................................................................................................................................................. 14

Figure 1-6: Released varieties of ginger: Boziab (left) and Yali (right) .................................................... 18

Figure 2-1: Non-sprouted (left) and sprouted (right) ginger rhizome piece .............................................. 25

Figure 2-2: Recommended size of ginger rhizome piece ............................................................................ 26

Figure4-1: Manual harvesting (hand picking holding the stems/branches) of ginger ............................... 57

Figure4-2: Harvesting Machines ................................................................................................................ 58

Figure4-3: Machine harvesting of ginger ................................................................................................... 58

Figure4-4: Row planting for easy and effective machine harvesting ......................................................... 59

Figure4-5: Spade (A) and digging fork (B) used for ginger harvesting ..................................................... 60

Figure4-6: Ginger Plant (left) and Ginger Rhizomes (right) ..................................................................... 60

Figure4-7: Different Primary Packages of Ginger ..................................................................................... 64

Figure4-8: Packaging of ginger right at the farm ...................................................................................... 65

Figure4-9: Tertiary packaging of ginger for shipment ............................................................................... 65

Figure4-10: Ginger seed rhizome storage structure .................................................................................. 67

Figure4-11: Inspection of produce and cleaning of the storage structure ................................................. 69

Figure4-12: Cleaning and maintaining the storage structure .................................................................... 70

Figure4-13: Disinfect used sacks: .............................................................................................................. 70

Figure4-14: Water proof sheets .................................................................................................................. 71

Figure4-15: Wooden Pallets ....................................................................................................................... 71

Figure5-1: Flow Chart for green ginger processing .................................................................................. 74

Figure 5-2: Electrical Ginger Slicer ........................................................................................................... 75

Figure 5-3: Manually operated Ginger slicer ............................................................................................ 75

Figure5-4: Direct type solar dryer (combined radiation collector and drying chamber) .......................... 77

Figure5-5: Illustration of Food drying in a direct solar dryer. .................................................................. 78

Figure5-6: Design and structure of a typical direct solar dryer. ............................................................... 78

Figure5-7: Illustration of an indirect type solar dryer (opaque drying chamber) ..................................... 79

Figure5-8: Flow sheet for dried and/or powdered ginger processing........................................................ 81

Figure5-9: Illustration of tent solar dryer .................................................................................................. 82

Figure5-10: Industrial tunnel solar dryer .................................................................................................. 83

Figure5-11: Flow sheet for single-stage oleoresin extraction .................................................................... 85

Figure5-12: Flow sheet for two-stage oleoresin extraction methods ......................................................... 86

Figure7-1: Marketing channels of ginger (fresh/dried) in Kenbata Tembaro Zone ................................. 102

Figure7-2: Hadero old marketplace collection by local traders (left) small volume marketing (right) ... 103

ix

Figure 7-3: New transaction of ginger Primary market center (HaderoTunto) ....................................... 104

Figure7-4: The value chain map of ginger from local to export market .................................................. 114

x

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1: Area and Production of Ginger in Ethiopia (2002-2011) ........................................................... 7

Table 1-2: Area and production under production of major spice crops in SNNPRS (2008-2012) ............. 9

Table 1-3: Production and regional average yield of ginger in major Woredas, SNNPRS (2006/07) ....... 10

Table 1-4: Data on land use for ginger production in major ginger cultivating woredas, SNNPRS ......... 11

Table 1-5: Characteristics of different ginger vernaculars cultivated in SNNPRS .................................... 16

Table 1-6: Physical environment data for the major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS ........................... 21

Table 2-1: Distinctions between with-in season and extended harvesting ................................................. 34

Table 4-1: Fresh ginger grading categories (Henry and Adriano, 1999) .................................................. 64

Table 4-2 Fresh ginger requires particular temperature, humidity/moisture and ventilation conditions .. 68

Table 5-1: Food Chemical Codex (FCC) specifications for ginger oil ...................................................... 84

Table 5-2: Limits for residual solvents in spice oleoresin .......................................................................... 86

Table 5-3: Approximate dosages of ginger oil and oleoresin for typical applications ............................... 87

Table 5-4: American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) Cleanliness Specification for Ginger ................... 88

Table 5-5: EU standards for ginger ............................................................................................................ 88

Table 5-6: Microbiological specification for spice under German Law ................................................... 88

Table 5-7: Tolerance level for pesticides residues in ginger under American Regulations ....................... 89

Table 5-8: Tolerance level for pesticides residues in spices under German Regulations .......................... 89

Table 5-9: Defect Action Level (DAL) for Ginger (Food and Drug Administration (FDA)) ..................... 91

Table 5-10: Tolerance levels for aflatoxins in Spices ................................................................................. 91

Table 5-11: Maximum permissible limits for trace metals in ginger powder (Japanese) .......................... 91

Table 5-12: International Standards Organization (ISO) Specification for ginger .................................... 92

Table 5-13: Indian Standard Specification for ground ginger ................................................................... 92

Table 5-14: ISO Specification for ground ginger ....................................................................................... 93

Table 5-15: Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) rules for ginger powder ........................................... 93

Table 6-1: Nutritional Data for 100 g dry ginger ....................................................................................... 96

Table 6-2: Chemical Composition of dry ginger ........................................................................................ 97

Table 7-1: Ginger Marketing in SNNPRS ................................................................................................. 104

Table 7-2: Ginger price during 2003/2004 2007/2008 at Hadaro market place .................................. 106

Table 7-3: Export Spice by type for 2008/9-2010/11 volume in tons and value in "000 USD ............... 106

Table 7-4: Indias Import (Trade Indicators) ........................................................................................... 107

Table 7-5: Export of spices (amount) by country of destination 2008/9-2010/11 .................................... 108

Table 7-6: Targeted export volume and revenue generation by 2015 ...................................................... 109

xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANSAB Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bio-resources

ASTA American Spice Trade Association

AGP Agricultural Growth Program

BA Bureau of Agriculture, SNNPRS

BHT Butylated Hydroxytoluene (commercial antioxidant)

BMC Bureau of Marketing and Communication, SNNPRS

BRC British Retail Consortium

CBI Confederation of British Industries

DAL Defect action level

DAP Diammonium Phosphate (Phosphorus Fertilizer)

ECBP Engineering capacity building program

ECX Ethiopian Commodity Exchange

EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research

ESA European Spice Associations

ESEF Ethiopian Spices Extraction Factory

EU European Union

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization [of the United Nations]

FCC Food Chemical Codex

FDA Food and Drug Administration [of the United States of America]

GAP Good Agricultural Practices

GACP Good Agricultural and Collection Practices

GRAS Generally recognized as safe

GTP Growth and Transformation Plan

GTZ German Organization for Technical Cooperation

HABP Household Asset Building Program

HYV High Yielding Varieties

ICT International Trade Center

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

IPC International Pepper Community

xii

ISB Indian Spice Board

ISO International Standards Organization

JICA Japanese International Cooperation Agency

MA Ministry of Agriculture, Ethiopia

MT Ministry of Trade, Ethiopia

MRL Maximum Residue Level

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

PFA Prevention of food adulteration

PONV Post-Operative Nausea and Vomiting

SME Small and Medium Enterprises

SNNPRS Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State [Ethiopia]

SNV Netherlands Development Organization Value Chain

UAE United Arab Emirates

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

UREA Urea ammonium Nitrate (Nitrogen Fertilizer)

USA United States of America

USAID United States Agency of International Development

WHO World Health Organization [United Nations]

xiii

LIST OF AUTHORS

TECHNICAL EDITION:

TADESSE FIKRE

ASFAW KIFLE

LANGUAGE EDITION:

AKALEWOLD SAMUEL

CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS

ABRHAM ASTATIKE

Mobile phone: +251911384833

E-mail:[email protected]

Expert (Crop Quality Control) Bureau of

Agriculture,

SNNPRS

ALYE TEFERA


E-mail: [email protected]

Lecturer and Researcher, School of

Plant and Horticultural Sciences

Hawassa University

ASFAW KIFLE



Researcher, Areka Research Center

Southern Agricultural Research Institute (SARI)

BRIHANU SIMA



Expert (Spice) Bureau of Agriculture,

SNNPRS

SINEDU ABATE



Expert (Plant Protection), Bureau of

Agriculture,

SNNPRS

TADESSE FIKRE



Lecturer and Researcher, School of

Nutrition, Food Science and Technology

Hawassa University

TESFAYE HABTE



Expert (Agronomy)

FARM AFRICA,

AKALEWOLD SAMUEL,

LANGUAGE EDITOR:

Mobile Phone: +251 916826299


Lecturer, School of Language &

Communication Studies,

Hawassa University

xiv

THE NEED FOR THIS MANUAL

Tesfaye Habte

Ginger is one of the most important spice crops. The Arabs, in the 13th

Century brought ginger

from India to east Africa and ginger had perhaps been known since then in Ethiopia, and

predominantly grown in the wetter parts of the South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples

Regional State. East Ginger is mainly used as a flavoring agent. It also finds immense usage in

many of the different medicinal systems of the world for a wide variety of disorders. It has been

a good source of income and is a favorite crop that improves the economic status and, hence the

quality of life of the grower significantly. As an export commodity, the contribution of ginger to

the national economy is not negligible.

1

PART I

1. INTRODUCTION

Asfaw Kifle and Brihanu Sima

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosccoe) is monocotyledonous, herbaceous, tropical plant

belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial plant, but is usually grown as an

annual crop for harvesting as a spice. Ginger is native to South East Asia, and now it is

grown commercially in most tropical regions (Abeykeraet al., 2005). It has a long and

well -documented history of both culinary and medicinal use throughout world history,

especially in Chinese, Indian and Japanese medicinal care.

The Arabs, in the 13th

century brought ginger from India to East Africa (Jansen, 1981)

and ginger had perhaps been known since then in Ethiopia, and predominantly grown in

the wetter parts of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State

(SNNPRS). Ginger production to a lesser extent, has been also extended to some parts of

Western Oromia and Northern Amhara.

large-scale commercial production of ginger by farmers in SNNPRS is practiced with the

administrative districts of Kacha Bira and Hadaro-Tunto (both are located in Kambata-

Tambaro zone), Boloso Bombe and Boloso Sorie (both are located in Wolaita zone), and

part of western Badawacho (Hadiya zone) taking the leading position in the region as

well as in the country as far as the total production and supply to the central market is

concerned. The statistical information from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural

Development indicates that 99% of the crops production was in SNNPRS (Geta and

Kifle, 2011). The standard of living of the farmers cultivating ginger in this region is by

far better than those farmers whose livelihood is based on any other crop. Its contribution

to the national economy has also been considerable.

2

In Ethiopia, ginger has been used as a flavoring agent, carminative and stimulant and it

has become the most important spice for the local as well as the export market. The

underground rhizome of this crop is also valued throughout the world as a spice of

flavoring agent for its two major classes of constituents, such as essential oils and

oleoresins (Baladinet al. 1998) .

The more volatile essential oil consists of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, which

contribute to the characteristics flavor of ginger, and oleoresins which is responsible for

the pungent flavor, which is also a source of antioxidants (Sanwalet al., 2010). The

principal compounds responsible for the pungency of ginger are gingerols and shagols.

Ginger is commercially available in various forms, such as green ginger, dry ginger,

ginger powder, ginger oil, ginger oleoresin and preserved ginger (Kizhakkayi and

Sasikumar, 2009).

The area under ginger cultivation in the world was estimated to be 314350 hectares in

2011, with a total production of 2025571 tones,; out of which the share of Ethiopia was

7746 tones, that is about 0.38%. Ginger yield on farmers field is very low i.e., 15.87 t ha-

1, which is far less than the crops potential. This is attributed to several factors of which

shortage of improved varieties, poor agronomic practices and poor soil fertility are the

most important ones (Hailemichael et al., 2008). The top five ginger producer countries

are India, China, Nepal, Nigeria, and Thailand. India is the largest producer of ginger

accounting for more than 34% of the world production in 2011 followed by China. For

the past five consecutive years (2006-2011), Ethiopia stood 10th

and 14th

position in terms

of area harvested and total production of ginger, respectively among the 36 countries

engaged in ginger production globally (FAO, 2013).

Ginger has been produced as an important commercial spice crop in Southern Ethiopia. It

has been a good source of income for farmers who grow it. Despite its remarkable uses

and contribution to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and to the economy of the

country, due attempt has not been made so far to improve its pre- and postharvest

management. The aim of this comprehensive manual is therefore, to avail the full

3

package on ginger production, marketing and processing which, in turn, may play a

substantial role in the improvement of both pre- and postharvest management of the crop

and its products, respectively.

1.1 Uses of Ginger

Ginger is used throughout the world as a spice or fresh herb for cooking and varieties of

other value added products (Bartley and Jacobs, 2000). It is available in the form of oil,

oleoresins, ground and fresh ginger. The crop has multiple advantages in that it is highly

productive per unit area, tolerant to drought, can be stored for long period of time in dried

form ,and can also be intercropped with other crops like beans, maize and taro.

Ginger is mainly used as a flavoring agent. Especially, powdered dry ginger is an

important component of curry powder. Dry ginger (Figure1-1) is used for the

manufacture of several products ,such as ginger oil, ginger essence, ginger oleoresin, and

vitaminised effervescent ginger powder used in soft drinks, local foods and drinks (Idris

et al., 2010). It is widely used for culinary purposes in ginger bread, biscuits, sauces, and

cakes. Besides, it is used in breweries for the preparation of ginger beer, ginger ale, and

ginger wine in different countries.

Figure 1-1: Fresh ginger (Left) and dried ginger (Right)

4

Ginger finds immense usage in many of the different medicinal systems of the world for a

wide variety of disorders. It is used in traditional medicines to treat several ailments

including nausea, diarrhea, motion sickness, migraine, dyspepsia, heart problems,

arthritis, and to reduce flatulence and colic. Moreover, ginger is believed to relief the

common cold, flu-like symptoms, headaches, and even painful menstrual periods. Ginger

is known to be effective as an appetite enhancer and an improver of digestive system

(Wresdiyatiet al., 2007).

Across the world, ginger is considered - as an important cooking spice. Young rhizomes

that are harvested early are also used in pickles and confectionery. The rhizome yields

essential oil which is obtained as a result of steam distillation, a yellow liquid lacking the

pungency. It is used in the manufacture of flavoring essences and perfumery. An

oleoresin, which marks the full presence of spices - is used for flavoring purposes, and

also has medicinal values-. As a matter of fact, ginger contains a number of different

pungent and active ingredients. For instance, the oleoresin contains the constituents that

are responsible for pungency of ginger. It can be deduced that these multiple properties of

ginger come from its chemical composition. -

1.2 A Brief Description of Ginger Morphology

The ginger plant is an erect, perennial herb with thick, hard laterally compressed, often

palmately branched rhizomes, covered with small scale leaves and fine fibrous roots.

Rhizome is pale yellow in cross section. The stems are erect and vertical, generally

sterile, covered with leaf sheaths, and reaches up to 1.5 m height. It is a perennial reed-

like plant with annual leafy stems. Leaves are alternate, sessile, distichous, linear,

lanceolate, acuminate, lamina 15-20 cm long and 2-3 cm wide, continuing into a

transparent sheath on the stem (Figure1-2).

5

Figure 1-2: Parts of a ginger plant: side tillers (left), foliar and subterranean organs

(middle), and rhizome (right)

Flowers bloom at the axil of a bract. The ginger plant has greening calyx, and three sepals

joined at the base. Corolla is yellowish-orange. It has three stamens and only one is

fertile. The two sterile stamens are joined together to form a blade, which is 2 cm long

and 1.5 cm wide, divided into three lobes. This blade (lip) is reddish purple with lighter

patches. Stigma is in a fringed disc.

Ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers

(Figure1-3). In ginger, fruit capsule are with three loculi and fruits are very rarely found.

Seeds are angular, small, black, arillated and they develop very rarely. Because of its

aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates, ginger is often used as

landscaping around subtropical homes

Figure 1-3: Ginger Flower

6

1.3 Ginger Production in Ethiopia

Some ancient literatures claim that, in Wolaita (Jansen, 1981) and in the neighboring

areas of Kambata-Tambaro, SNNPRS ginger has been cultivated long ago applying some

modern agronomic management practices. In Ethiopia, ginger is cultivated under sub-

optimal rain- fed conditions with the rain fall often less than 1500 mm per annum and at

lower temperatures (Jansen, 1981). However, reasonable yields, i.e., as high as 30 tons of

fresh rhizome yield per hectare has been recorded in some parts of the country, mainly in

SNNPRS under farmers management condition (Geta and Kifle, 2011). However, the

average yield reported for ginger in the region was only 16 tons/ha according to the

report of BoARD (2008).

Long ago, ginger production in Ethiopia was restricted to a home garden using local

cultivars at the level of small-holder farmers to be used for household consumption

and/or for small local trading. Nowadays, farmers in some parts of SNNPRS have been

engaged in large scale commercial production covering more than ten hectares of land

using newly introduced relatively high yielding cultivars, especially at Boloso Bombe, at

Wolaita Zone, SNNPRS. Moreover, the level of ginger production in Ethiopia has also

been -advanced to the level of large scale commercial farms at the level of big investors.

For instance, Horizon Plantations P.L.C., at Bebeka, south western part of SNNPRS has

started ginger cultivation in its estate spreading to an area of about 985 ha, which may be

the largest single location to cultivate ginger in the country. This company is said to be

able to identify suitable cost effective technology for sustainable crop production, harvest

and postharvest management with a vision to increase the productivity and quality of

final product. As a result, the area and production (Table 1-1) of ginger in Ethiopia have

shown a trend of progressive increase in the past 10 years, except in 2011 where a sudden

drop was occurred due to a market price fall of ginger in the previous year.

7

Table 1-1: Area and Production of Ginger in Ethiopia (2002-2011) Year Area (ha) Production (tonnes)

2002 1200 4000

2003 1500 5000

2004 2000 6000

2005 2100 7000

2006 2400 8000

2007 2700 9000

2008 3000 10000

2009 3300 11000

2010 2717 12130

2011 2046 7746

Source: faostat.fao.org (2013)

For the past five consecutive years (2006-2011), Ethiopia stood --10th

and 14th

position in

terms of area cultivated and production of ginger, respectively as compared to the 36

countries engaged in ginger production globally (FAO, 2013). In this regard, the global

position of the country will further be augmented by simply improving the production

and postharvest quality of the crop since the current position has only been obtained from

the traditionally managed production of the crop. To this effect, improved varieties that

would satisfy international quality standards in terms of oleoresin and essential oil as well

as other quality parameters need to be cultivated extensively making the use of well-

established extension systems. Using improved agronomic practices will also play a

significant role in the improvement of yield in ginger production.

Some farmers as a culture continue growing ginger at commercial level even at the time

of great fall of the market price in previous year, speculating the re-rise of the price. In

some parts of Omo Sheleqo, SNNPRS including Umbukuna and the neighboring Peasant

Associations (PAs), other crops are rarely grown as the result of damage caused by wild

lives except -ginger. In such PAs, ginger has been grown year after year irrespective of

8

any condition including at the time of low market price, which ensures sustainability of

ginger production in the country.

1.4 Ginger Production in SNNPRS

The Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) of Ethiopia,

is endowed with a verity of horticultural crops, especially with spices including

Kororima (Aframomum kororima), Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Cardamom (Elletaria

cardamomum), Black pepper (Piper nigrum), Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), and

ginger (Zingiber officinale) more than any other regions of the country for which ginger

is the most important. Spices are high value and export-oriented crops, playing important

roles in agricultural economy of the country. Spice crops have significant contribution to

raise the socio-economic status of the rural people. For instance, they contribute to earn

foreign currency and decrease environmental degradation. Among all spices, ginger is the

main cash crop that is improving and backing up the livelihood of its growers in the

region.

Table 1-2 shows the land area covered by some spice crops including ginger and the total

production for respective spice crops grown in SNNPRS in the past five consecutive

years (2008-2012) (BoARD, 2013). Over these years, ginger has shown apparent

progressive increase both in terms of area coverage and amount of production in the

region.

9

Table 1-2: Area and production under production of major spice crops in SNNPRS (2008-2012) Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Spice Crop

Area

covere

d (ha)

Producti

on (qt)

Area

covered

(ha)

Producti

on (qt)

Area

covere

d(ha)

Productio

n (qt)

Area

covere

d (ha)

Production

(qt)

Area

covered

(ha)

Production

(qt)

Pepper 58054 427140 36362 342310 48494 615345 43590 377695 48518. 485980

Ginger 19452 2176375 19802 2358802 20241 3069142 20966 5449296 26972 6500497

Kororima 1495 7088 3252 20721 4140 24342 1892 11106 13300 75226

Cinnamon 0 0 5 6 5 5 8 8 67.7 38

Turmeric 778 77800 924 147233 1106 288665 1120.6 279907 1971.2 395209

Black

pepper 0 0 0 0 24 192 98 637 3334.5 14777

Cardamom 6 72 6 78 26 520 34 221 47.014 277

Chili 0 0 0 0 1164 12789 1145 13450 1389.9 7680

Other spices 738 75200 1047 13563 275 1760 1225 28933 649.8 2818

Source: Bureau of Agriculture, SNNPRS, 2013, unpublished data

10

In 2006/07, about 2,896372 quintals of fresh ginger was produced from an area of 18,240

hectares of land indicating the regional average rhizome yield of 160 qt/ha (BoARD,

2008), (Table 1-3). However, in 2012, a total ginger rhizome fresh yield of 6500497

quintals was reported (BoARD, 2012) at a regional level from the area of 48518 hectares,

which indicates an increase of production by over 44% within five years -. The statistical

information from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development indicated that 99%

of crop production was from the SNNPRS.

Table 1-3: Production and regional average yield of ginger in major Woredas, SNNPRS

(2006/07) Administrative

zone/special

wereda

Woreda Area (ha) Production

(qt)

Yield

(qt/ha)

Hadiya West Badawacho 423 67680 160

Wolaita Boloso Bombe 7000 1120000 160

Kambata-Tambaro Hadaro-Tunto Kacha

Bira

8223 1308652 159

Dawro Gena Bosa 1500 225000 150

Kafa Gimbo 55 8800 160

Shaka 379 60640 160

Bench Maji Sheko 187 29920 160

Konta 473 75680 160

Total 18240 2896372

Source: Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, SNNPRS, 2006/07, unpublished

data

Demographic data (Table 1-4) on land use pertaining to ginger production in the major

ginger cultivating woredas of SNNPRS indicated that 80 and 85% of the total population

at Hadaro-Tunto and Boloso Bombe woredas respectively have been engaged in ginger

production. Similarly, considerable amount of ginger production undergoes in some sub-

optimal woredas for ginger production that encompasses some parts of Kadida Gamela,

and Belle woredas of the region

11

Table 1-4: Data on land use for ginger production in major ginger cultivating woredas,

SNNPRS

Woreda Total

population

Population

density

(persons/km2)

Arable

land

(ha)

Total area

allotted to

ginger

production(ha)

Percentage

of ginger

producing

farmers

Total

ginger

production

(qt)

Hadaro-

Tunto

121,715 600 12,559 3986 80 637760

Boloso

Bombe

108,342 406 - 5000 85 600000

Source: Agriculture and Rural Development Offices of Hadaro-TuntoZuria and Boloso

Bombe woreda, SNNPRS, 2008, unpublished data

Considering individual farmers who are engaged in commercial production of ginger,

especially in Boloso Bombe woreda, it is not unusual to see more than a hectare of land

allotted to ginger. This indicates sustainability of ginger production in the region.

In general, the region has a huge potential of ginger production attaining a total of

300,0000 qt of fresh ginger per annum (Table 1-3), which is expected to sufficiently

satisfy a number of companies/enterprises interested to take part in various sorts of

ginger processing investments in the region.

1.5 Trends of ginger production in SNNPRS

Higher and more extensive production of ginger occurs following the rise of market price

in the previous year in SNNPRS. Consequently, it tends to replace enset and permanent

cash crops including coffee and banana. Farmers were accustomed to sell-their dairy

cattle and oxen out to use them as cash source for purchasing-ginger seed. However, in

the subsequent years, it has been a common phenomenon to see a sudden fall of the price

shortly followed by a high supply, which in turn, results in a low market demand of the

production. Consequently, a total production and the size of land allotted by farmers to

12

ginger drops down at a very fast rate, especially in areas having little traditions of ginger

production (Geta and Kifle, 2011)

Currently, a sudden outbreak of bacterial wilt disease has occurred on ginger throughout

the -region showing a tendency of -complete crop loss. -Diseases have devastated all

cultivars of ginger cultivated currently in the region including the local cultivars and the

improved varieties released so far in the country. This in turn, calls for the urgency of

searching for an effective remedy so as to bring about resistant varieties and improved

disease management practices.

1.5.1 Diversity of ginger in SNNPRS

Ginger is a vegetative plant that comes from the family of Zingiberaceae. This family is

the largest family in the order of Zingiberales that include approximately 50 genera and

more than 1000 species (Rashid, et al, 2013). There is a wide variability among ginger

accessions in Ethiopia, which has an important implication for breeding ginger for yield,

morphological and quality attributes (Argaw et al, 2011). SNNPRS can be considered as

treasure house of ginger germ plasmas because there are several cultivated types of

ginger available in the region, which are generally named after the localities they are

being grown in. In line with this, farmers in SNNPRS have identified two broad groups

of ginger varieties: local and introduced, each group, in turn, comprising two varieties

with distinct morphological characteristics (Geta and Kifle, 2011). Accordingly, farmers

in Wolaita, SNNPRS, have classified the local cultivars as Masculine- and Feminine

Wolaita. Similarly, farmers in Kambata-Tambaro, identified one local cultivar known as

Hargema (Figure 1-4), which shows great resemblance with the cultivar Masculine

wolaita of Wolaita.

13

Figure 1-4: Feminine Wolaita (left), Masculine Wolaita (right)

In both administrative zones, the local cultivars have been under production since time

immemorial. However, cultivars categorized in the other group (Bilbo and Volvo

(Figure1-5)) were introduced to the area very around 1998. (Geta and Kifle, 2011). As

farmers` believe, these two cultivars have been transferred from Kacha Bira to Hadaro-

Tunto and then to Bombe area through an informal seed system of farmer-to-market-to-

farmer seed distribution mechanism. Most farmers have substituted the local cultivars

with the new introductions. Each quarter of ginger production of the region has unique

cultivars. The occurrence of variability among ginger germ plasms has an important

implication for breeding ginger for yield, morphological and quality attributes (Argaw et

al., 2011). The different characteristics/requirements of the major ginger vernaculars

currently cultivated in SNNPRS as pointed out by the farmers as presented in Table 1-5.

14

Figure 1-5: Subterranean parts of Bilbo with two tap roots (left) and Volvo with a single

tap root (right)

Some preliminary research conducted at Tepi, Ethiopia indicated that the local and exotic

ginger germ plasms showed variability in their morphological characters, fresh rhizome

yield, oil and oleoresin content (Hailemichael and Tesfaye, 2008). As can be seen from

Table 1-5, farmers also identified a lot of variations among the different cultivars for pre-

harvest requirements and postharvest characteristics as well as their distinctions in

commercial values. However, no attention so far in the region was given towards solving

the multifaceted bottlenecks of the crop to improve its productivity and quality.

Following are areas of research interventions identified for evaluating variability existing

among and within the locally introduced and released ginger varieties:

Drought tolerance

Fertilizer requirements

o Chemical fertilizers

o Organic fertilizers

Farmyard manure

Compost

Coffee- husk and pulp

o Combination of both chemical and organic fertilizers

15

Variability in indoor storability in maintaining the required quality

Variation in suitability for extended harvesting

Variation in susceptibility to mould development during wet weather drying

condition

Variation in response to dry planting

Variation in productivity per unit area

Cost analysis of root trimming

Cost analysis of harvesting

Variability in stage of maturity

Variation in suitability for fresh ginger

Analysis of variation in dry matter content

Analysis of variation in chemical composition

Analysis of variation in fiber content

Analysis in variation of pungency

Analysis of variation in oleoresin and volatile oil content

Variation in rate of drying

Analysis of quality deterioration as affected by storage duration

o Percentage of weight loss

o Percentage of oleoresin and volatile oil content

Variability for disease tolerance

Variability for seed production

o Variability for mass propagation employing tissue culture techniques

16

Table 1-5: Characteristics of different ginger vernaculars cultivated in SNNPRS

Category Vernacular Unique

characteristics

common characteristics

Local Feminine

Wolaita

Highly

palmated

rhizomes

Large sized

rhizomes

More

productive

Drought tolerant

Less fertilizer requirement

Long postharvest storability (up to 10 years)

suitable for perenniated harvesting

Less susceptible to mold development when subject to sun-drying at wet

weather condition.

More preferred to dry planting

High harvesting cost

Less productive/unit area

Large number of prominent roots

High cost of root trimming during rhizome drying

Late maturing

Less preferred for fresh rhizome market

Low dry matter content (high degree of shrinkage up on drying)

Fast rate of drying

Less attractive appearance

Much weight loss with prolonged storage period

Masculine

Wolaita

High fiber

content

Highly

pungent

Large number

of prominent

roots

(AmesaIgier)

Hargema

(Kambatigna

)

17

Introduced Bilbo

(wolaitignaa

ndKambatiga

)

One prominent

root/digitaly

palmated

rhizome

Drought tolerant

Soil exhaustive

short postharvest storability

less suitable for perenniated harvesting, dries up with extended dry season as a

result of less number of prominent roots

Highly susceptible to mold development when subject to sun-drying at wet

weather condition.

less preferred to dry planting

easy for manual harvesting; low harvesting cost

more productive/unit area

Low number of prominent roots

low cost of root trimming during rhizome drying

Early maturing

Highly preferred at fresh rhizome market

High dry matter content (less degree of shrinkage up on drying)

slow rate of drying

highly attractive appearance

High demand at the central market

Easily peeling off of the skin at frequent overturning during the process of

drying, which in turn, increases its susceptibility to mould development

Minimum weight loss up on prolonged storage period

VolVo(Wol

aitignaandKa

mbatiga)

2-3

prominent/tap

roots/digitalyp

almated

rhizomes

Relatively

highly pungent

18

On the other hand, the recommended varieties such as Yali (180/73), Boziab (37/79),

38/79, 39/79, 141/79, 180/73, 181/73, 190/73, and 305/73 from Tepi Sub Research

Center have not been introduced to the area through the formal extension system. Yali

and Boziab (Figure 1-6) were officially released in 2007. They are high yielding (200-

250 qt/ha of fresh rhizome), and are reported to be promising in satisfying international

quality parameters (high content of the essential oil, 1.8-2.5% and oleoresin, 6.01-8.22%)

of the ginger export market. The vernaculars Volvo and Bilbo (Figure 1-5), which have

been informally introduced recently to the region, need to be tested for their genetic

variability with the released varieties employing scientific method(s) of characterization

because some of them, for example, Boziab and Volvo closely resemble each other and it

is hardly possible to distinguish between them in terms of both the foliar and

subterranean morphological characters.

Figure 1-6: Released varieties of ginger: Boziab (left) and Yali (right)

They are supposed to be duplicates. In the same way, their similarity for ecological and

agronomical requirements together with other quality parameters needs to be studied.

Furthermore, attempts should be made to introduce varieties that may exceed domestic

varieties in terms of some of agronomic, socio-economic and disease/pest resistance.

Moreover, the varieties intended to be introduced should fulfill the global quality

19

standards for most of the quality parameters including appearance of the ginger rhizomes,

contents of the essential oil, oleoresin, and fiber as well as pungency, flavor and odor.

Besides, exhaustive germ plasm collection from the whole country, which is an important

tool of selection breeding, is required in order to broaden the genetic base of the crop for

further breeding and utilization.

In general, there is moderately high diversity of ginger varieties in the country, which

might serve different purposes in the ginger market if they are supported with good pre-

and postharvest management practices.

1.5.2 Climate and soil

Ginger has wider adaptability for different climatic requirements. It prefers brilliant

sunshine, heavy rain fall and high amount of relative humidity for a promising yield. Dry

spells during land preparation and before harvesting are required for large scale

cultivation. Ginger prefers warm and humid climate, with most soils that have proper

water holding capacity and aeration. The crop is sensitive to water logging, frost and

salinity and is also tolerant to wind and drought. Steep slopes in hilly areas are not

recommended for cultivation as it leads to soil erosion during heavy rainfall because

rhizome yield has negatively correlated with slope. Ginger is cultivated in the tropics

from sea level up to 1500 m altitude, but partial shade also increases its yield.

1.5.3 Temperature

The base temperature requirement for ginger is 13C and the upper limit is 32C/27C

(day/night), where as the favorable range is 19-28C. The optimum soil temperature for

germination is between 25-26C, and for growth it needs 27.5C. A temperature in excess

of 32C can cause sunburn; on the other hand, low temperatures induce dormancy. The

day and night length does not have significant variation in Ethiopia; however, in other

ginger growing countries as day length increase from 10 to 16 hours, the vegetative

growth was enhanced, while it was inhibited and rhizome swelling promoted as the day

20

length was decreased from 16 to 10 hours. Nevertheless, further increase in day length

above 16 hour did not promote rhizome swelling.

1.5.4 Soil Requirement for ginger production

Ginger prefers soils that mostly have proper water holding capacity and aeration. It also

prefers deep, sandy loam soils. The upper layer needs to be permeable. For higher yield,

the soil should be loose, friable and offer minimum resistance to rhizome development.

Well drained soil with at least 30cm depth is essential. As depth of soil increases, its

suitability for cultivation of the ginger increases. In heavy clay soils, deep plowing allows

better root penetration and free rhizome development. Stony and water logging soils need

to be avoided for ginger production. Compact clay soils, which are subject to water

logging or coarse, sands without water holding capacity, gravelly soils or those with hard

pan are not conducive for the production of high yielding healthy plants. The most

favorable soil pH is 6.0-6.5. Though ginger is grown on a wide variety of soils such as

sandy loams, black rich clay soils and lateritic soils, for optimum yield it best prefers

medium loam soils with a good supply of humus.

Most parts of ginger growing areas of the region are characterized by clay loam and

sandy loam soils, which are suitable for the production of quality ginger. However,

research needs to be conducted in the major ginger producing areas of the region in order

to have the general information on the soil properties, which in turn, will have

implications on the proper management of the soils.

1.5.5 Rainfall

Ginger is cultivated in the tropics with an annual rain fall of 1500 mm or more (up to

3000 mm) (Purseglove, 1972). A rainfall of, well distributed in 8-10 months is ideal for

ginger production. In Ethiopia, ginger is cultivated under sub optimal conditions with rain

fall often less than 1500 mm per year (Jansen, 1981). Since ginger is cultivated under rain

fed and irrigated conditions in areas that receive less rainfall, the crop needs regular

irrigation.

21

Data on physical environment for major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS is indicated in

Table 1-6. However, research is required to determine the climatic requirements for the

different ginger cultivars for an optimum yield and premium quality.

Table 1-6: Physical environment data for the major ginger growing areas of SNNPRS Wereda Area ( km2 ) Mean annual

rain fall (mm)

Mean

annual

temperature

(C)

Elevation

(masl)

Hadaro-Tunto Zuria 367.9 1201-1400 15.1-22.5 1001-3000

Kacha-Bira

Boloso Sorie 543.5 1201-1600 17.6-25 501-2500

Boloso Bombe

West Badawacho 552.8 801-1400 17.6-27.5 1501-2500

East Badawacho

Source: SNNPRS Trade and Industry Bureau statistical abstracts (1995-1999), 2000 EC.

1.6 References

1. Abeykera, WKSM, Illeperuma, CK. Amunugoda, PNRL, Wijeralasm, SW. 2005.

Composition of Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) Clones Dried at Different Temperatures

for Oil and Oleoresin Content. Sri Lankan journal of Agricultural sciences. 42:34-42

2. Argaw, M., S. Alamerew, G.H/Michael, and A. Tesfaye. 2011. Variability of Vinger

(ZingiberofficinaleRosce) Accessions for Morphological and Some Quality Traits in

Ethiopia. International Journal of Agricultural Research. 6(6): 444-457.

3. Baladin, D. A, O. Headley, L. Chang Yen, and, DR. McGaw. 1998. High Pressure Liquid

Chromatographic Analysis of the Main Pungent principles of solar dried West Indian ginger.

Rentable Energy. 13(14): 531-536

4. Bartley J, A. Jacobs 2000. Effects of drying on flavor compounds in Australian-grown ginger

(Zingiberofficinale). J. Sci. Food Agric., 80(2): 209-215.

5. BoARD (Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, SNNPRS), 2008. Unpublished data



22

8. FAO. 2013. FAOSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

RomeItaly.http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/desktopdefault.aspx?pageID=567 (September,4,

2013).

9. Geta, E., and A. Kifle. 2011. Production, Processing and Marketing of ginger in Southern

Ethiopia. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry. 3(7): 207-213

10. HailemichaelG., and K. Tesfaye. 2008. The Effects of Seed Rhizome Size on the Growth,

Yield and Economic Return of Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosce). Asian J. Plant Sci., 7: 213-

217.

11. Jansen P. C. M., 1981. Spices, Condiments and Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia, their Taxonomy

and Agricultural Significance. Wageningen PUDOC., pp. 1-132.

12. Kizhakkayi,,J. and B. Sasikumar. 2009. Variability for quality traits in a global germplaasm

collection of ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) current trends in biotechnology ginger and

pharmacy. 3(3) 254-259

13. Purseglove JW (1972). Tropical crops: Monocotyledons, 1st edition,Longman group Limited,

UK, London, pp. 52-54.

14. Rashid, K., A. B. M. Daran, A. Nezhadahmadi, K. H. B. Zainoldin, S. Azhar, S.

Efzueni.2013. The Effect of Using Gamma Rays on Morphological Characteristics of Ginger

(Zingiberofficinale) Plants.Life Science Journal. 10(1)

15. Sanwal, SK., N. Ral, J. Singh, J. Buragobala. 2010. Antioxidant Phytochemicals and

GingerolContent in Diploid and TetraploidClones of Ginger. ScienciaHorticulturae. 124:

280-285

16. Wresdiyati, T., Astawaa, M., Muchtadi, D. Nardiana, Y. 2007. Antioxidant Activity of

Ginger (ZingiberofficinaleRosccoe) Oleoresin on the Profile of Superoxide Permutase in

theKidney of Rats under Stress Condition Journal Technologi Dan Industri Pangan 8(2) 118-

122

23

2. AGRONOMY OF GINGER

Asfaw Kifle and Brihanu Sima

2.1 Pre-harvest Management of Ginger

As a pre-harvest management, ginger needs several precautions to be taken in to

consideration. These includes: land preparation, Methods of Propagation, weeding and so

on, which will be discussed in details in the sub-topics to follow.

2.1.1 Land Preparation

Plowing is necessary to prepare the land for a new crop. It improves the structure and

water holding capacity of the soil. In areas where water is limiting factor, plowing

enhances water conservation as well. Plowing the land after harvesting the previous crop

is said to improve the soil structure and water holding capacity. It also reduces soil-born

pests and diseases by exposing the soil to the sun. Deep plowing is necessary to break an

impermeable hard sub soil layer (plowing pan), remove the weeds and bring the land to

fine tilth. It also encourages root growth.

To produce high yield of ginger, the soil should be loose and friable. The mode of

preparing soil depends to a considerable extent up on climate, and the farmers must use

their judgment to choose the most suitable method. The soil should be thoroughly broken

up and pulverized with a hoe or plough and if possible harrowed afterwards; without such

improvement in tilth, the crop fails to produce good shaped rhizomes, which are desirable

for marketing and postharvest processing. Land preparation may vary with soil type,

slope and irrigation.

Most ginger growing farmers in SNNPRS start plowing the land allocated to ginger

production just at the end of the main rain season (between late September and early

24

October) after harvesting the previous crop. Plowing the same unit of land will be

repeated for about 3-5 times. The land that has been pulverized to a fine tilth at the end

of the rainy season when the soil is at moist condition will conserve its moisture until 2-3

months. Depending on the soil type and the moisture content of the soils as well as the

capacity of the farmer to use oxen power, the total number of tillage frequency ranges

between 3 and 10, with the highest frequency being more productive (Geta and Kifle,

2011)

According to Geta and Kifle (2011), plowing the land just at the end of the main rainy

season allows dry season planting of ginger. It enables early planting of the crop to take

advantage of using the total annual precipitation distributed in the growing season and the

crop will complete its normal growth cycle, which in turn, makes it more productive.

Conversely, late planting, as the result of late onset of rain, results in significant yield

reduction. However, so far, there have been no research results on the yield difference

between early dry planting (moisture conserved land) and late wet planting, the latter is

not recommended as the crop does not complete its normal growth cycle, which results in

poor yield. This also calls for additional research to be conducted.

2.1.2 Method of propagation and management of planting materials

Ginger is propagated asexually by planting pieces/portion of rhizomes, (usually 2.5 to 5

cm long, weighing 20-30 gm) which have at least one good bud. As ginger rarely sets

seed, the general mode of propagation is asexual, with a low proliferation rate (about 10-

15 buds from one plant/year). Hence, ginger improvement is mainly through introduction

and selection.

In SNNPRS, farmers have developed their own traditional management method of ginger

planting material. It involves two methods: underground storage method and indoor

storage. The former method is not a common practice, but the latter is the popular seed

management method that most farmers are practicing in the region. With the first method,

ginger rhizomes of the previous crop are kept in the ground without being harvested until

25

planting and after harvesting. Just before planting, rhizomes are cut in to pieces/sets

(Figure 2-1) of the required sizes and are immediately planted. In this case, it may take 2-

3 months for the sets of the rhizome to emerge.

Figure 2-1: Non-sprouted (left) and sprouted (right) ginger rhizome piece

This may have a negative effect on the exploitation of the growth cycle of the crop within

the season and the total rhizome yield and quality. This will also be kept as a future

research topic. The second method of propagation of sprouted rhizome pieces (Figure

2.1) involves the following steps:

rhizomes of the previous crops are harvested in November

rhizomes are cut in to pieces/sets of the required sizes (usually 2.5-5 cm

length) and are placed mostly in plastic bags

Bags containing the sets of ginger are stored in residential houses placing one

up on the other to form different layers of stratum.

After 15 days to one month storage time of cutting the rhizomes in to pieces, the cut

sets/piece tends to sprout in the bags where they are stored. Once sprouting is initiated,

dry or wet planting will take place if the onset of the rain coincides with sprouting. The

26

rate of germination of rhizomes using indoor seed storage method is found to be very fast

as it emerges in 15 days after planting.

2.1.3 Rhizome Seed size

Farmers in the SNNPRS use larger pieces/sets of ginger rhizomes (approximately larger

than the recommended range of 2.5 to 5 cm). This is in line with the recommendation

given by Hailemichael and Tesfaye, 2008, (Figure 2-2). It states that an increase in seed

rhizome size (using a rhizome seed size of 9.1 cm) will significantly increase the major

growth parameters and dry rhizome yield and using large seed rhizome was also found to

be economically profitable. The reason that some farmers use larger pieces in Wolaita

area is to re-harvest a mother rhizome, which they call Kenna, together with the

daughter rhizomes since it is economically valuable when they sell it after sun-drying

(Geta and Asfaw, 2011). However, no scientific evidence has been reported on the

quality of Kenna to be used as an input for preparing any sort of ginger products (ginger

powder, oleoresin, and volatile oil).

Figure 2-2: Recommended size of ginger rhizome piece

27

2.1.4 Seed rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting

Size of sets/cut pieces of ginger rhizome is one of the major factors that affects seed rate

in ginger. Research conducted at Tepi Agricultural Research Center (TARC) indicated

that using 25 quintals of fresh ginger rhizomes/ha at the spacing of 30 cm x 15 cm gave

higher rhizome yield. However, the recommended spacing is only possible with

mechanization. Farmers claim that the setup of the traditional plow does not allow

maintaining the suggested spacing, particularly for large scale or commercial production.

Thus, the spacing between any of the adjacent plow-made rows should be adjusted to

about 40 cm so as to tailor the size of the traditional plow to that of the recommended

spacing. By so doing, the number of population per unit area can be nearly made similar

to that of the recommended spacing.

Because of its biennial nature (7-9 months), ginger needs to be planted as early as

possible in the growing season in order that it would have sufficient time to exploit the

limited moisture which is commonly experienced in many parts of the region. In most

cases, it is customary to plant ginger in the dry months on plots of land which have been

prepared during the wet season with the objective of conserving water for dry planting.

However, to make use of the conserved water, deep planting is essential.

Long ago, Jansen (1981) reported a planting depth of 5-10 cm used for ginger production

in Ethiopia. Planting depth is one of the most limiting agronomic factors that affect

productivity of ginger. It may vary depending up on seed size, soil type and soil moisture

content. In general, bolder seeds are planted deeper and smaller seeds at a shallow depth.

As depth of planting influences the time of germination, it is necessary to plant at

optimum depth. Deep planting does not allow horizontal development of rhizomes.

Horizontal development of rhizome just beneath the soil surface has a positive correlation

with the yield and appearance of ginger rhizome.

Research conducted aiming at the effect of time of planting on the rhizome yield of

ginger indicated that planting ginger in March and April would show better growth and

28

gave better rhizome yield. However, farmers of SNNPRS especially, farmers in Wolaita

and Kambata-Tambaro prefer dry planting in December and January on the unit of lands

that have been pulverized to a fine tilth during the wet season for the purpose of moisture

conservation. Farmers declare that this joint effect of planting time associated with the

described tillage practice considerably increases productivity of ginger. In general, seed

rate/spacing, planting depth and time of planting need to be explored in order to exploit

the genetic potential of the ginger varieties.

2.1.5 Application of organic and inorganic fertilizers

To get high yields, ginger needs fertilizer. There are two groups of crop nutrients: organic

and chemical fertilizers. Farmyard manures, poultry manure and compost are three types

of organic manures that have been used in ginger production. Using organic fertilizers

results in better rhizome yield on sandy soils than on clayey soils, because it is quite

sticky. Sandy soils will not fall apart as easily as manures are added; therefore, they will

be able to hold more water.

Ginger is a soil-exhausting crop, requiring heavy fertilization. As a result, in the past,

newly cleared land was required for its production. Otherwise, dressing of manures was

necessary for good yields (Jansen, 1981). Similarly, most small-scale ginger-farmers still

have continued using farmyard manure. Some farmers have experiences of adding dry

manures in to the ground 2 to 3 months ahead of planting as fresh manure is too strong

and can damage the sprouting plants. In fact large dressing of manure is necessary for

good yields.

Since the availability of farmyard manure is restricted/scarce, it cannot support large

scale ginger production. On the other hand, the rate of its application for optimum yield

per unit area has also not been determined. In addition, farmers working with farmyard

manures complain that it is a laborious activity. To undertake large scale production

outside the homestead, the cost of transportation of farmyard manure is also very high. It

has also been mentioned that application of organic fertilizers at the level of large scale

29

production is highly time consuming task. Farmers also argue that inputs for making

compost are highly scarce and do not allow large scale commercial production.

However, some small-scale farmers in the region use compost, which is a source of

nutrient made from all kinds of organic materials such as crop residues, kitchen wastes,

garden cuttings, and manure, are used for production of ginger. Compost is especially

useful for improving the soil structure and fertility. Therefore, it supplies nutrients at the

right time in required quantities.

Coffee- pulp and husk have been the other sources of nutrients used by the farmers that

produce ginger at commercial level in some parts of the region, especially at Hadaro-

Tunto and KachaBira districts of Kambata-Tambaro zone, SNNPRS. They buy the coffee

pulp/husk from the wet and/or dry coffee processing companies operating in their vicinity

and even from the neighboring weredas, and they transport it to their farms using rented

or self-owned cars when they anticipate high market demand for their ginger product. In

most cases, they supply the coffee pulp to the farmers to apply on their own land holdings

ahead of ginger planting in order that both parties would have mutual benefit on a given

traditional shareholding agreement. Both parties believe that application of coffee

husk/pulp alone or in mixture with industrial fertilizers, as a nutrient source for ginger

production incredibly increases productivity of ginger. However, the correct proportion

of combination of both nutrient sources for optimum yield/quality need to be defined.

Although the price of chemical fertilizers is high and chemical fertilizers do not improve

the soil structure (but enrich the soil by adding nutrients).Some farmers producing ginger

at commercial level use DAP when they expect good yield and prices. DAP is commonly

used chemical fertilizer. Formerly, almost all farmers did not use UREA for ginger

production as they claim that UREA dries the soils. Time of application is variable

with season of planting. For example, during dry planting, farmers do not apply chemical

fertilizers. They apply the fertilizer by broadcasting approximately 3-4.5 months of

planting during the third weeding/cultivation at the rate of approximately 100 kg/ha when

the rhizomes are emerged. However, farmers do not use chemical fertilizers in small

scale cultivation, when prices are fluctuating. Research is required to determine the

30

correct type, rate and time of application of the chemical fertilizers for the optimum

yield/quality as well as to analyze the economic aspect of fertilizer application. In India

farmers apply manure 25-30 tons/ha or apply compost at planting, and N 36, P, 16, and K

66 kg/ha (Jansen, 1981). The recommended rate of chemical fertilizers at Tepi research

center for an optimum yield of ginger was 375 kg/ha urea and 175kg/ha DAP.

2.1.6 Weeding/Cultivation of ginger

Ginger is a very vulnerable crop, which is easily affected by weed damage. Weeds

compete for light, water and nutrients resulting in a significant yield reduction. In

Ethiopia, farmers follow non-chemical weed management practices that include deep

plowing of the seed bed at the end of the rainy season and frequent cultivation/hoe using

hand tools. In Wolaita, SNNPRS, before planting ginger, farmers begin to prepare

seedbed at the end of the main rainy season (between late September and early October)

plowing the same unit of land as frequently as 3-5 times. By doing so, seeds of weeds get

exposed to the sun periodically and most of them are destroyed until dry-planting will

take place 2-3 months after land preparation in (February/January).

Cultivation commences before germination takes place in order that the soil would get

loose which may facilitate the emergence of the rhizome seeds. Cultivation frequency is

at every 15 days intervals for about 5-12 times (for the crop to be harvested in one

season) and 4-6 times (for the extended crop) which loosens soil that has crusted or

become compacted. This will bring about the free development of rhizomes. Loosening

the soil helps the absorption of rain water and supplies oxygen to the soil micro-

organisms., These micro-organisms in turn decompose organic matter and provide

nutrients for the ginger crop (Jansen, 1981).

The surface soil may become hardened after rain or irrigation. Soil stirring and earthing

up are essential as they help in enlargement of daughter rhizomes and provide adequate

aeration for roots and protect the rhizome from scale insects apart from controlling

31

weeds. The first earthling up is done at 45th

day and second at 120-135th

day. Earthing up

may be combined with hand hoeing or weeding.

2.1.7 Crop rotation and intercropping

Where ginger is grown in monoculture, crop rotation is important as ginger is a heavy

feeder. Crop rotation implies planting different crops on the field each season and only

returning the same crop after at least three growing seasons. This interrupts the life cycle

of pathogens and reduces the chance of damage by diseases or pests. In SNNPRS, crop

rotation with ginger is a common practice. However, it is not perfect rotation as it

involves crops of the same family. The crops used in the rotation include maize, taro, teff,

sweet potato, haricot bean, etc. The objective of a farmer to employ crop rotation is not

necessarily to make use of the purpose of crop rotation. Rather, it is to avoid yield

reduction that would result from repeated monocroping. Some farmers claim that it

makes no difference with employing monocroping or crop rotation if proper amount of

fertilizer (chemical and organic) is used.

In subsistent agricultural systems, farmers have established mixed cropping or

intercropping to minimize certain risks. Intercropping gives high output, maintains soil

fertility, and gives greater stability of production. Ginger in the region is usually inter- or

strip-cropped with maize, taro, haricot been or coffee. It is not unusual to observe ginger

plants growing under coffee plants withstanding the effect of light shade. Nevertheless,

the land equivalent ratio for the different crops involved and the yield difference as the

effect of direct and defused light calls for research.

2.1.8 Mulching

Mulching means covering the ground with a layer of loose material such as compost,

manure, straw, dry grass, leaves or crop residues. Green vegetation is not normally used

as it can take a long time to decompose and can attract pests and fungal diseases.

.Mulches have several effects on the soil which help to improve plant growth: enhances

32

germination, prevents washing of soil due to heavy rain and surface run off , increases

infiltration conserves moisture, regulates temperature, decreasing water loss due to

evaporation decreases evaporation, suppresses weed growth by reducing the amount of

light reaching the soil, increasing the number of micro-organisms in the top soil enhances

microbial activity and improves soil fertility by adding organic matter. Mulching changes

the physical and chemical environment of the soil resulting in increased availability of

phosphorus and potassium. The quantity of mulch applied varies with availability of

material. In general, 10 to 30ton/ha is applied twice or thrice, one at planting, second at

45th

day and third at 90th

day after planting. Commonly used mulch materials are green

and dry forest leaves, residues like sugarcane trash, wheat, finger millet barely straws and

also weeds and vegetation of the locality. Farm yard manure and compost are also used.

Banana and green forest leaves were found best. If the quantity of above materials are in

short supply, live mulches like niger, common sesbania, cluster bean, soy bean and cow

pea can be grown as intercrop and used for insitu mulching between 45-60 days after

planting. Straw mulching increased yield by 12.2% over unmulched farm. Application of

forest leaves at 20 t/ha in to two equal splits, one at planting and second at 45th

day after

planting increased yield by 200%.

Small-scale ginger growing farmers in SNNPRS mainly use plant residues of enset,

banana, maize, weeds, etc. as mulch just after dry planting of ginger has been carried out.

Mulching with plant residues is mainly employed for soil moisture retention, in case the

dry spell tends to extend.

2.2 Perennating /over seasoning and with-in season harvesting of ginger

Ginger should be harvested after the leaves have died (seven to nine months after

planting) and the ginger root has fully matured. Internal flesh color should be pale

yellow. Delaying harvesting after maturity will reduce the rhizome quality, decrease the

storage life and increase the incidence of sprouting during storage. Rhizomes are

harvested carefully by hand using a fork to lift and break the soil. Time of harvesting of

ginger depends mainly on cultivar, local demand and rhizome end use; for general

33

wholesale in local or oversea markets or to be processed for spice, oil and oleoresins.

Fresh ginger might be harvested about five months after planting. For preserved ginger,

they are usually dug up five to seven months after planting, before they are fully mature

but while they are still tender and mild.

In Ethiopia, it is not usual to harvest ginger based on the end use. In SNNRS, for dried

and fresh ginger, mature rhizome with a full aroma, flavor and pungency are harvested

after planting when the leaves begin to turn yellow or completely withered away, internal

flesh color should be pale yellow. In the SNNPRS, harvesting is usually manual usi

Ginger (Zingiber Oficinale Rosec.): Production, Postharvest Handling, Processing and Marketing - A...

Documents

Transcript of Ginger (Zingiber Oficinale Rosec.): Production, Postharvest Handling, Processing and Marketing - A...