gÌ 1 : KQ>H$ 2 {eH$mar-AÞ g§H$bH$ Am{U AmÚ …. A. I History HS 101... · 27 gÌ 1 : KQ>H$ 2...

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27 gÌ 1 : KQ>H$ 2 {eH$mar-AÞ g§H$bH$ Am{U AmÚ H¥$fr g§ñH¥$Vr 2.0 C{Ôï>o 2.1 àñVmdZm 2.2 {df` {ddoMZ 2.2.1 {d^mJ 1 : nwamí_`wJ Am{U _Ü`mí_`wJ A) nwamí_`wJ ~) _Ü`mí_`wJ 2.2.2 {d^mJ 2 : Zdmí_`wJ Am{U Vm_«nmfmU`wJ A) Zdmí_`wJ ~) Vm_«nmfmU`wJ 2.2.3 {d^mJ 3 : hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr A) ZJaaMZm d Kao ~) amOH$s` Am{U Am{W©H$ n[apñWVs H$) gm_m{OH$ Am{U Ym{_©H$ n[apñWVs 2.2.4 {d^mJ 4 : _hmí_`wJ A) g§H$ënZm Am{U {d{dY àH$ma ~) _hmamï´>mVrb _hmí_`wJrZ {eimdVw©io 2.3 gmam§e 2.4 nm[a^m{fH$ eãX 2.5 ñd`§-AÜ```Z àíZm§Mr CËVao 2.6 gamdmgmR>s ñdmÜ`m` 2.7 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>s g§X^©

Transcript of gÌ 1 : KQ>H$ 2 {eH$mar-AÞ g§H$bH$ Am{U AmÚ …. A. I History HS 101... · 27 gÌ 1 : KQ>H$ 2...

Page 1: gÌ 1 : KQ>H$ 2 {eH$mar-AÞ g§H$bH$ Am{U AmÚ …. A. I History HS 101... · 27 gÌ 1 : KQ>H$ 2 {eH$mar-AÞ g§H$bH$ Am{U AmÚ H¥$fr g§ñH¥$Vr 2.0 C{Ôï>o 2.1 àñVmdZm 2.2 {df`

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gÌ 1 : KQ>H$ 2

{eH$mar-AÞ g§H$bH$ Am{U AmÚ H¥$fr g§ñH¥$Vr

2.0 C{Ôï>o

2.1 àñVmdZm

2.2 {df` {ddoMZ

2.2.1 {d^mJ 1 : nwamí_ wJ Am{U _Ü`mí_ wJ

A) nwamí_ wJ

~) _Ü`mí_ wJ

2.2.2 {d^mJ 2 : Zdmí_ wJ Am{U Vm_«nmfmU wJ

A) Zdmí_ wJ

~) Vm_«nmfmU wJ

2.2.3 {d^mJ 3 : hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr

A) ZJaaMZm d Kao

~) amOH$s` Am{U Am{W©H$ n[apñWVs

H$) gm_m{OH$ Am{U Ym{_©H$ n[apñWVs

2.2.4 {d^mJ 4 : _hmí_ wJ

A) g§H$ënZm Am{U {d{dY àH$ma

~) _hmamï´>mVrb _hmí_ wJrZ {eimdVw©io

2.3 gmam§e

2.4 nm[a^m{fH$ eãX

2.5 ñd §-AÜ```Z àíZm§Mr CËVao

2.6 gamdmgmR>s ñdmÜ`m`

2.7 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>s g§X ©

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2.0 C{Ôï>oo

`m àH$aUmV Amnë`mbm bjmV oB©b H$s-

* àmJ¡{Vhmg AWdm Aí_ wJ åhUOo H$m`? `m wJmVrb _mZdmMo EH§$Xa OrdZ H$go hmoVo?

* B{Vhmgnyd© H$mi/Vm_«nmfmU wJ åhUOo H$m`?

* hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMr H$moUVr d¡{eîQ>çoo hmoVs?

* _hmí_ wJrZ g§ñH¥$Vr åhUOo H$m`?

2.1 àñVmdZm $:

àmJ¡{Vhm{gH$ (Prehistoric) H$mi åhUOo _mZdmÀ`m B{VhmgmVrb àma§ rMm H$mbI§S>. `m H$mimg

"Aí_ wJ' (Stone Age) Agohs åh§Q>bo OmVo. `m wJm_Ü o nwamí_ wJ, _Ü`mí_ wJ Am{U Zdmí_ wJ ho

CnH$mbI§S> oVmV. `mVrb Zdmí_ wJrZ H$mbI§S> hm EH$ H«$m§VrH$mar H$mbI§S> hmo . `mZ§Va XJS>r hË`mam§Mr

OmJm YmVy (Vm§~o) KoVmV. Ë`mM~amo~a ^maVmVrb n{hbsdm{hbs IoS>s CX`mg oVmV. hs IoS>r AmÚ eoVH$è`m§Zr

dgdbobr AgVmV. `mg "Vm_«nmfmU wJ' Ago åhUVmV. `m wJmV, ^maV^a Oar IoS>r Agbr Var ^maVmÀ`m

dm`ì` ^mJmVrb H$mhr IoS>r àM§S> {dH${gV hmoVmV. ^maVmV n{hbsdm{hbs ZJa CX`mg oVmV. `m ZmJar

g§ñH¥$Vsg "hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr' Ago åhQ>>bo OmVo. hm ^maVmMm B{Vhmgnyd© H$mbI§S> hmo . Aem `m Vm_«nmfmU wJmÀ`m

èhmgmZ§Va Amnë`mg_moa bmoh V§ÌkmZmMr OmU Agbobs EH$ AmJisdoJis g§ñH¥$Vs CX`mg oVo. `mbm

"_hmí_ wJrZ g§ñH¥$Vr' Ago åhUVmV. `m "_hmí_ wJmÀ`m' eodQ>r X»IZ_Ü o gmVdmhZ KamÊ`mMr ñWmnZm

hmoVo.

2.2 {df` {ddoMZ :

àmJ¡{Vhm{gH$ H$mimVrb _mZd hm {eH$mar Am{U AÞ g§J«mhH$ hmoVm. {deofV: nwamí_ wJm_Ü o Am{U

_Ü`mí_ wJm_Ü o Aer n[apñWVr hmoVr. `m XmoZ wJmVrb _mZdr OrdZ H$go hmoVo Vo `m ^mJmV nhmd`mMo Amho.

2.2.1 {d^mJ 1 : nwamí_ wJ Am{U _Ü`mí_ wJ

(A) nwamí_ wJ :

nwd©nwamí_ wJrZ H$mimV Oar ~arMer O{_Z ~\$m©ÀN>m{XV Agbr Var- oWo _moR>çm à_mUmda O§§Jbo

{XgyZ oVmV. `m H$mimVrb _mZd hËVr, amZQ>r ~¡b, åh¡g, J|S>m Aem _moR>çm àmÊ`m§Mr {eH$ma H$aVmZm

{XgVmo. nwT>o CËVanwamí_ wJm_Ü o O§Jbmà_mUoM JdVmi nÅ>`m§Mohr AmH$f©U dmT>bobo {XgVo. `m H$mimVrb

_mZd AmVm _moR>çm àmÊ`m§~amo~aM ZrbJm`r, harU Aem bhmZ àmÊ`m§Mr {eH$ma H$é bmJVmo.

`m _mZdmÀ`m dgmhVrMo Adeof {d{dY {R>H$mUr gmnS>bobo AmhoV. Ago {XgVo H$s hm _mZd Jwho_Ü o

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VgoM CKS>çmda ahmV hmoVm. VgoM, hm H$ƒm _mbmÀ`m _w~bH$VoÀ`m {R>H$mUr ahmVmZm {XgVmo.

hË`mao : àmJ¡{Vhm{gH$ _mZdmZo hË`mam§gmR>r _w»`Ëdo XJS>m§Mm dmna Ho$bm. Ë`mÀ`m {dH$mgm~amo~aM

hË`mam§_Ü ohr {dH$mg hmoV Jobobm {XgyZ oVmo. Ogoo, nyd©nwamí_ wJmV ñWm{ZH$ {R>H$mUr {_iUmè`m XJS>m§Mm

VgoM JmoQ>çm§Mm (Pebbles) dmna H$éZ VmoS>hË`mao (Chopping Tools) d {N>bŠ`m§nmgyZ hmVHw$èhmS>r

(Hand-axe) V`ma Ho$ë`m OmV hmoË`m. Va, _Ü`nwamí_ wJmV {N>bŠ`m§Mm (Flakes) Am{U nwT>o CËVanwamí_ wJmV

hË`mam§gmR>r XJS>r nmË`m§Mm (Blades) dmna Ho$bm OmV Ago. `mgmR>r Ë`mZo _w»`Ëdoo {H«$ßQ>mo {H«$ñQ>bmB©Z

{g{b{g`g (Crpto Crystaline Silicious) XJS>mMm dmna Ho$bm.

g_mOOrdZ, amhUr_mZ dJ¡ao : EH§$XarV `m H$mimVrb _mZd hm nyU©nUo ^Q>H$m AgyZ, _w»`Ëdo

{eH$ma d AÞ-g§H$bZ-_mgo_mar hoM Ë`mMo Cn{O{dHo$Mo gmYZ hmoVo. gwédmVrÀ`m H$mimV hm J|S>m, hËVr Ago

_moR>o àmUr, nwT>o nwT>o ~¡b, aoS>m d eodQ>r eodQ>r O§Jbr damh, qMH$mam, ZrbJm`, haUm§gma»`m doJdmZ Am{U

N>moQ>çm àmÊ`m§Mr Vmo {eH$ma H$é bmJbobm {XgVmo. Ë`mÀ`m AmhmamV H$mgd, _mgo `m§Mmhs g_mdoe {XgyZ

oVmo. Va _Y, \$io, _yi§, ~r`m, nmZ§ B. Mm Vmo ImÊ`mgmR>r g§J«h H$asV Ago. `m{R>H$mUs EH$ bjmV KoVbo

nm{hOo H$s nwamí_ wJrZ _mZdm§_Ü o {eH$marnojm, H§$X_wio Am{U \$io Jmoim H$aÊ`mda ^a Agmdm. Ë`mMà_mUo

AmhmamMm {dMma H$aVm Ago {XgVo H$s hm _mZd Amnbo g§gmYZ nyU©nUo g§ndyZ Q>mH$sV Zgmdm. Vmo g^modVmbÀ`m

^mJmVrb H$mhs ^mJ amIyZ R>odV Agmdm. Ë`mÀ`m AmdmgmMm {dMma H$aVm Ago {XgVo H$s hm _mZd ^Q>H$m

Oar Agbm Var Vmo-WmoS>çm H$mimgmR>r H$m AgoZm H$mhr à_mUmV Amnë`m {Zdmè`mMmhr {dMma H$é bmJbobm

Amho. hþUgJr (H$mZm©Q>H$) `m {R>H$mUs J«°ZmB©Q>À`m XJS>m§Zr doT>bobr EH$ A§S>mH¥$Vr Mmonbobr O{_Z {_imbobr

Amho. VgoM ^r_~oQ>H$m (_Ü` àXoe) `m {R>H$mUr Jwho_Ü o XJS>m§Mr EH$ ^r¨V {_imbobr Amho. VgoM H$mhr

{R>H$mUs Vmo \$m§Úm,JdV,nmZ§§, ~m§~y `m§Mm dmna H$éZ PmonS>çmhr ~m§YV Agmdm Ago {XgVo. `mdéZ `m

wJmVrb _mZd H$mhr H$mimgmR>r H$m AgoZm amhÊ`mgmR>r Kam§Mo à`moJ H$asV hmoVm Ago {XgVo.

`m H$mimVrb _mZdmÀ`m Ym_s©H$ lÜXm§{df`rhr Amnë`mbm H$mhr A§XmO ~m§YVm oVmo. bmoh§S>m Zmbm

(~obZ Imoao-CËVa àXoe) `m{R>H$mUs EH$ H$moabobm hmS>mMm VwH$S>m gmnS>bobm AgyZ, Ë`mbm _mV¥XodVm Ago

åhQ>bobo Amho. VgoM H$Zw©b Jwho_Ü o, EH$ {N>Ð Agbobm àmÊ`mÀ`m XmVmMm VwH$S>m gmnS>bobm Amho. hm XmV

VmB©V åhUyZ dmnabm OmV Agmdm. VgoM nmQ>Zo `m{R>H$mUr ehm_¥JmÀ`m A§S>çmnmgyZ ~Zdbobm EH$ _Ur

gmnS>bobm Amho. `m gd© dñVy nwamí_ wJrZ _mZdmÀ`m Ym{_©H$ lÜXm{df`r Amnë`mbm _m{hVr XoVmV. Ë`mMà_mUo

~mJmoa (_Ü` àXoe) `m{R>H$mUs, Mmonboë`m O{_Zrda EH$ {ÌH$moUr XJS> gmnS>bobm Amho. Aä`mgH$m§À`m _Vm

Zwgma hm EH$ {dYrMm ^mJ Agmdm. ho bjmV ¿`mdo AmOgwÜXm, `mM n[agamVrb H$mob Am{U ~¡Jm `m O_mVr

AemM àH$mao nyOm/AM©Zm H$aVmZm {XgVmV.

(~) _Ü`mí_ wJ

_Ü`mí_ wJmV àmUr, njr, PmS>§ `m§À`m àH$ma-AmH$ma Am{U àOmVr_Ü |hr n[adV©Z Ambobo {XgVo. Va

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_mZd Oar nyds©gmaImMm {eH$mar-g§J«mhH$ am{hbm Vas Ë`mÀ`m hË`mao Am{U {eH$marÀ`m V§Ìm§_Ü ohs n[adV©Z

KSy>Z Ambo. Ë`mZo doJdmZ d A{YH$ à^mdr Aem g§ wŠV hË`mam§Mm (Composite tools) _moR>çm à_mUmda

dmna gwé Ho$bm. `mgmR>r Ë`mZo _moR>çm à_mUmda gyú_móoo (microliths) ~mZ{dÊ`mg gwédmV Ho$br. `m_wio

harU g_whmgma»`m N>moQ>çm Am{U doJdmZ àmÊ`m§Mr {eH$ma H$aUo Ë`mbm gmono hmoD$ bmJbo. AWm©VM Aem

àH$maÀ`m hË`mam§Mm Ë`mbm \$ma \$m`Xm Pmbm. Ogo, hr hË`mao _w»`Ëdo g§ wŠV ñdénmMr Agë`mZo, H$moUVmhs

{d{eï> AmH$ma J¥hrV YéZ hË`mao H$aUo AmVm \$mago JaOoMo am{hbobo Zmhs. \$ŠV hr gyú_mó§ Á`m bmH$S>mV/

XJS>mV OmoS>m`Mr Amho Vo hì`m Ë`m AmH$mam§Mr Agbr H$s Pmbo. VgoM, `m H$mimVrb hË`mao hs nydunojm

dOZmZo hbH$s Agë`mZo gmo~V ~miJUo ho AmVm A{YH$ gmo rMo Pmbo. {edm` hr hË`mao VwQ>br AWdm

hadbr Var OmJÀ`m OmJr V`ma H$aUo hr gmono hmoVo. {deofV: Aem gyú_móm§Mm dmna H$éZ Ë`mZoo Amnbo

YZwYm©ar H$m¡eë` {dH${gV Ho$bo. hm _mZd _mgo nH$S>V hmoVmM AmVm nú`m§Mrhr Vmo _moR>çm à_mUmda {eH$ma

H$é bmJbm._Ü`mí_ wJrZ _mZdmÀ`m dgmhVrMm {dMma H$aVm Ago {XgyZ oVo H$s, `m H$mimVrb \$ma _moR>çm

à_mUmda dgmhVr {_imboë`m AmhoV. åhUOoM, `m H$mimVrb bmoH$g§»`m dmT>bobr {XgVo. VgoM `m H$mimVrb

_mZd hm A{YH$ {dH${gV Pmbobm AgyZ Vmo n`m©daUmda {Z §ÌU H$é bmJbobm hmoVm Ago {XgVo. åhUyZM

_Ü`mí_ wJrZ _mZdmÀ`m dgmhVr ^maV^a ngaboë`m {XgyZ oVmV. n`m©daUmdarb {Z §ÌUmMr hs {eXmoarM

nwT>o åhUOo Zdmí_ wJmV Ë`mbm eoVrMm Am{U newnmbZmMm emoY bmdÊ`mg ghmæ`H$ R>abr.

g_mOOrdZ, amhUr_mZ dJ¡ao :

`m _Ü`mí_ wJrZ H$mimV bmoH$g§»`m _moR>çm à_mUmda dmT>bobs {XgyZ oVo. Ë`m_wio, _mZdmZo nma§nm[aH$

àXoemà_mUoM ZdZì`m àXoemV nXmn©U Ho$bo d {d{dY ^m¡Jmo{bH$ n`m©daUmer-g§ñH¥$Vrer ghg§~§Y {Z_m©U

Ho$bo. hm Oar ^Q>H$m Agbm Var AënH$mimgmR>s ahmÊ`mgmR>s JwhoMm AWdm JdVmÀ`m PmonS>ç§mMm dmna H$asV

Agmdm. VgoM, Vmo EH$mM {R>H$mUr {Z`{_VnUo dgVrhr H$aVmZm {XgVmo.

Ë`mÀ`m AmhmamMm {dMma H$aVm Ago {XgVo H$s Vmo O§Jbr aoS>m, D$§Q>, J|S>m Aem _moR>çm àmÊ`m§Mr {eH$ma

H$arV Ago. {edm`, gyú_móm§À`m g§`wŠV hË`mam§_wio Vmo AmVm N>moQ>çm VgoM doJmZo YmdUmè`m àmÊ`m§Mr

{eH$ma H$é eH$bm, Ogo, h[aU g_whmVrb àmUr bm§S>Jm, H$mgd, ggo, _w§Jwg B. `m{edm` Vmo _mgo_mashr

H$asV Ago. Ë`mÀ`m AmhmamV emH$mhmamMmhs g_mdoe hmoVm. Vmo O§§Jbs H§$X_wi§, \$i§, _Y, {~`m, ImÊ`m`mo½`

JdV dJ¡aoM§ godm H$asV Ago. `m{R>H$mUs ho bjmV R>odbo nm{hOo H$s `m _mZdmbm AmVm AÞYmÝ`mMo _hËd

H$iy bmJbobo hmoVo. VgoM Vmo {H$aH$moi à_mUmV XodmUKodmU d newnmbZhr H$aVmZm {XgVmo.

_Ü`mí_ wJrZ H$bm/Jwhm{MÌo (Rock-art) :

_Ü`mí_ wJrZ _mZdmÀ`m gm_m{OH$ d gm§ñH¥${VH$ OrdZmVrb EH$ _hËdmMm ^mJ åhUOo Jwhm{MÌo hmo .

gmYmaUV: 1867-68 _Ü o ^maVr` nwamVËd ImË`mÀ`m E.gs.Eb. H$mbm©Bb `m§Zr H¡$_ya ndV©amOrVrb gmohmJrKmQ>

({O. _sPm©nya) `m{R>H$mUr Aí_ wJrZ Jwhm{M̧mMm emoY bmdbm. Ë`mnmgyZ AmOn ªV EHy$U 150 Jwhm§Mm

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emoY bmJbobm AgyZ Ë`mMr 19 JQ>m§V {d^mJUs hmoVo. `mVrb ~hþVoH$ Jwhm (3/4) `m _Ü` àXoemVsb

qdÜ`-gmVnwS>m nd©Vam§Jm_Ü oM dgboë`m AmhoV. `m_Ü o, ^s_~oQ>H$mMs (^monminmgyZ 45 {H$. _r. da)

Jwhm{M̧ hs àm{V{Z{YH$ d à{gÜX Aer AmhoV. pìh.Eg.dmH$UH$a `m§Zm 1957 _Ü o `m{R>H$mUs Jwhm{M̧

gmnS>br.

_R>nmb `m {dÛmZm§Zr oWrb {M̧mMr VrZ _w»` Q>ßß`mV {d^mJUs Ho$bobs Amho. `mVrb n{hë`m nmM

CnQ>ßß`m§_Ü o _Ü`mí_ wJrZ {M̧ {XgyZ oVmV. hs {MÌo Jwhm§À`m N>Vmda d q^Vsda H$mT>bobr AmhoV. `mgmR>s

`m _mZdmZo EHy$U 16 àH$maMo a§J AWdm a§JN>Q>m dmnaboë`m AmhoV. AWm©V nm§T>am Am{U {\$H$Q> bmb `m

a§JN>Q>m _moR>çm à_mUmda dmnaboë`m {XgyZ oVmV.Aem a§JmgmR>s Z¡g{J©H$ (ñWm{ZH$ I{ZOm§Mm) a§Jm§Mm dmna

Ho$bobm {XgyZ oVmo. `m a§Jm§_Ü o bmb (aoS> Am°ŠgmB©S>), nm§T>am (MwZIS>r), {hadm ({hadm M°ëgoS>moZr XJS>)

`m§Mm {d{dY N>Q>m§_Ü o g_mdoe hmoVmo. Ë`mZo a§J {Q>H$mdm åhUyZ ho a§J Ma~r, A§S>çmMm nm§T>am ^mJ Am{U

qS>H$m_Ü o H$mbdyZ dmnabobo {XgVmV. Va, àmÊ`m§À`m eonQ>m§nmgyZ ~«e V`ma Ho$bobo AmhoV.

Aä`mgH$m§Zr `m {M̧mdéZ {MÌH$boÀ`m EHy$U 12 e¡br AmoiIboë`m AmhoV. hs _w»`Ëdo aoIm{MÌo

AgyZ `m_Ü o Z§Va a§J ^abm OmB©. {MÌ{df`m§_Ü o _w»`Ëdo àmUs d {eH$masMo àg§J àYmZ {XgVmV. ^s_~oQ>H$m_Ü o

EHy$U 29 àmÊ`m§Mo àH$ma Aä`mgH$m§Zr AmoiIbobo AmhoV. `m_Ü o _moR>çm à_mUmda {MVi, {~~Q>çm, dmK,

hËVs, J|S>m, H$midrQ>, h[aU, amZSw>¸$a, Ima B. {d{dY àmÊ`m§Mm, Ë`m§À`m hmbMmbsgh g_mdoe H$aVm oB©b.

Ë`mà_mUo njr, _mgo, nmbs,~oSy>H$, IoH$S>m, gmis¨Xa Agohs àmUs {XgVmV. Ë`mZo, {d{dY ^m¡{_{VH$ AmH$mam§Zr

`m§Mo easa gwemo{^V Ho$bobo {XgVo.

Va {eH$marÀ`m Ñí`mV gm_w{hH$ VgoM EHo$H$Q>çmZo Ho$boë`m {eH$mas¨Ms VgoM àmÊ`m§Zm gmniçmÛmao

nH$S>Ê`mMr {M̧ AmhoV. `m_Ü o {eH$mar ho H$mi{dQ>m§Mr VgoM BVa àmÊ`m§Ms qeJo Agbobs Q>mons dmnaVmZm

{XgVmV. VgoM, `m§Zr {d{dY Ab§H$ma gwÜXm n[aYmZ Ho$bobo {XgVmV, Ogo, hma, ~m§JS>çm,H$So> B. `m§À`m

eóm§_Ü o gyú_mó§ OmoS>bobs ^mbo, YZwî`~mU,H$mR>çm, bJmoa B. Mm g_mdoe H$aVm oB©b. `mVrb H$mhr

{eH$masÀ`m àg§JmV {eH$mas gmo~Vrbm Hw$Ìr KoD$Z OmVmZm {XgVmV.

{eH$mar{edm` {d{dY hmbMmbr_Ü o àmUs {XgVmV. Ogo, JamoXa _mXr, ~N>S>çm§~amo~a IoiUmao Za-

_mXr, nú`m§À`m _mJo ~mJS>Umar h[aU§, CS>çm _maUmao ggo Am{U _mH$So>, MaUmas Jwa§ B. Ë`mM~amo~a _YmgmaIs

dÝ`CËnmXZ§ Jmoim H$aUmar Am{U _mgo_mas H$aUmar _mUgohr `m {M̧mV AmhoV. Ë`mM~amo~a, ~mimMo nmbZ-

nmofU, X\$Z{dYs Aes OrdZMH«§$ XmI{dUmarhr {M̧ AmhoV.

_Ü`mí_ wJmVrb "l_{d^mJUr' hs Amnë`mbm bjmV oVo. Amnë`mbm {XgVo H$s nwéf {eH$masMs H$m_§

H$arV AgV Va {ó`m H§$X_wi§ Am{U \$i§ Jmoim H$aUo Am{U AÞ ~Z[dÊ`mMo H$m_ H$asV AgV. `m {MÌm§déZ

_Ü`mí_ wJrZ _mZdmMr Ho$e Am{U doe yfmhr Amnë`mbm H$iyZ oVo. `m_Ü o, nwéf PmS>mMr gmb/OZmdam§Mo

H$mVS>çm§ngyZ ~Zdbobo AYmodó§ dmnaVmZm {XgVmV. Ë`m§Zr Ho$g _moH$io gmoS>bobo {XgVmV _mÌ ós`m§Zr

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Am§~mS>m ~m§Ybobm {XgVmo.

_Ü` àXoemVsb ^r_~oQ>H$mà_mUoM ^maVmV BVaÌhs Jwhm{M̧ AmT>iwZ oVmV. {deofV: Amo[agm_Yrb

gw§XaJT> Am{U g§~bnya {Oëøm§_Ü o OdiOdi 55 Jwhm gmnS>boë`m AmhoV. AWm©V `mVsb {MÌo A_yV©

ñdénmMs AgyZ, àmUs Am{U _mZd `m§Ms {M̧ A{Ve` Xw{_©i AmhoV. Ho$ai_Ysb " oPwWw Jwhm' `m{R>H$mUshs

Amnë`mbm Jwhm{M̧ {XgyZ oVmV. `m{R>H$mUs àmÊ`m§Ms {M̧ AmhoV nU _mZdmMs ZmhsV. Va _Ü` àXoem_Ysb

"OmAmoam' `m{R>H$mUs EH$ Ago A_yV© {M̧ {_imbobo Amho H$s `mdéZ _Ü`mí_ wJsZ _mZdmÀ`m {dídaMZoo~Ôb

Ñ{ï>H$moZ {XgyZ oVmo. `m{R>H$mUs Amnë`mg_moa EH$ OJ {XgV AgyZ, Ë`m_Ü o hdm,nmUs,A¾r B. aoImQ>Z§

{XgyZ oVmV.

H$mhr Aä`mgH$m§Zm Ago dmQ>Vo H$s hs {MÌo _mZdmZo {Zìdi Jwhm gmdÊ`mgmR>s H$mT>bobs ZìhVs. Va hs

{MÌo H$mT>Ê`m_mJo Ë`mMm Ym{_©H$ Ñ{ï>H$moZ Agmdm. H$maU hs {MÌo Aem Jwhm§V H$mT>bobs AgV H$s `m§Mm dmna

_mmd {Z`{_VnUo ahmÊ`mgmR>s H$aV Zgo. {edm`, ~arMer {MÌohs AJmoXaÀ`m {MÌm§da OUyH$mhs {Jadë`mgmaIs

H$mT>bobs AmhoV. Ogo, EImXm àmUr, dma§dma {Jadë`mda Vmo _moR>çm à_mUmda Amnë`mbm {_iob hs Ë`mMs

lÜXm Agmds. EH§$XasV `mdéZ Ago {XgVo H$s hm _mZd, nydunojm gm_m{OH$Ñï>çm A{YH$ ì`dpñWV Am{U

g§J{R>V Pmbobm Amho. VgoM, Ë`mZo {d{dY àH$maÀ`m CnOr{dHo$Mr _mÜ`_§ hmVmibobs AmhoV. Aem Jmoï>s¨_wioM

Vmo H$moUË`mhs n`m©daUmda {Z`§ÌU R>odÊ`mV `e {_idy eH$bm Agmdm. Am{U Ë`m_wioM Ë`mbm AmVm

AZwËnmXH$ Aem H$bm{df`m§H$So> diUo eŠ` Pmbo Agmdo.

ñd § AÜ``Z àe-1

A) `mo½` n`m© {ZdS>m.

1 ....................`m nyamí_ wJrZ ñWim§VyZ XmVmnmgyZ ~Zdbobm VmB©V {_imbobm Amho.

A) bmoh§S>m Zmbm ~) g§JUH$„ÿ H$) hþUgJs S>) ^s_~oQ>H$m

2. nmQ>Zo `m nwamí_ wJrZ ñWimVyZ {_imbobm _Us............`mnmgyZ ~Zdbobm Amho.

A) gmJar e§I ~) ehm_¥JmMo A§So> H$) AH$sH$ S>) ~¡bmMo hmS>

3. _Ü`mí_ wJmV.................`m hË`mam§Mm _moR>çm à_mUmda dmna gwé Pmbm.

A) gyú_móo ~) nmË`m§Mr hË`mao H$) VmoS>hË`mao S>) hmVHw$èhmS>s

4. ^maVr` _Ü`mí_ wJrZ Jwhm{MÌm§Mm emoY...............`m§Zr bmdbm.

A) H$mbm©B©b ~) ë w~m°H$ H$) MmB©ëS> S>) _me©b

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5. _Ü`mí_ wJrZ OrdZMH«$ XmI{dUmas {MÌo.............. oWyZ {_imbobr AmhoV.

A) ^r_~oQ>H$m ~) ~mJmoa H$) bm§KUmO S>) Zodmgo

~) WmoS>Š`mV CËVao {bhm.

1. àmJ¡{Vhm{gH$ H$mi åhUOo H$m`?

2. nwamí_ wJrZ _mZdmÀ`m {Zdmè`mMo nwamdo H$moRy>Z {_iVmV?

3. _Ü`mí_ wJmMs à_wI XmoZ d¡{eï>ço H$moUVr?

4. ^r_~oQ>H$m oWsb Jwhm{MÌo H$moUs emoYyZ H$mT>br?

5. _Ü`mí_ wJrZ OmAmoa Jwhm{MÌm§Mo d¡{eï>ç H$m`?

2.2.2 {d^mJ 2 : Zdmí_ wJ Am{U Vm_«nmfmU wJ

_Ü`mí_ wJmZ§Va, ^maVr` Aí_ wJ ho EH$m Zì`m diUmda oD$Z R>onVo. OdiOdi XmoZ-ASr>M bmI

dfmªÀ`m AZw dmMr {eXmoar `m _mZdmH$So> AgVo. `mM ~¡R>H$sda hm _mZd Zdmí_ wJmV nmoMVmo. `m wJmV ~aoM

H«$m§VrH$mas ~Xb KSy>Z oVmV. Aem H«$m§VrH$mar Zdmí_ wJmÀ`m {eXmoarda Vm_«nmfmU wJ ApñVËdmV oVo. `m

H$mimV AmÚ eoVH$as Am{U Ë`m§À`m IoS>çm§Mm CX` hmoVmo. àW_ AmnU Zdmí_ wJmMm {dMma H$é.

(A) Zdmí_ wJ

Zdmí_ wJ åhUOoM {ZAmo{b{WH$ (Neolithic) hm eãXà`moJ gd©àW_ ga Om°Z bw~m°H$ `m§Zr Amnë`m

Prehistoric Times (1865) `m J«§WmV Ho$bm. KmgyZ JwiJwisV Ho$bobr XJS>mMr hË`mam§Zm Vmo `m Zì`m

wJmMo {deof bjU _mZVmo. `m Zdmí_ wJmMr H$mhs R>iH$ bjUo hmoVs, Ogo, eoVrMm emoY, newnmbZ, pñWa

ñdénmMs dgmhV, n{hë`mdm{hë`m IoS>çm§Mm CX` BË`mXr. `m H$mhs gm§ñH¥${VH$ à{H«$`m§~amo~aM _¥Øm§S>s,

KmgyZ JwiJwisV Ho$bobs hË`mao, hmS>m§Ms hË`mao Am{U AdOmao, _m¡ë`dmZ IS>çm§Mo _Ur B. `m wJmMs R>iH$

bjUo hmoVr.

Zdmí_ wJ hm _mZdmÀ`m B{VhmgmVrb H«$m§VrH$maH$ Q>ßnm hmo . `m H$mimV Vmo eoVr H$é bmJbm Am{U Ka§

~m§YyZ pñWa hmoD$ bmJbm. Amnë`mbm eoVr Am{U newnmbZmMo n{hbod{hbo nwamdo Zdmí_ wJmnmgyZ {_iÊ`mg

gwédmV hmoVo. hs Zdmí_`wJrZ ñWio ^maVmVrb H$mhs R>am{dH$ ^mJmV dgbobr {XgyZ `oVmV, VesM Vs

Amnbs H$mhs àmXo{eH$ d¡{eï>çohs KoD$Z oVmV. Zdmí_ wJsZ _ohoaJT>_Ü o Vmo newnmbH$ Va hmoVmM {edm` Vmo

AmVm Jhÿ (VrZ OmVr¨Mm) Am{U Od (XmoZ OmVr¨Mm) {nH$dy bmJbm VgoM IOyahr CJdy bmJbm. Va amhÊ`mgmR>s

H$ÀÀ`m {dQ>m§Ms Am`VmH$ma Kao ~m§Yy bmJbm. hm _mZd gm_w{hH$ ñdénmV YmÝ` gmR>dÊ`mgmR>s {d{dY H$j

Agboë`m B_maVrhr ~m§Yy bmJbm. nwT>rb hS>ßnm H$mimVrb YmÝ`H$moR>mam§Mr hs OUy H$mhs Zm§XrM hmoVr. oWrb

àXoem§Mm `mà_mUo npíM_ Am{e`mer g§nH©$ hmoVm Ë`mMà_mUo _Ü` Am{e`merhr. Ë`m_wio, Ë`m§Zm npíM_

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Am{e`mVyZ {d{dY emoYm§Mm bm^ {_imbm Ë`mMà_mUo JìhmÀ`m eoVrMr _m{hVr _Ü` Am{e`mVyZ {_imbobs

Agmdr.

`m {R>H$mUs EH$ Jmoï> bjmV ¿`mds. Zdmí_ wJm_Ü o _mZd eoVs H$é bmJbm `mMm AW© Agm Zìho H$s Ë`mZo

nyds©Mo {eH$ma, _mgo_mas, \$io-H§$X_wio Jmoim H$aUo ho _mJ© nyU©nUo gmoS>bo hmoVo. hm _mZd Amnë`m CnOr{dHo$Mo

gd© _mJ© dmnaV hmoVm. H$maUo eoVsÀ`m VwbZoZo Xwgè`m _mJm©VyZ Ë`mbm Cƒ àVrMr àWrZ§ {_iV hmoVr.

g_mOOrdZ, amhUs_mZ dJ¡ao :

Zdmí_ wJrZ H$mí_ra_Ü`o bmoH$ W§S>snmgyZ g§ajU H$aÊ`mgmR>s JVm©dmgmV (Pit dwellings) åhUOo

O{_ZrV IÈo>/Kao H$éZ ahmV AgV (~yPm©hmo_). Va O{_Zrda `m IÈ>`mÀ`m ^modVr e§ImH¥$Vr JdVmMr

PmonS>r Agmds. nwT>o _mÌ Vmo Am`VmH¥$Vr Hw$S>m§À`m PmonS>çmV d _mVrÀ`m {dQ>m§À`m Kam§V amhÿ bmJbm. `m

_mZdmZo ~¡b, KmoS>m, eois, g_whmVsb àmUr _mUgmidbo hmoVo. `mVsb aoS>m d JmT>dmMm (KmoS>m g_wh) dmna

Vmo AmoPr dmhÊ`mgmR>s H$asV Ago. VgoM Vmo YmÝ`m§Mrhr, {H$_mZ nmoQ>mnwaVs àmW{_H$ ñdénmVsb n¡Xmg H$é

bmJbm. `m_Ü o, Jhÿ, ~mbs©, Odg `m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. `mÀ`m hË`mam§_Ü o XJS>s _mÌ A{YH$ bm§~ d

gwYmasV Aem Hw$èhmS>s, hmS>m§Ms gwYmarV AdOmao (~mUmJ«) VgoM hmd}ñQ>a Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo (Jw\$H$amb).

Ago {XgVo H$s hm _mZd Amnë`m nyd©Om§à_mUoM {d{dY g§ñH¥$Ë`m§er g§~§Y R>odyZ hmoVm. hm Ë`m§À`mer e§I, hma

`m_Ü o {d{Z_` H$aVmZm {XgVmo. ~wPm©hmo_ oWsb JVm©dmg, Va Jw\$H$amb oWsb hmd}ñQ>a Am{U Hw$Í`mMs X\$Zo

Ë`mMm MrZr Zdmí_ wJrZ bmoH$m§es g§nH©$ XmI{dVmV. VgoM, Ë`mÀ`m X\$Zm_Ü o àoVmgmo~V {_imboë`m {d{dY

dñVydéZ Ago {XgVo H$s `mÀ`m _aUmoËVa OrdZm~Ôbhr H$mhs lÜXm hmoË`m.

Va Am¾o CËVa àXoemVrb Mm¡nmZr _§S>mo oWo _Ü`mí_ wJmÀ`m eodQ>r eodQr _mZd {Z_ ^Q>H$m Agbm

Vas Vmo H$mhs H$mimgmR>s pñWa ahmV AgyZ, eoVs H$asV hmoVm. `m{R>H$mUs PmonS>çm, Mwbs, gyú_mó§, OmVr,

[a¨J ñQ>moZ Am{U hmVmda ~Zdbobr _¥Øm§S>s VgoM O§Jbs Vm§Xyi, O§Jbs Jwam~amo~aM nmisd eoiçm-_|T>çm§Mr

hmSo> {_imbobs AmhoV. Ago H$iVo H$s, eoVr Am{U newnmbZmAJmoXaM `m _mZdmZo _¥Øm§S>çm§Mm emoY bmdbobm

hmoVm. ho bjmV R>odbo nm{hOo H$s oWsb _¥Øm§S>s hr OJmVrb gdm©V n{hbr _¥Ø§mS>r AmhoV (Bgny 9-8000).

Ago {XgVo H$s hm _mZd AÞg§J«hUm~amo~aM, newnmbm Am{U WmoSr\$ma eoVr H$éZ pñWa Pmbobm hmoVm. CËVa

{~hma `m{R>H$mUr n`m©daUs` AZwHw$bVm AgyZhr, oWo VwbZoZo \$ma nwT>o (Bgny 2000-1600) Zdmí_ wJsZ

dgmhVs {Z_m©U Pmë`m. oWo gowAma, {Mam§X `m{R>H$mUs Zdmí_ wJrZ Adeof {_imbobo AmhoV. hm _mZd Jhÿ,

Vm§Xyi, Od, d>Q>mUo Am{U _gya {edm` ha^am Am{U _yJ `m§Ms bmJdS> H$asV Ago. XmoÝhr {R>H$mUr hmS>m§Mr

C„oIZr` Aes hË`mao {_imbobr AmhoV.

X{jU ^maVm_Ü o {deof n`m©daUs` AZwHw$bVm ZgVmZmhr (nmdgmMo à_mU 25 go_rnojm H$_r) C„oIZr`

Aem Zdmí_ wJrZ dgmhVr {XgyZ oVmV. `m dgmhVr S>m|Jami ^mJmV VgoM H$moaS>çm X»IZÀ`m nR>mamda

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{_imboë`m AmhoV. oWrb ZmJmOw©ZH$m|S>m, g§JUH$„ÿ `m _hËdmÀ`m dgmhVr hmoV. Vmo AmVm nyds©Mo AÞg§J«hU

~mOybm R>odyZ, eoVrgh newnmbZhs H$é bmJbobm {XgyZ oVo. AWm©V, {eH$ma Am{U _mgo_mas ho n`m© gmo~V

hmoVoM. `m{R>H$mUr ho bjmV KoVbo nm{hOo H$s `m {R>H$mUr newnmbZmMm emoY eoVrÀ`m AJmoXa bmJbobm

Amho.newnmbZmMm {dMma H$aVm, X{jU ^maVs` Zdmí_ wJmMo AmUIsZ EH$ d¡{eï>ç Amnë`mg_moa oVo. Vo

åhUOo "amIoMo {T>Jmao' (Ashmounds). `m àXoemV {H$Ë oH$ {R>H$mUs _mZdr dgmhVrnmgyZ Xya amIoMo _moR>_moR>o

{T>Jmao {XgyZ oVmV, Ogo, ~w{Yhmi, CQ>Zy>a, H$moSo>H$b Am{U Hw$nJb B. {R>H$mUs. gmYmaUV: 1830 Am{U

1840 À`m XeH$mV ho amIoMo {T>Jmao AmT>iyZ Ambo. _mÌ Ë`mdois ho {T>Jmao åhUOo Ádmbm_wIrMr amI

Agmds Ago g_Obo Jobo. nwT>o Q>r.Ooo.Ý`~moëS> `m§Zr `m {T>Jmè`m§Mo CËIZZ H$éZ ho {gÜX Ho$bo H$s, ho {T>Jmao

Z¡g{J©H$ ZgyZ _mZd{Z{_©V AmhoV. nwT>o 19 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m CËVamYm©V am°~Q>© ~«wg \«w$Q> `m§Zr "ho {T>Jmao Zdmí_ wJsZ

AgyZ, Zdmí_ wJmVrb newnmbH$m§Zr Oo eoUmMo {T>Jmao Omibo Ë`mnmgyZ ~Zbobo AmhoV' Ago {gÜX Ho$bo. nwT>o

1950 À`m Xaå`mZ Ab{MZ Am{U PwZa `m§Zr CQ>Zya oWrb amIoÀ`m {T>Jmè`mMo CËIZZ Ho$bo. Ë`m§Zr \«w$Q>

`m§À`m {dYmZmbm XwOmoam {Xbm. VgoM Ë`m§Zr ho gm§JsVbo hm Zdmí_wJrZ _mZd, \$ŠV EH$XmM Zìho Va dma§dma

eoUmMo {T>J OmiV Agmdm. VgoM, Ë`m§Zr ho hs gm§JsVbo H$s hs "dma§dma Ho$bs OmUmar EImXr H¥$Vr' `m

Zdmí_ wJrZ _mZdmÀ`m Ym_s©H$ lÜX§mH$So> ~moQ> XmIdVo.

WmoS>Š`mV, Ago {XgVo H$s hm X{jUoVrb Zdmí_ wJrZ newnmbH$ _moR>çm à_mUmda Am{U EH$m {d{eð>

{R>H$mUs eoU gmR>dyZ R>odV Ago. H$mbm§VamZo hm, ho eoUmMo {T>Jmao noQ>dyZ XoV Agmdm. H$mhr Aä`mgH$m§À`m _Vo

`m "eoUmMo {T>Jmao OmiUo' `m H¥$Vrbm H$mhs Ym{_©H$ Ame` Agy eH$Vmo d åhUyZ, AmOÀ`m hmoisÀ`m gUmMs

nyd©na§nam hs Agmds. AWm©V Am§Y« àXoem_Ü o _mÌ Ago amIoMo {T>Jmao {XgV ZmhsV. `mg§X^m©V nr.gr.d|H$Q>gw~æ`m

Ago åhUVmV H$s `m ^mJmVrb Zdmí_wJsZ _mZd _w»`Ëdo eoVH$as Agë`mZo Vmo eoUmMm dmna IV åhUyZ

H$asV Ago åhUyZ Vmo eoU OmisV Zgo.

X{jU ^maVmMo Zdmí_ wJrZ OrdZ nmhVm Ago {XgVo H$s hm _mZd nm`è`m§Ms eoVs H$éZ, Jhÿ, Hw$irW,

_yJ Am{U amJr {nH${dV hmoVm. VgoM, dOZ dmhÊ`mgmR>r VgoM Zm§Ja MmbdÊ`mgmR>s new§Mo nmbZ H$arV

hmoVm. `m{edm` {eH$ma Am{U _mgo_mar ho Ë`mÀ`m AÞd¡{dÜ`mgmR>r _hËdmMo KQ>H$ hmoVo. EH§$XasV Ago {XgVo

H$s `m _mZdmÀ`m CnOr{dHo$_Ü o eoVs, newnmbZ ho _w»` KQ>H$ AgyZ hm AmVm pñWa Pmbobm hmoVm. Agm hm

Zdmí_ wJsZ _mZd H$mhs {R>H$mUr N>moQ>çm Q>moirV ahmV Ago Va H$mhr {R>H$mUr _moR>çm. Á`m àH$maÀ`m n`m©daUmV

Vmo ahmV Ago Ë`mà_mUo Ë`mÀ`m Q>moisMm AmH$ma Ago. Vmo eoVr H$arV Ago. Ë`mMà_mUo "Cƒ à{WZm§gmR>r' Vmo

newnmbZ H$asV Ago, VgoM, {eH$ma-_mgo_mas Am{U g§H$bmhs H$asV Ago. eoVrÀ`m emoYm_wio hm _mZd AmVm

EH$mM {R>H$mUs A{YH$ H$mi amhÿ bmJbm. Ë`m_wio EH§$Xa OÝ_ Xa dmT>bobm {XgVmo Va _¥Ë w Xa H$_r Pmbobm

{XgVmo. åhUyZM WmoS>çmM H$mimV _mZdmMr bmoH$g§»`m dmT>bobr {XgyZ oVo.

WmoS>Š`mV EH$m {R>H$mUr pñWa amhÊ`mÀ`m JaOm§VyZ, `m _mZdmZo AmVm Amnë`m {ZdmgmMm J§ ranUo

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{dMma H$aÊ`mg gwédmV Ho$br. nyds© Vmo JwhoV amhV Ago VgoM JdVmÀ`m PmonS>çm ~m§YrV Ago. _mÌ hr Kao

VmËnwaË`m ñdénmMr AgV. _mÌ `m H$mimV Vmo XrK©H$mimMm {dMma H$é bmJbm. `m{R>H$mUr W§Sr àM§S> Ago

Ë`m{R>H$mUr Vmo O{_ZrV IÈ>m H$éZ amhV Ago (~yPm©hmo_). `m IÈ>çmda EH$ PmonSr ~m§YV Ago. nwT>o Vmo,

O{_Zrda \$m§Úm-JdV `m§Mm dmna H$éZ JmobH$ma PmonS>s ~m§Yy bmJbm. VgoM, `m PmonS>`m§Zm {MIbmZo qbny

bmJbm. Aem PmonS>çmMo N>V e§H$mH¥$Vr Am{U JdV/Pmdiçm§Mo Ago. nwT>o qH$dm g_§mVanUo Vmo Am`VmH¥$Vr

PmonS>çm ~m§Yy bmJbm. Va ^rVrgmR>r AmVm Vmo `m \$m§Úm-H$mR>çm§Zm {MIbmZo qbny bmJbm. nwT>o {MIbmEodOr,

H$ÀÀ`m (Z ^mOboë`m Am{U CÝhm§V dmidboë`m) {dQ>m§Mm Vmo dmna H$é bmJbm. Aes Ka§ `m H$mimV {Z_m©U

Pmbobs {XgVmV. Aem àH$mao, Zdmí`_ wJmVM AZoH$ Kam§Mo EH$ Jmd {Z_m©U hmoD$ bmJbo. `m Jmdm_Ü o

doJdoJiçm H$m_m§gmR>s doJdoJiçm OmJm {Z_m©U hmoD$ bmJë`m, Ogo, àmUs nmiÊ`mMs OmJm, àmUs MaÊ`mMs

OmJm, àmUs _maÊ`mMs OmJm, CÚmoJmÀ`m OmJm, eoUm§Mo {T>Jmao gmR>{dÊ`mMs OmJm B. VgoM, `m JmdmV

g_whmÀ`m JaOm ^mJ{dÊ`mgmR>s H$mhs gm_w{hH$ B_maVshs ~m§Yë`m OmD$ bmJë`m, Ogo, YmÝ`H$moR>ma (_ohoaJT>).

OoWo H$moR>ma V`ma hmoVo VoWo byQ>Ê`mMshs {^Vs AgVo. Ë`m_wio Aem Jmdm§Zm AmVm VQ>~§Xshs oD$ bmJbs.

Aem g_wh§m_Ü o qbJmda AmYmabobo EH$ loUr{d^mOZhs {XgyZ oVo. nyds© nwéf {eH$ma H$asV Ago Va

{ó`m \$io-H§$X g§H$bZmMo H$m_ H$asV AgV. `mVyZM, {Z[ajUm§VyZ {ó`m§Zm {ZgJ©MH«$mMs _m{hVs Pmbs.

Am{U `m _m{hVrVyZ {ó`m§Zr eoVsMo à`moJ H$aÊ`mg gwédmV Ho$bs Agmds. Ë`m_wioM Zdmí_ wJm_Ü o {ó`m§Zr

eoVrMr Am{U eoVrCËnmXZmÀ`m à{H«$ o_Ü o gh^mJ KoVbobm {XgyZ oVmo. Amnë`mbm ho bjmV oVo H$s eoVsMo

CËnmXZ Am{U gmR>nmMs JaO `mVyZ _mVsÀ`m ^m§S>ç§mMr JaO {Z_m©U Pmbs. Ë`m_wio ho hs H$m © {ó`m H$asV

Agmì`mV. Va nwéf, _mJsb H$mimà_mUo Q>moiçm O_dyZ {eH$ma Am{U _mgo_mas H$arV Ago.

nyds© hm _mZd VmËnwaVr hË`mao ~Z{dV Ago Ë`mMà_mUo Amnë`m AÞmMm WmoS>çmM H$mimgmR>s {dMma

H$asV Ago. _mÌ `m H$mimV _mZd pñWa Pmë`mZo Ë`mÀ`m gd`rV ~Xb Pmbobm {XgyZ oVmo. Vmo A{YH$ H$mi

{Q>H$Vrb Aes hË`mao ~Zdy bmJbm. Ë`mMà_mUo Vmo XsK©H$mimgmR>s AÞ gmR>dyZ R>oD$ bmJbm. `mVyZM "^m§S>s'

V`ma H$aÊ`m_Ü o {dH$mg {XgyZ oVmo.

AmnU ho nm{hbo H$s `m Zdmí_ wJsZ _mZdmÀ`m H$mhs Ym_s©H$ lÜXm hmoË`m. ho "eoUHw$Q>m§À`m dma§dma

OmiÊ`mÀ`m' {dYsdéZ {XgVo. H$mhr {R>H$mUr gmnS>boë`m _mV¥XodVm Ë`m§À`m X¡dVH$ënZoH$So> {ZX}e H$aVo.

VgoM `m _mZdmÀ`m H$mhs "gm_w{hH$ CËgdmMo' g§Ho$Vhs Amnë`mbm {_iVmV. Ogo, nÔæ`m `m§Zm "~w{Yhmi' oWo

EH$ Mmonbobs O{_Z {Xgbr. Ë`mda gmnS>boë`m Adeofm§déZ, Ë`m§Zr Ago åhQ>bo H$s hr OmJm åhUOo EH$

"àmUs _maÊ`mMr' gm_w{hH$ OmJm Agmdr. `m{R>H$mUs EH$m {d{eð> {Xdes Zdmí_ wJrZ g_mO Jmoim hmoV

Agmdm. `m Mmonboë`m O{_Zrda àmUr _mabo OmV Agmdo. Z§Va, ho _§mg gdmª_Ü o dmQy>Z KoVbo OmV Agmdo.

VgoM, Zdmí_ wJrZ _mZdmÀ`m "_aUmoËVa OrdZm~m~V' H$ënZm {dH${gV Pmboë`m hmoË`m. åhUyZM, `m

H$mimVsb X\$Zm§_Ü o "àoVmgmo~V (Ë`mÀ`m nwT>sb àdmgmÀ`m gmo rgmR>r) dñVy' R>odë`m OmD$ bmJë`m. Aem

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X\$Zm§Mo VgoM Ë`m_mJsb g§H$ënZm§_Ü o {d{dY àH$ma AmT>iyZ oVmV. _ohoaJT>gma»`m {R>H$mUs àoVmbm, X\$Z

H$aÊ`mAJmoXa bmb a§Jm§Zo a§Jdbo OmV hmoVo. Va ~wPm©hmo_ oWo _mZdmbm àmÊ`m~amo~a X\$Z Ho$bo OmV hmoVo.

H$mhr {R>H$mUs "gm_w{hH$ X\$Z' {XgyZ oVmV. H$Xm{MV H$moUË`m Vas gmWsÀ`m amoJm§_Ü o `m§Mm _¥Ë w Pmbm

Agmdm qH$dm hs _¥V _mUg§ EH$mM ^mdH$sVsb AgmdsV.

Agm hm _mZd {dH${gV hmoV hmoVmM. Ë`mMà_mUo `mMo Amnë`m eoOmarb Vm_«nmfmU`wJrZ VgoM

_Ü`mí_ wJrZ _mZdmerhr g§~§Y AgmdoV. Vmo, `m g§ñH¥$Vr¨er XodmUKodmU H$arV Agmdm.

Amnë`mbm ho bjmV oB©b H$s Aem `m Zdmí_ wJrZ _mZdmZo ^maVmÀ`m nwT>rb {dH$mgmMr {Xem {ZpíMV

Ho$br. `m H$mimÀ`m dmaí`mda nwT>o hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMm CX` Pmbm. nwT>rb {d^mJmV ho nhmd`mMo Amho.

(~) Vm_«nmfmU wJ :

Á`m H$mimVrb _mZd Vm§ã`mgh Aí_hË`maohr dmnaV hmoVm Ë`m H$mimg "Vm_«nmfmU`wJ' Ago åhUVmV.

^maVs` Vm_«nmfmU `wJmbm "AmÚ eoVH$è`m§Mo' `wJ Ago åh§Q>bo OmVo. hm H$mi gmYmaUV: Bgdr gZ nyd©

3000 Vo Bgdr gZ nyd© 700 Agm T>mo~i_mZmZo gm§JVm `oB©b. gmYmaUV: Zdmí_`wJmZ§Va ^maVm_Ü`o

Vm_«nmfmU`wJ AdVabo. `m H$mimV gd©Ì AmÚ eoVH$è`m§Mr IoS>s {Z_m©U Pmbobr hmoVr. `mVrb qgYw-

gañdVr Imoè`mVrb IoS>çm§Zr VwbZoZo A{YH$ {dH$mg Ho$bm. `mVyZ `m Imoè`mV EH$ ZmJar ñdénmMr

"hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vs' {Z_m©U Pmbr.

^maVmÀ`m ^m¡Jmo{bH$ {d{dYVo_wio, oWo Vm_«nmfmU wJmÀ`m {d{dY Cng§ñH¥$Vrhr {Z_m©U Pmë`m, Ogo,

amOñWmZ_Yrb AmhmS>/~Zmg g§ñH¥$Vr; _midm (npíM_ _Ü`àXoe) oWrb àW_ H$m`Wm, nwT>o AmhmS> Z§§Va

_midm g§ñH¥$Vr; _hmamï´>mVrb Omod} g§ñH¥$Vs B. Va CËVa H$mZm©Q>H$m_Ü o Zdmí_ wJ ho Vm_«nmfmUm~amo~a Zm§XVmZm

{XgVo. `m gd© g§ñH¥$Vr XodmUKodmUrÀ`m g§~§YmZoo EH$_oH$m§er OmoS>>boë`m hmoË`m. `m{R>H$mUr AmnU _hmamï´>mVrb

Vm_«nmfmU wJmMs {deofH$éZ _m{hVr KoUma AmhmoV.

_hmamï´>mVsb Vm_«nmfmU wJ :

_hmamï´>mVrb Vm_«nmfmU wJmMo Adeof ho Vmnr, JmoXmdar, ^r_m ZXrÀ`m Imoè`mV {_imbobo AmhoV.

`m_Ü o àH$me, Xm`_m~mX, BZm_Jmd hs _moR>s ñWi§ Va Omod}, Zm{eH$, Zoodmgm, H$dR>o, dmiH$s, gmoZJmd,

Mm§Xmobs Aes N>moQ>s ñWi§ Amnë`mbm {XgyZ oVmV. `m _hmamï´>mVrb Vm_«nmfmU wJmMoo EHy$U nmM CnH$mbI§S>

nS>VmV, gmdiXm g§ñH¥$Vr, CËVa hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr, _midm g§ñH¥$Vs, Omod} g§ñH¥$Vs, CËVa Omod} g§ñH¥$Vr.

gmdiXm g§ñH¥$Vr (Bgdr gZ nyd© 2500-2200) hr _w»`Ëdo Vmnr-JmoXmdar ZXrÀ`m Imoè`mV CX`mg

Ambr Am{U {dH${gV Pmbs. Xm`_m~mX ho `mH$mimVrb EH$ {dH${gV IoSo> hmo . oWrb bmoH$ _mVrÀ`m

{dQ>m§Zr ~Zdboë`m Mm¡H$moZr KamV ahmV. CËV_ Mmonbobr O{_Z Am{U JdVmZo emH$mabobo N>V Aem ñdénmMr

hr Ka§ AgV. EH$Ì Hw$Qw>§~nÜXVr Agë`mZo, `m Kam§_Ü o EH$mnojm A{YH$ Imoë`m AmT>iyZ oVmV. `m H$mimVrb

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VwbZZo gmÜ`m dgmhVrVrb bmoH$ _mÌ IÈ>çmVrb N>moQ>çm PmonS>çm§_Ü o ahmV AgV. AWm©V Aem PmonS>çm `m

\$ŠV gmR>dUyH$sgmR>r AgyZ, Iam dmda hr A§JUmVM Ago. `m H$mimVrb bmoH$ pñWa eoVH$ar AgyZ, Jhÿ,

~mbs©, dmQ>mUm, {d{dY S>mis {nH$dV AgV. ho bmoH$ CËV_ H$mamJrahr hmoVo. H$miçm a§JmZo {MVmabobs bmb

_S>H$s ho ~ZdV AgV. `m _S>Š`mda {d{dY {MÌo, Zjs H$mT>bobr Ago. ho XJS>mMo nmQ>m-da§dQ>m ~ZdV.

Vm§~o/H$mñ`mÀ`m A§JR>çm, H$mZ}[b`Z, AJoQ>À`m _Ê`m B. Am yfU§ Vo ~ZdV. _mÌ haUm§Mr hmS§> dmnéZ,

Ë`m§Zr _moR>çm à_mUmda hmS>m§À`m hË`mam§Mm dmna Ho$bobm {XgyZ oVmo. ho bmoH$, hmS>m§Ms ~mUmJ« Agbobo ~mU

dmnéZ {eH$mahr H$arV AgV. VgoM _mgo_marhr H$arV AgV. `m§À`m _S>Š`m§da, _mgo Am{U _Ëñ`~mUm§Ms

{M̧ AmT>iVmV.

nwT>o CËVa hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VsMo bmoH$ (Bgdr gZ nyd© 2200-2000), JwOamV_mJ} _hmamï´>mV Ambo. `m§Zr

{Z`moOZ~ÜX dgmhVrMr gwédmV Ho$br. Amnë`m dgmhVtZm _mVrMr VQ>~§Xr ~m§YyZ gwa{jV Ho$bo. VgoM nwamÀ`m

nmÊ`mnmgyZ dmMÊ`mgmR>r ZXrbm ~m§Yhr KmVbm. ho {d{dY Imoë`m Agbobr, _moR>r Kao ~m§YyZ ahmV AgV.

`mVrb H$mhs Imoë`m \$ŠV YmÝ` gmR>{dÊ`mgmR>s, H$mhr OZmdam§Mm JmoR>m åhUyZ Cn`moJr AmUbr OmV AgV.

`mVrb H$mhr _moR>çm Hw$Qw>§~m§Zr Amnë`m gwa{jVVogmR>s ñdV§Ì VQ>~§Xrhr ~m§Ybobr hmoVs. ho CËV_ eoVH$ar

hmoVoM. ho bmH$S>r Z§mJamÀ`m _XVrZo Jhÿ, ~mbs©, _gya, dmQ>mUo, Vsi, ^mOrnmbm, \$io {nH$drV AgV.

eoVs~amo~aM newnmbZ, {eH$ma, _mgo_mar ho {d{dY n`m© hr hmVmibo OmV. ho Jwam§~amo~aM eoi`m-_|T>çm§Mohr

nmbZ H$arV. Va {eH$masgmR>s hasU, ZrbJm`, ggo ho {deof AmdS>rMo àmUs hmoV. {edm` `m§Zm H$mamJrarMohr

CËV_ -kmZ hmoVo. Ë`m_wioM, `m H$mimVrb Xm`_m~mX oWyZ H$mñ`mMr JmS>rdmZmgh ~¡bJmS>s, hËVs, amZJdm,

J|S>m Aer CËH¥$ð> {eën§ {_imbobr AmhoV. `m bmoH$m§Mr X\$Z§ dgVrnmgyZ Xya AgV. `m§Mr dgmhV hr _w»`Ëdo

Vmnr ZXrÀ`m Imoè`mVM am{hbr.

Ë`mZ§Va, _Ü`àXoemVyZ _midm g§ñH¥$VsMo bmoH$ `m Imoè`m§_Ü o Ambo (Bgdr gZ nyd© 1700-1400).

ho AJXs ^r_m ZXrÀ`m Imoè`mn ªV _hmamï´>mV ngabobo hmoVo. `m g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü o _hmamï´>mZo g_¥ÜXr nm{hbr.

oWrb eoVH$ar _mVrÀ`m {dQ>m§Zr ~Zdboë`m _moR>çm Am`VmH¥$Vr Kam§_Ü o ahmV AgV. `m§Mr Ka§ hs {Z`moOZ~ÜX

hmoVr. eoVr ho à_wI AmhmamMo gmYZ. Ë`m_Ü o Jhÿ, ~mbs©, dmQ>mUm, Vri B. d¡{dÜ`nyU© nrH$ hr {nH${dV.

eoVr~amo~aM `m§Mr H$mamJrarhr d¡{eï>çnyU© Aes hmoVs. ho {d{dY àH$maMr bmb _S>H$s ~ZdV. Ë`m§da H$miçm

a§JmV {d{dY {MÌo H$mT>sV AgV. `m§À`m {MÌm§_Ü o ^m¡{_{VH$ AmH¥$Ë`m§~amo~aM, {d{dY àmÊ`m§Mrhr {M̧

AmT>iVmV. Ogo, harU, ~¡b, Hw$Ìm, gwga, gaSo> B. _m§gmhmamgmR>s haUmMo _m§g ho A{YH$ ng§VrMo Ë`mV

Ë`m§Mr hmS§>hr Q>UH$. `m§Mm dmna eó§ V`ma H$aÊ`mgmR>s hmoVmo. Ë`m_wio `mÀ`m _S>Š`m§da haUm§Mr {MÌo _moR>çm

à_mUmda AmT>iVmV. EH$m _S>Š`mda, EH$m nwéfmg_moa {d{dY àmUs Z_«nUo C o AmhoV Ago EH$ {MÌ Amho.

`mdéZ, `m§À`m Ym{_©H$ OrdZmV "newnVs'Mo nyOZ hmoV Agmdo Agm EH$ g§Ho$V {_iVmo. `m§À`m _w»` dgmhVt_Ü o

àH$me (Vmnr Imoao) Xm`_m~mX (JmoXm Imoao) Am{U BZm_Jmd (^r_mImoao) `m ñWim§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo.

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nwT>o, _mJrb _midm g§ñH¥$Vr Am{U CËVa H$Zm©Q>H$mVrb Zdmí_ wJrZ - Vm_«nmfmU wJrZ g§ñH¥$Vr¨À`m

ghg§~§YmVyZ, Omod} g§ñH¥$VrMm CX` Pmbm (Bgdr gZ nyd© 1400-1200). `m g§ñH¥$VrVrb bmoH$ EH$Ì

Hw$Qw>§~nÜXVrV ahmV AgV. `m§Mr {Z`moOZ~ÜX Aes _moR>_moR>r Am`VmH¥$Vr Kao hmoVr. `m~amo~aM Mm¡H$moZr

Am{U JmobmH$ma Aer Ka§hr ~m§Ybr OmV. Aem Kam§À`m Amois AgV Am{U `m Amois_YyZ OmUmar dmQ>hr

hmoVr. `m§À`m Kam§_Ü o EH$mnojm A{YH$ Imoë`m {XgyZ oVmV. `mVrb ñd §nmH$Kam_Ü o Mwbr~amo~aM O{_Zr_Ü o

YmÝ`mMo ~iX Ago Va gmR>nmgmR>r H$UJrhr Ago. KamÀ`m O{_Zr~amo~aM, A§JUgwÜXm AJXr MmonyZ V`ma

Ho$bobo Ago. `m A§JUm_Ü ohr ~iX Ago VgoM _moR>o MwbmUo Ago.gmYmaUV: dgmhVrMm _w»` hm JmdmÀ`m

_Ü`^mJr ahmV Ago. `m _w»`mMo Kahr _moR>o Am{U {Z`moOZ~ÜX Ago hmoVo. `mÀ`m KamOdiM EH$ YmÝ`mMo

H$moR>mahr hmoVo. åhUOoM `m _w»`mMo gd© dgmhVrÀ`m AW©H$maUmda EH$àH$mao {Z §ÌU hmoVo. åhUyZM `mMo

X\$Zhr, BVam§À`m X\$Zmnojm doJio Ho$bobo {XgyZ oVo. `m _w»`mÀ`m KamOdiM gwIdñVy bmoH$ ahmVmZm

{XgVmV. ho bmoH$ CËV_ à{WZ wŠV Amhma KoV AgV. `mÀ`mnmgyZ H$mhr Xya, ~mH$s¨À`m bmoH$m§Mr Ka§, VwbZoZo

{ZH¥$ð> ñdénmMr {XgyZ oVmV. `m_Ü o Hw$§ mamMo, _UrH$mamMr, ImQ>H$mMs Aer Ka§ {XgyZ oVmV.

`m H$mimVrb bmoH$ _w»`Ëdo eoVr H$asV. ObqgMZmgmR>r, BZm_Jmd_Yrb bmoH$m§Zr, KmoS>ZXrMo A{V[aŠV

nmUs, H$mbì`mÛmao EH$m VbmdmV gmR>dyZ R>odbobo hmoVo. Ë`m§Zm g_m§Va Agm XJS>_mVsMm ~m§Yhs KmVbobm

hmoVm. nmÊ`mÀ`m `m ~ma_mhr gmo r_wio, ho bmoH$ aã~r Am{U I[a\$ Aem XmoÝhr h§Jm_mV eoVr H$arV AgV.

oWo Jhÿ, Ádmas, ~mOar, gmVy, dQ>mUo, Hw$isW B.nrHo$ KoVbr OmV. H$mhr doim, _w»` dgmhVrnmgwZ gwnrH$

O{_Z Oa Xya Agob Va Aemdois `m bmoH$m§Zr h§Jm_r dgË`mhr Cä`m Ho$boë`m AmhoV. Ogo BZm_JmdMo bmoH$

g§J_mdarb dmiH$sbm oV AgV. ~¡bmÀ`m hmS>mMm Zm§Ja dmnéZ ho eoVr H$arV AgV. WmoS>Š`mV `m H$mimV

eoVrVyZ ^aKmog CËnmXZ H$mT>bo OmD$ bmJbo. eoVr~amo~aM Jwao, eoiçm-_|T>çm, Sw>H$a§, H$m|~S>çm§Mo nmbZ Ho$bo

OmB©. VgoM {eH$ma Am{U _mgo_mar ho n`m©`hr hmoVoM. eoVrÀ`m {dH$mgm_wio, H$mamJsar Am{U {d{Z_`hr

{dH${gV Pmbobm {XgVmo. _w»`Ëdo gmYZo/hË`mao hr JmaoÀ`m XJS>m§Mr Ho$bs OmV. "_S>H$s' OrdZe¡brVrb

_hËdmMo gmYZ Agë`mZo, Hw$§ maH$bm A{Ve` {dH${gV Pmbobs {XgVo. Xm`_m~X_Ü o _moR>çm Hw$§ mamÀ`m

^Å>`m {_imboë`m AmhoV. bhmZ dmQ>½`mnmgyZ gmR>nmÀ`m _moR>çm am§OUmn ªV, `m _S>Š`m§_Ü o {d{dYVm oVo.

H$miçm a§Jm_Ü o {MVmaboë`m {MÌm§_Ü o, nma§nm[aH$ ^m¡{_{VH$ AmH¥$Ë`m§à_mUo, _mZdmÀ`m AZww d{dídmVrb

dZñnVr Am{U àmÊ`m§Mmhr g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m g_mOmV Vm§ã`mV H$m_ H$aUmao Vm§~Q> hmoVo, gmoZma hmoVo, _UrH$ma

hmoVo, VgoM MwZm V`ma H$aUmao hr hmoVo. ho bmoH$ Vm§ã`m_Ü o Hw$èhmS>r, {N>Þs, Ji, Ab§H$ma, _Ur V`ma

H$aÊ`mgmR>r {Ja{_Q>o, gmoZmaH$m_mMo {M_Q>o V`ma H$arV AgV. VgoM gmoÝ`mMo _Us, H$U©\w$b§ Aer Am yfU§hr

V`ma H$arV. `m§Mo H$moH$U, gm¡amï´>mVyZ,H$mZm©Q>H$ B. ^mJm§er ghg§~§Y hmoVo. H$S>do dmb, gmJar _mgo H$moH$UmVyZ,

gm¡amï´>mVyZ e§I Va H$Zm©Q>H$mVyZ gmoZo oV Ago. "_mV¥XodVobm' `m§À`m Ym{_©H$ OrdZmV _hËdmMo ñWmZ hmoVo.

Aem {eamo{dhrZ _mV¥XodVoÀ`m _wVs© BZm_Jmdm_Ü o {_imboë`m AmhoV. Ë`mMà_mUo "~¡bmMo' hr nyOZ Ho$bo

OmV Agmdo. hr na§nam AJXr hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrnmgyZ {XgVo. X\$Zm§Mm {dMma H$aVm, `m H$mimVrb _mZdmda

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H$Zm©Q>H$mVrb Zdmí_ wJrZ-Vm_«nmfmU wJrZ g§ñH¥$VrMm à^md {XgyZ oVmo. `m§Mm _aUmoËVa OrdZmda {dídmg

AgyZ, _¥Vm§Zm Kam§_Ü o AWdm KamOdiM nwabo OmV Ago. _¥V _wbm§Mo Vo, Vm|So> Owi{dboë`m ^m§S>çm_Ü o X\$Z

H$arV. Va àm¡T> _¥Vm§Mo, EH$m IÈ>`mV X{jUoH$So> nm` H$éZ, CVmUo R>odyZ X\$Z Ho$bo OmV Ago. BZm_Jmd _Ü o

Aem àm¡T> _¥V§mMo nm` KmoQ>çmnmgyZ VmoS>bobo AmhoV. _mÌ oWrb _w[I`mÀ`m X\$ZmV doJionUm {XgyZ oVmo.

`mbm EH$m _moR>çm am§OUmV Ü`mZñW ñdénmV ~gdbobo Amho. VgoM `mMo nm` VmoS>bobo ZmhrV. Aem _¥Vm§~amo~aM,

Ë`mMm nwT>rb àdmg gwIH$a ìhmdm `mgmR>r {d{dY ^m§S>çm_Ü o AÞ, nmUr, {d{dY dñVyhr R>odë`m OmV.

nwT>o _hmamï´>mVrb hdm_mZ ho eoVrgmR>r à{VHy$b Pmbo; nmD$g H$_r Pmbm Am{U hdm_mZ ho A{YH$ H$moaSo>

Pmbo. ñdm^m{dH$M `m§Mr Am{W©H$ n[añWVr T>mgibr. bmoH$g§»`mhr H$_r Pmbr. `m H$mimbm CËVa Omod}

H$mbI§S> Ago åhUVmV (Bgny 1200-900). BZm_Jmdgma»`m {R>H$mUr Amnë`mbm AmVm N>moQ>çm N>moQ>çm

PmonS>çm {XgyZ oVmV. `m§À`m_Ü o H$moUË`mhr ñdénmMr {Z`moOZ~ÜXVm {XgyZ oV Zmhr. PmonS>çmhr h§Jm_r

ñdénmÀ`m {XgVmV. `m§À`m ^m§S>çm§Mm, hË`mam§Mm XOm©hr ImbmdVmo. Aem n[apñWVrV EH$m OmJr [ñWa H$éZ

eoVr H$arV amhUo `m bmoH$m§gmR>r AeŠ` ~ZVo. Vo newnmbZmH$So> diVmV. ~¡b, Jm`r gma»`m _moR>çm OZmdam§Zm

nmUr OmñV bmJV Agë`mZo, `m§Zr, eoiçm-_|T>çmMo nmbZ H$éZ, {Z_^Q>H$s OrdZe¡br pñdH$mabr. Ë`m§À`m

Amhmam_Ü o hr eoiçm-_|T>çm§Mo à_mU A{YH$ Amho. VgoM {eH$ma, _mgo_marMo à_mUhr dmT>bo. `m H$mimV

haUm§À`m {eH$masMo à_mUhr dmT>bobo {XgVo. _mÌ Aemhr n[apñWVsV Ym{_©H$ na§namMo nmbZ nyds©à_mUoM Ho$bo

OmV Ago. AWm©V, ñW¡ mgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmè`m ~m~r {e„H$ Z am{hë`mZo, `m H$mimV ho bmoH$ AÞmÀ`m

emoYmV ^Q>Hy$ bmJbo. `mdoir Ë`m§Mm _hmí_ wJrZ bmoH$m§er g§nH©$ oD$ bmJVmo.

Vm_«nmfmU wJmMr R>iH$ bjUo : Aem `m Vm_«nmfmU wJrZ IoS>çmVrb g§ñH¥$VtMr H$mhr R>iH$

bjUo nwT>sbà_mUo _m§S>Vm oVrb. ho Am`VmH¥$Vr/Jmob Aem Hw$S>mÀ`m VgoM _mVrÀ`m {dQ>m§Zr ~Zdboë`m

Kam§_Ü o ahmV. `m Kam§_Ü o EH$mnojm A{YH$ Imoë`mhr AgV. ì`dpñWV Mmonbobr O{_Z Am{U emH$mabobo

N>V ho _w»` bjU. ho bmoH$ eoVr~amo~aM, newnmbZ, {eH$ma Am{U _mgo_mar Ago CnOr{dHo$Mo doJdoJio

n`m© hmVmiV. eoVr hr hmS>m§À`m /bmH$S>mMm Zm§Ja dmnéZ, ObqgMZmÀ`m doJdoJiçm `moOZm am~dyZ Ho$br

OmV Ago. `m§À`m newnmbZm_Ü o Jwam§Mm g_mdoe hm àm_w»`mZo hmoVm. _mÌ `mdoir hdm_mZ à{VHy$b Pmbo

Ë`mdoir `m§Zr eoi`m-_|T>çm§Zm nmim`bm _moR>çm à_mUmda gwédmV Ho$br. `m§Zr Vm§ã`mÀ`m H$mamJrarV {dH$mgmdñWm

JmR>bobr hmoVr. Vo Vm§ã`mMr VgoM Vm§ã`mÀ`m {_l YmVyMr hË`mao/gmYZo dmnarV. AWm©V amOñWmZ dJiVm,

BVa àm§VmV Vm§~o Xw{_©i Agë`mZo, _mJrb H$mimVrb XJS>r nmË`m§nmgyZ ~Z{dbobr hË`mao A{YH$ àMmamV

hmoVr. VgoM hmS>m§Mr hË`maohr dmnaV AgV. _mVrÀ`m ^m§S>çm§Zm X¡Z§{XZ OrdZm_Ü o _hËdmMo ñWmZ Agë`mZo,

JwUdËVm Am{U d¡{dÜ` {XgyZ oVo. gmYmaUV: ho "H$miçm a§JmZo {M{ÌV bmb ^m§S>r' dmnaV AgV. AWm©V

`m§À`m_Ü o g§ñH¥$Vr{Zhm` d¡{dÜ` OmUdVo. ho H$mhr dñVy§_Ü o {d{Z_`hr H$arV AgV. `m§Mm EH$_oH$m§es,

{deofV: eoOmarb Cng§ñH¥$Vrer ghg§~§Y Ago. ho ney Am{U _mV¥XodVoMo nyOH$ hmoVo. VgoM `m§Mm _aUmoËVa

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OrdZmda {dídmg hmoVm. Ë`m_wio _¥Vm§Mo eŠ`Vmo Kam§_Ü oM qH$dm KamOdi, {d{dY dñVy§gh X\$Z Ho$bo OmB©.

ñd§ AÜ``Z àíZ - 2

A) `mo½` n`m© {ZdS>m.

1. {ZAmo{b{WH$ (Zdmí_ wJ) hm eãXà`moJ............`m§oZr gd©àW_ Ho$bm.

A) bw~m°H$ ~) _me©b H$) pìhba S>) bwH$mg

2. ............. oWyZ Zdmí_ wJrZ _mVrÀ`m ^m§S>çm§Mo n{hbodm{hbo Adeof {_iVmV.

A) Mm¡nmZr _§S>mo ~) ~yPm©hmo_ H$) CQ>Zya S>) Omod}

3. .........`m{R>H$mUs Zdmí_ wJrZ "àmUs _maÊ`mMr' gm_w{hH$ OmJm {_imbobr Amho.

A) ~w{Yhmi ~) CQ>Zya H$) ZmerH$ S>) ~hmi

4. Vm_«nmfmU wJrZ H$mbdm Am{U ~m§Y................`m{R>H$mUs {_imbobo Amho.

A) BZm_Jmd ~) Zodmgm H$) Mm§Xmobr S>) Xm`_m~mX

5. Vm_«nmfmU wJm_Ü o gmoZo...............`m{R>H$mUmhÿZ AmUbo OmB©.

A) H$Zm©Q>H$ ~) gm¡amï´> H$) H$moH$U S>) ~§Jmb

~) WmoS>Š`mV CËVao Úm.

1. Zdmí_ wJmVrb H$moUVo Adeof ho ^maVmMm MrZr Zdmí_ wJmer g§nH©$ XmI{dVmV?

2. Xm`_m~mX oWyZ$H$mñ`mMo H$moUVo Adeof {_imbobo AmhoV?

3. _hmamï´>r` Vm_«nmfmU wJm_Ü o H$moUH$moUVo CnH$mbI§S> nS>VmV?

4. BZm_Jmdm_Yrb bmoH$m§Zr ObqgMZmgmR>r H$moUË`m Cnm``moOZm Ho$boë`m hmoË`m?

5. Vm_«nmfmU wJm_Ü o H$moUË`m ñdénmMr ^m§S>s dmnabr OmV?

2.2.3 {d^mJ 3 : hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr

AmnU ho nm{hbo H$s Vm_«nmfmU wJm_Ü o ^maV^a {d{dY Cng§ñH¥$Vr {XgyZ oVmV. "AmÚ eoVH$ar d

IoS>r' ho gd©gmYmaU d¡{eï>` `m wJmMo {XgyZ oVo. `mVrb qgYw-gañdVr ZÚm§À`m Imoè`mVrb IoS>çm§Mm

{d{dY H$maUm§Zr {dH$mg Pmbm `m {R>H$mUr ^maVmVrb n{hbr ZJa§ {Z_m©U Pmbr-EH$ ZmJar g§ñH¥$Vr {dH${gV

Pmbr. `m g§ñH¥$VrMo n{hbodm{hbo Adeof hS>ßnm `m {R>H$mUmhÿZ {_imbo. åhUyZ `m g§ñH¥$Vrg "hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr'

Ago åhUVmV. gmÜ`m IoS>çmnmgyZ Vo {dH${gV àM§S> ehamn ªV Am{U nwÝhm èhmgmn ªV, OdiOdi AS>rM-

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VrZ hOma df} àdmg Ho$bobr hr EH$ gm§ñH¥${VH$ à{H«$`m hmoVr. `m à{H«$ oMr gwédmV hr Zdmí_ wJm_Ü o Pmbr

(Bgny 8000 Vo 4000). nwT>o hr à{H«$`m nyd© hS>ßnm H$mi (Bgny 4000 Vo 2600)-{dH${gV hS>ßnm H$mi (Bgny

2600 Vo 1800)-CËVa hS>ßnm H$mi (Bgny 1800 À`m nwT>o) Aem {d{dY Q>ßß`mVyZ CbJS>VmZm {XgVo.

AmVmn ªV hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMr OdiOdi 2000 ñWi§ gmnS>bobs AmhoV. gd©gmYmaUV: hs g§ñH¥$Vr nyd©

A\$Jm{UñVmZ, nyd© nm{H$ñVmZ Am{U npíM_/dm`ì` ^maV `m {dñV¥V joÌmV ngabobr AgyZ, S>m|Jami ^mJ,

_¡XmZr ^mJ, ZÚm§Mr Imoar, dmid§Q>, g_wÐ{H$Zmam B. gd© àmH¥${VH$ d¡{eï>çm§V dgbobr AmhoV. Ago Agbo

Var `m§À`mV Amnë`mbm EoŠ` {XgyZ oVo. ho EoŠ` {XgVo, EH$g_Zm {bnsV, dOZ-_mnm§V, {eŠŠ §mV, à_mU~ÜX

{dQ>m§V (4:2:1), gw{Z`mo{OV ZJaaMZm§VyZ, EH$g_mZ Vm§~o Am{U H$mñ`m§À`m {d{dY AdOmao Am{U gmYZm§VyZ

_¥Øm§S>çm§À`m Am{U Ë`m§À`mdarb {MÌm§À`m EH$énVoVyZ. _mohoZOmooXmS>mo, hS>ßnm (nm{H$ñVmZ); H$mbs~§JZ

(amOñWmZ); amIrJT>r, ^raamUm (h[a`mUm); bmoWb,Ymobmdram (JwOamV); Xm`_m~mX (_hmamï´>) B. _hËdmÀ`m

eham§Mm `m g§ñH¥$VrV g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m g§ñH¥$VrMr d¡{eîQ>ço {VÀ`m {dH${gV AdñWoV n[anyU© hmoVmV. Vr

nwT>sbà_mUo:

(A) ZJaaMZm d Kao :

hS>ßnm: hS>ßnm (nm{H$ñVmZ) ho {R>H$mU amdr ZXrÀ`m S>mì`m {H$Zmè`mda dgbobo Amho. `m ZJamMo

~mbo{H$ëë`mMm ^mJ (Citadel) d bmoH$dñVrMm ^mJ (Lower Town) Ago XmoZ ^mJ nS>VmV. ZJaaMZoMm

{dMma H$aVm, `m ZJamMr, _w»` C§MdQ> mda VQ>~§Xr Agbobm ~mbo{H$„m, ~mbo{H$ëë`mÀ`m dm`ì obm H$m_Jmam§À`m

Mmir d YmÝ` Hw$Q>m`Mr OmJm, Va `m OmJoÀ`m OdiM CËVaog ZXrbJV YmÝ` H$moR>mao Am{U ~mbo{H$ë`mÀ`m

X{jUog H$~añWmZ Aer aMZm {XgyZ oVoµ Va ~mbo{H$ëë`mVrb Kam§Mm {dMma H$aVm, EH$ Mm¡H$mZr A§JU

Am{U Ë`mÀ`m Mmahr ~mOybm Imoë`m§Mr aMZm {XgyZ oVo. VgoM, H$mhr Kam§_Ü o Va OdiOdi 12 Imoë`m

{XgyZ oVmV. `mhrnojm _moRr Kao AmT>ibobr AgyZ, `m_Ü o ñd §nmH$Ka VgoM em¡Mmb`m§Mr gmo H$aÊ`mV

Ambobr hmoVr. H$mhr YZmT>çm§À`m Kam§_Ü o ñdV§Ì ObVaU VbmdmMrhr gmo hmoVr. oWrb Kam§Mo XadmOooo

Aé§X Jëë`m§_Ü o CKS>V AgV. oWrb Kam§À`m aMZm§déZ oWrb gm_m{OH$-Am{W©H$ oXmMohr g§Ho$V {_iVmV.

Va, bmoH$dñVrÀ`m ^mJmV, Kam§~amo~aM, H$mamJram§À`m H$m ©emim Am{U XwH$mZo hr hmoVr, Ogo, Hw$§ mam§À`m

^Å>`m, a§Jmè`m§Mo Hw$§S>, YmVw_Ü o H$m_ H$aUmè`m§À`m, e§I-qenë`m§Mo Ab§H$ma H$aUmè`m§Mo VgoM _UrH$mam§Mr.

_mohoZOmooXS>mo : _mohoZOmoXS>mo (nm{H$ñVmZ) ho qgYw ZXrÀ`m H$mR>r dgbobo eha hmoVo. ho eha ho XmoZ

^mJmV dgbobo hmoVo, ~mbo{H$ëë`mMm ^mJ d bmoH$dñVrMm ^mJ. `mVrb ~mbo{H$ëë`mÀ`m ^mJmV, _hmñZmZJ¥h,

{VÀ`m npíM_og YmÝ`mMo H$moR>ma, Va ~mbo{H$ëë`mÀ`m X{jUog EH$ g^mJ¥h AgyZ gd© EH$m VQ>~§XrZo doT>bobo

AmhoV. Va bmoH$dñVrMm ^mJ CËVa-X{jUog 1070 _r. Va nyd©-npíM_ 685 _r. Agm ngabobm Amho.

`m_Ü o añVo CËVa-X{jU OmUmao AgyZ, EH$_oH$m§§Zm ì`dpñWV H$mQ>H$moZmV N>oXVmV. `mVrb _moR>m añVm hm

H$_rVH$_r 10 \y$Q> é§X Amhoµ oWrb Kao hr ^mOrd drQ>m§Mr ~m§Ybobr AgyZ, `m_Ü o A§JU d A§JUm^modVr

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4-6 amhÊ`mÀ`m Imoë`m, ~mWé_ VgoM ñd §nmH$Ka Aer aMZm {XgyZ oVo. `mVrb EH$m _moR>çm KamV Va

OdiOdi 30 Imoë`m AmhoV Va H$mhr Ka§ Xw_ObrgwÜXm AmhoV. nmUrnwadR>çmgmR>s gmYmaU Kam§_Ü o {d{harMr

gmo Ho$bobr {XgVo. `m bmoH$dñVrÀ`m ^mJmg _mÌ VQ>~§XrMr gmo AmT>iyZ oV Zmhr.

H$mbr~§JZ : gÜ`m H$moaS>r nS>boë`m gañdVrÀ`m {H$Zmar H$mbr~§JZ (amOñWmZ) ho eha dg{dbo Jobo.

ho eha ~mbo{H$„m d bmoH$dñVrMm ^mJ Aem XmoZ ^mJmV dgbobo Amho. oWrb ~mbo{H$ëë`mÀ`m X{jU

^mJmV _mVrÀ`m {dQ>m§Zr ~m§Yboë`m OmoË §mda A¾rdoXs ~m§Yboë`m AmhoV. OdiM EH$ {d{ha d A§KmoisgmR>s

C§MdQ>o Ho$bobo AmhoV. AWm©VM, ñZmZ d Ë`mZ§§Va nyOmnmR> H$aÊ`mMr hs OmJm Agmdr. Va, bmoH$dñVrMm

^mJhr (240 _r. ny-n x 360 _r.C-X) VQ>~§XrZoo ~§{XñV AgyZ, Ë`mg npíM_og (~mbo{H$ëë`mH$So>

OmÊ`mgmR>r) d dm`ì og (ZXrH$So> OmÊ`mgmR>r) Ago XmoZ XadmOo AmhoV. oWo gm§S>nmUr dmhÿZ OmÊ`mgmR>r

CV_ ì`dñWm AgyZ, JQ>mao {dQ>m§Zr ~m§Ybobr AmhoV. oWrb añVo CËVa-X{jU d nyd©-npíM_ OmUmao AgyZ,

`mg Jëë`mVrb añVo (1.8 _r. Vo 7.2 _r. é§X) OmoS>bobo AmhoV. oWrb Kao hs, EH$ A§JU d Ë`m^modVr

~m§Yboë`m Imoë`m, Aem aMZoMr AmhoV. `m Imoë`m§Mm {dMma H$aVm Ago {XgVo H$s EH$ Imobr àmW©ZmJ¥h

åhUyZ dmnabr OmV Agmdr. Va Kam§Mr O{_Z _mVrÀ`m/_mVrÀ`m {dQ>m§Zr V`ma Ho$bobr AgyZ, H$mhr {R>H$mUr

\$aí`mhr ~gdboë`m AmhoV. VgoM Jwam§Zm Mmam ImÊ`mgmR>r d nmUs {nÊ`mgmR>s A§JUmV _mVrÀ`m {dQ>m§Mo EH$

_moR>o ^m§So> d O{_ZrV EH$ _S>Ho$ nwabobo Amho. AWm©VM, `m KamMm A§JUmV KS>Umam XadmOm hm ~¡bJmS>r

OmÊ`mBVH$m _moR>m Ho$bobm Amho.$H$mbr~§JZÀ`m ZJaaMZoMm {dMma H$aVm Ago {XgVo H$s, ~mbo{H$ëë`mMm ^mJ

d bmoH$dñVrMm ^mJ dJiVm, ~mbo{H$ëë`mÀ`m X{jUog WmoS>r Xya H$mhr Kao {XgyZ oVmV. `m§Zm H$moUË`mhr

ñdénmMo Hw$§nU ZgyZ, oWrb Kao A{Ve` gmÜ`m ñdénmMr AmhoV. oWo H$Xm{MV H$m_Jma/H${Zð> dJm©Mo bmoH$

ahmV AgmdoV.

bmoWb : bmoWb (JwOamV) ho ^moJmd ZXrÀ`m H$mR>r dgbobo AgyZ `m{R>H$mUr hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMo _hËdmMo

~§Xa hmoVo. hr ^moJmd ZXr gm~a_Vr ZXrMr EH$ CnZXr AgyZ, H±$~oÀ`m AmImVmÛmao Aa~r g_wÐmbm OmD$Z

{_iVo. ho eha XmoZ ^mJmV dgbobo AgyZ XmoKm§Zm {_iyZ EH$ g_mZ VQ>~§Xr Amho. AWm©V ~mbo{H$ëë`mMm ^mJ

hm bmoH$dñVrÀ`m ^mJmnojm doJim XmI{dÊ`mgmR>r Vmo EH$m V`ma Aem C§MdQ>çmda dgbobm Amho. oWrb

~mbo{H$ëë`mV EH$m C§MdQ>çmda (4 _r. C§M) 12 ñZmZJ¥hm§À`m am§Jm AmhoV. VgoM ñZmZmgmR>r EH$m {d{harMrhr

gmo Ho$bobr Amho. oWyZ OmUmao gm§S>nmUr nwT>o EH$Ì H$éZ EH$m _moR>çm JQ>mar_Ü o gmoS>Ê`mMr ì`dñWm Amho.

hm C§MdQ>m Ym{_©H$ Cn`moJmgmR>r dmnamV Agmdm. Va, `m ehamÀ`m npíM_og, ZXrÀ`m ~mOyZo, EH$ S>m°H$`mS©>hr

(216 _r.C -X x 36 _r. ny-n) Amho. Va ~mbo{H$ëë`mÀ`m ^mJmV, YŠŠ`mOdiM EH$ _mbmMo H$moR>ma Amho.

bmoH$dñVrÀ`m ^mJmMm {dMma H$aVm oWo CËVa X{jU OmUmao é§X ( 4 Vo 6 _r.) Ago añVo AgyZ `m§Zm

~mOyÀ`m Jëë`m§Mo añVo OmoS>bobo AmhoV. `m{R>H$mUs {d{dY H$mamJram§Mr Kao d Ë`m§À`m ^Å>`m ngaboë`m AmhoV,

Ogo, Vm§~Q>, gmoZma, _UrH$ma B.

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Ymobmdram : Ymobmdram (Vm. ~N>mD$, {O. H$ÀN>) ho JwOamV_Yrb H$ÀN>À`m dmid§Q>mVrb "Im{Xa'

ZmdmÀ`m ~oQ>mda ~gbobo Amho. Ymobmdram oWo nyd© hS>ßnm H$mimVM Am`VmH¥$Vr VQ>~§Xr wŠV ZJa C^mabo Jobo

(Q>ßnm 1). hr VQ>~§Xr é§X Aer AgyZ {hMm nm`m 11 _rQ>aMm hmoVm. Va Ka§ _mVrÀ`m {dQ>m§Zr ~m§Ybobr hmoVr.

ho bmoH$ e§I-qenbo, ñQ>oQ>mB©Q>, _m¡ë`dmZ XJS> d Vm§~o `mVyZ {d{dY dñVy V`ma H$arV AgV. nwT>rb Q>ßß`mV

(Q>ßnm 2) OgOer YmobmdramMr bmoH$g§»`m dmT>V Jobr. VgVgm ZJaaMZoV ~Xb hmoV Jobm. VQ>~§Xr VrZ

_sQ>aZo A{YH$ dmT>{dbr Jobr d {Vbm MwÝ`mMm {Jbmdm XoÊ`mV Ambm. _mVrÀ`m {dQ>m {Q>Hy$Z ahmì`mV VgoM

H$ÀN>Mm CÝhmim gwgø ìhmdm `mgmR>s oWsb Kam§Zmhr MwÝ`mMm {Jbmdm XoÊ`mV Ambm.

nwT>rb Q>ßß`mV (Q>ßnm 3 A) YmobmdramMr AmUIrZ àJVr Pmbr. m{R>H$mUs ZJaMZoV H$mhs _yb yV ~Xb

Ho$bo Jobo. `m{R>H$mUr VQ>~§Xr wŠV ~mbo{H$„m ~m§YÊ`mV Ambm. `mÀ`m CËVaobm AgUmar Kao VmoSy>Z H$mTy>Z

~mbo{H$ëë`mbm OmoSy>ZM, _mÌ VQ>~§Xr~mhoa Ago EH$ "Iwbo g^mJ¥h' (Ceremonial Ground ) {Z_m©U

H$aÊ`mV Ambo. Va ~mbo{H$ë`mÀ`m npíM_obm OmoSyZM, _mÌ ñdV§Ì VQ>~§XrMr "{Zdmgr-H$m`m©b`rZ g§Hw$b'

(Residential/cum office complex ) C^maÊ`mV Ambr. oWo _w»`Ëdo ì`mnmar àemgZmMo H$m`m©b`

Agmdo. Va, dmT>sd bmoH$g§» oMr _mJUr {dMmamV KoVm, ~mbo{H$ëë`mÀ`m CËVaog AgUmam bmoH$dñVrMm ^mJ-

1 (Middle Town) hm A{YH$ dmT>{dÊ`mV oD$Z, {VÀ`m VQ>~§XrMr _O~yVr H$aÊ`mV Ambr. m gdmªgmR>r EH$

g_Zm VQ>~§Xr AgyZ `mg Mma àdoeÛmao hmoVr. Va nmÊ`mÀ`m gmo rgmR>r Zmë`m§Zm ~m§Y KmVbo Jobo Am{U

Vbmdm§Mr _m{bH$m V`ma H$aÊ`mV Ambr. nwT>rb H$mimV (Q>ßnm 3 ~, 4) dmT>sd bmoH$g§» ogmR>s nyds©À`m

{d^mJm§À`m nyd}g bmoH$dñVr-2 (Lower Town)) hm ^mJ {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mV Ambm d Ë`m^modVrhr EH$ VQ>~§Xr

~m§Ybr Jobr. `m H$mimV YmobmdramMr - ~mbo{H$„m, Iwbo g^mJ¥h, {Zdmgr-H$m`m©b o, bmoH$dñVsMm ^mJ-1,

bmoH$dñVsMm ^mJ-2, Vbmdm§Mr _m{bH$m d àË oH$mg ñdV§Ì Am{U gdmªZm g_Zm VQ>~§Xr Aes ZJaaMZm nyU©

Pmbs. Ë`mM~amo~a `m H$mimV Ymobmdrambm yH§$nmMohr Y o$ ~gbo.nwT>o CËVa hS>ßnm H$mimV (Q>ßnm 5 Vo 7)

YmobmdramMr d¡ dembr ZJaaMZm, VoWrb ì`dñWmnZ ho g§nyU©V: H$mogibo OmD$Z ho eha AmogmS> Pmbo

(B.g.ny. 1600).

hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VsVsb _hËdmÀ`m B_maVr :

hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü o maVmMo n{hbo ZmJarH$aU KSy>Z Ambo. "gmd©O{ZH$ B_maVr' m H$moUË`mhr ZmJarH$aUmMr

_hËdmMr Ñí` Aer IyU AgVo. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVhs H$mhs gmd©O{ZH$$ B_maVr {XgyZ oVmV. _hmñZmZJ¥h :

_mohoZOmoXS>moÀ`m ~mbo{H$ëë`mVrb _hmñZmZJ¥h ho 60x 36 _r. AgyZ, _Ü`^mJr nmohÊ`mgmRr 12 x 7 _r Mm

Vbmd (3 _r Imobr) hmoVm. ho ^mOrd {dQm§Zr ~m§Ybobo Amho. `mÀ`m Vimer 2 Vo 3 _r. é§X Aer O{_Z AgyZ

nmUr {Pany Z o `mgmR>r AmVrb ~mOyZo MwÝ`mMm {Jbmdm Ho$bobm hmoVm. `m VbmdmV CVaÊ`mgmR>s nm`è`m AgyZ,

H$nSo> ~XbÊ`mgmR>r VgoM nyOm{dYs H$aÊ`mgmR>r ^modVmbr Imoë`mhr AmhoV. `mV gVV nmUrnwadR>m ìhmdm

`mgmR>s OdiM EH$ Vio Amho Va gm§S>nmÊ`mgmR>s hr ì`dñWm Amho.

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YmÝ`mMo H$moR>ma : hS>ßnm oWo ZXsÀ`m X{jUog d YmÝ`m§À`m C§MdQ>`mOdi YmÝ`H$moR>ma Amho. ho H$moR>ma

EHy$U 55 x 3 _rQ>aÀ`m joÌmV V`ma Ho$bobo Amho. m_Ü o H$moR>mam§À`m EHy$U XmoZ am§Jm AgyZ, àË oH$ am§JmV ghm

H$moR>mao (àË oH$s 15 x 6 _r.) AmhoV. `m H$moR>ma§mMm nm`m ^mOrd drQ>m§Mm AgyZ, hdm OmÊ`mgmR>r {N>Ч V`ma

Ho$bobs AmhoV. m YmÝ`H$moR>mambJVM CËVaog amdr ZXr dmhVo. Va, H$m_Jmam§À`m MmisbJVM, YmÝ` Hw$Q>Ê`mgmR>s

C§MdQ>o V`ma Ho$bobo AmhoV. EHy$U nmM nyd©npíM_ am§JmV ho C§MdQ>o AgyZ, àË oH$ am§JmV ghm C§MdQ>o AmhoV. ho

C§MdQ>o (3.5 _r ì`mgmMo) ^mOrd {dQ>m§À`m doQ>moù`m§Zr doT>bobo AgyZ, Ë`m_wio _Ü`^mJr ImobJQ> ^mJ V`ma

Pmbobm AmhoV.

amO_hmb : _mohoZOmoXS>mo oWo, _hmñZmZJ¥hmOdi amO_hbmMr EH$ bm§~ (230x 78 \y$Q>) B_maV Amho.

`m B_maVrbm VrZ ìham§So> AgyZ, g_moaM 33 Mm¡ag \w$Q>mMo A§JU ngabobo Amho. Va _w§{S>JmH$ oWo EH$ Im§~m§Mr

am§J Agbobm _moR>m _hmb hr gmnS>bobm Amho. ho Adeof amO_hmbmgma»`m B_maVrH$So> {ZX}e H$aVmV.

g^mJ¥h : _mohZoOmoXS>mo oWrb g^mJ¥h AmR> _rQ>a bm§~s é§XrMo AgyZ, ho Mma am§JmV, àË oH$s nmM Aem

20 Im§~m§Zr ~m§Ybobo Amho. ho g^mJ¥h EHy$U 750 Mm¡._r. BVŠ`m OmJoV ~m§Ybobo Amho. AgoM EH$ Ymobmdram

oWo, ~mbo{H$ëë`mbm OmoSy>ZM "Iwbo g^mJ¥h' AmT>iVo.

H$m_Jmam§À`m Mmis : hS>ßnm oWo ~mbo{H$ë`mÀ`m dm`ì og H$m_Jmam§À`m Mmis AgyZ Ë`m^modVr N>moQ>r

VQ>~§Xr Amho. `m Mmis nyd©npíM_ Aem XmoZ am§JmV dgboë`m AmhoV. `m_Ü o àË oH$ Kamg (17 x 7 _r) EH$

Imobs d A§JUmMr gmo Ho$bobs Amho.

nmÊ`mMs gmo :

gd©gmYmaUV: KamoKar AmS> ({~Znm`è`m§Mr, {nÊ`mÀ`m nmÊ`mgmR>s Cn wŠV Aer {dhsa) Amnë`mbm

{XgyZ oVmV. Ë`mM~amo~a ~mad (nm`è`m§Mr {dhsa) hs {XgyZ oVo. VgoM Ym{_©H$ ñWis, ñZmZmbm _hËd

Agë`mZo, {dhratMr gom` {XgyZ oVo. _mÌ Ymobmdram oWo Obì`dñWmnZmMm EH$ AmXe© Z_wZm {XgyZ oVmo.

Ymobmdram oWo nmÊ`mMr gX¡d qMVm AmOhr Amho. oWrb ñQ>oO 3 A À`m hS>ßnmdm{g`m§Zr `m{R>H$mUs EH$

A{^Zd H$ënZm dmñVdmV AmUbr. YmobmdramÀ`m X{jU d CËVa ~mOy§Zr nmdgmVM dmhUmao Zmbo hmoVo. `m§Zr

`m Zmë`m§Zm ~m§Y (Dam) KmbyZ `mVrb nmUr ehamV di{dbo. Ë`m§Zr ehamVrb VQ>~§Xrbm OmoSy>Z AmVë`m

~mOyg, Mmar ~mOyZr WmoS>çm WmoS>çm A§VamZo Vbmd (water reservoir) ~m§Ybobr hmoVo. Ë`m§Zr Zmë`mMo

di{dbobo nmUs `m Vbmd§À`m _m{bHo$V gmR>dyZ R>odbo d Aem arVrZo Ymobmdramg_moarb nmÊ`mMm àíZ

gmoS>{dbm.

hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb ZJaaMZoMr d¡{eï> o :

`m {R>H$mUs ehamMo XmoZ ^mJ nS>bobo hmoVo, _hËdmÀ`m ì`ŠVrgmR>s ~mbo{H$„m (Citadel) d BVa

bmoH$m§gmR>r bmoH$dñVsMm mJ (Lower Town). ho eŠ`Vmo EH$_oH$m§nmgyZ doJio d ñdV§Ì VQ>~§Xr Agbobo Ago

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hmoVo. H$mhr {R>H$mUr EH$ doJir dñVr VQ>~§XrÀ`m§ ~mhoa hs Ago. (\$ŠV Ymobmdsam_Ü o bmoH$dñVrMm ^mJµ-2

Amho). oWrb ZJaaMZm {Z`moOZ~Õ AgyZ `m{R>H$mUr ^mOŠ`m {dQm§Zr ~m§Yboë`m B_maVtMo gmd©O{ZH$ d

ImOJr Ago XmoZ ^mJ nS>VmV. `m_Yrb gmd©O{ZH$$ ñWmnË`mV _hmñZmZJ¥h, YmÝ`H$moR>mao, g^mJ¥h, ~§Xa B.Mm

g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m gmd©O{ZH$$ ñWmnË`mda nwamo{hV dJm©Mo dM©ñd hmoVo. Va, ImOJr ñWmnË`mV Mma Vo 30

Imoë`mn ªV AgUmè`m EH$/Xw_Obr Kam§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. hr Kao Mm¡ag AgyZ, _Ü`^mJr Mm¡H$ d g^modVr

Imoë`m Aer aMZm Ago. H$mhr Kam§Mo XadmOo ho ~¡bJmS>r o-Om H$é eHo$b EdT>o _moR>ohr AgV. hr Kao

añË`mÀ`m H$So>bm Oar Agbr Var Ë`m§Mr Vm|So> [h Jëë`mV KS>Umar AgV. oWrb añVo C-X- d- ny-n OmUmao

AgyZ é§X AgV. `m§Zm J„rVrb añVo {_iV AgV. oWo dmnaboë`m {dQ>m§Mo 4:2:1 (bm§~r :é§Xr : OmS>r) Ago

à_mU~ÜX AmH$ma AmhoV. `m {R>H$mUs {nÊ`mÀ`m nmÊ`mgmR>r gmYmaUV: àË oH$ KamV {d{hasMs gmo hmoVr. Va

gm§S>nmUr dmhÿZ ZoÊ`mgmR>r _mVr¨À`m {dQ>m§Mr ~m§{Yd Aer JQ>mao hmoVr. (Ymobmdram_Ü o Vbmdm§Ms _m{bH$m

Amho). `m bmoH$m§Zm EH§$Xa {eñV{à`Vm, {Z`_~ÜXVm d ñdÀN>VoMr AmdS> {XgVo. à_mU~ÜX drQ>m, gai-é§X

añVo, Cä`m AmS>ì`mg N>oXUmè`m añË`m§Zr ehamMr ~wpÜX~imÀ`m nQ>mgmaIr Ho$bobs _m§S>Us, {d{has, ñZmZJ¥h,

gm§S>nmUs ì`dpñWV dmhyZ ZoÊ`mgmR>r ~m§Yrd w mar JQ>mao d gm_y{hH$ _moR>o JQ>ma B. déZ hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMr

ZmJar OmUrd {H$Vr àIa hmoVr ho {XgyZ oVo. hr ehao nya AWdm yH§$n Aem Z¡g{J©H$ AmnËVs_wio èhmg nmdbr

AgmdrV.

(~) amOH$s` Am{U Am{W©H$ ì`dñWm :

amOH$s` ì`dñWm :

hS>ßnZ g_mOmV H$moUË`mVar àH$maMr emgZì`dñWm AgÊ`mMo g§Ho$V {_iVmV. Ago {XgVo H$s, m{R>H$mUs,

gd©gmYmaUV: VrZ àH$maMo à^mdembr dJ© {XgyZ oVmV, amÁ`H$V}, ì`mnmas Am{U nwamo{hV. qH$dm Agohs Agy

eH$Vo H$s EH$M à^mdembr dJ© ApñVËdmV Agmdm, Ogm nwamo{hV dJ©, mÀ`mH$So> darb {VÝhr gËVm Agmì`mV.

H$maU, _mohoZOmoXS>mo oWrb _hmñZmZJ¥hmOdiM YmÝ`H$moR>ma AgUo, H$mbt~JZ _Ü o ~mbo{H$ëë`m_Ü o `kdoXs

AgUo, bmoWb _Ü o `kdoXrOdi YmÝ`H$moR>ma AgUo darb ~m~tMr nwï>r H$aVmV. H$mhrhr Agbo Vas, EdT>çm

{dñV¥V àXoem_Ü o-{d{dYVm AgyZhr gm§ñH¥${VH$ EH$Vm amIyZ R>odUo ho ì`dpñWV amOH$s` ì`dñWo{edm`

AeŠ` dmQ>Vo.

Am{W©H$ ì`dñWm :

eoVr d newnmbZ :

eoVr :

hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr _w»`Ëdo ZÚm§À`m Imoè`mV {dH${gV Pmë`mZo oWrb eoVr gwnrH$ Aem ñdénmMr {XgyZ

oVo. ho, Jhÿ (XmoZ OmVr), ~m{b©, Ádmar, ~mOar, Vob~r`m, _Q>ma, dQ>mUm, Vri, _mohar (VobmgmR>s), Vm§Xyi,

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H$mnyg B. {nH${dV AgV. _mohoZOmoXS>mo_Ü o gyVr H$mnS>mMm Omo VwH$S>m {_imbobm Amho Ë`mdéZ {XgVo H$s ho

bmoH$ H$mngmÀ`m eoVr~amo~aM dómoÚmoJm_Ü ohr Jw§Vbobo hmoVo. ho eoVrgmR>r XJS>r/bmH$S>r \$mi Agbobm

bmH$S>s Zm§Ja, Iwano, N>moQ>o \$mdSo> B. AdOmao dmnaV AgV. H$mbr~§JZ oWrb nyd© hS>ßnm H$mim_Ü o EH$

Zm§Jabobo eoV AmT>ibobo AgyZ, VoWrb bmoH$ eoVrVyZ Am§VanrHo$ KoV AgV. `mdéZ hohr bjmV oVo H$s, `m

H$mimnmgyZM `m bmoH$m§Zm bmH$S>s Zm§JamMm n[aM` hmoVm.

newnmbZ :

Aem d¡{dÜ`nyU© eoVr~amo~aM, newnmbZmMmhr ì`dgm` oWo _moR>çm à_mUmda hmoVm. `m_Ü o, eoiçm,

_|T>çm, ~¡bm§~amo~aM H$m|~S>çm§Mmhr g_mdoe hmoVm. VgoM, H$mhro {R>H$mUs damh, åh¡er, hËVr, D$Q> `m§Mrhr hmSo>

{_imbobs AmhooV.

CÚmoJ :

hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr eoVràYmZ Oar Agbr Var `m{R>H$mUs {d{dY YmVy Am{U dñVy§Vrb H$mamJrar A{Ve`

C„oIZr` Aer hmoVr. `m{R>H$mUs CÚmoJ d H$mam{JarMo {deofrH$aU (Specilization) Pmbobo {XgyZ oVo.`m

g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü o _UrH$mar CÚmoJ A{Ve` {dH${gV ñdénmMm hmoVm. `m_Ü o {d{dY àH$maÀ`m XJS>m§À`m hË`mam§gh,

_m¡ë`dmZ XJS>m§Mm _Ê`m§gmR>s dmna Ho$bm OmV Ago. Ago _Ur ~ZdÊ`mgmR>s, XJS>mbm ^moHo$ nmS>Ê`mgmR>s

{S´>b, EoaU, XJS> H$mnUmas §Ì§ VgoM ^Å>`m `m§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmB©. `m_Ü o gobIS>s~amo~aM AH$sH$ (Carne-

lian) d¡Xw ©, Jmo_oX (Agate), Zrb_ (Jasper) Aem _m¡ë`dmZ IS>çm§_Ü o H$m_ Ho$bo OmV Ago. VgoM, `m

_Us¨Mm H$ƒm _mb ñWm{ZH$ ñVamda {_iV Zgo. Aem dois {d{dY àXoemVyZ doJdoJiçm àH$maMo _m¡ë`dmZ

XJS> AmUdyZ Ë`m§Mo _Ur, Am yfUo ~Z{dbr OmV. `m g§ñH¥$VrVrb bmoWb ho AH$sH$gma»`m _m¡ë`dmZ XJS>mMo

_Ur V`ma H$aÊ`mV à{gÜX hmoVo.

_UsH$mar~amo~a `m {R>H$mUr Vm§~o d H$mñ` V§ÌkmZmV Cƒ àJVr {XgyZ oVo. YmVyH$m_m_Ü o {dQ>m§À`m ^Å>`m

dmnéZ N>moQ>o \$mdSo>, gw m, Iwano, Ji, MnQ>çm Hw$èhmS>r, {N>ÝÝ`m, gwao, ^më`m§Mr Q>moHo$, ~mUm§Mr Q>moHo$, Vbdmas

(Vm§~o), àmÊ`m§À`m/ZV©H$sÀ`m _wVs© (H$m§ñ`) V`ma hmoV Ago. {edm`, YmVyMo XmoZ VwH$So> OmoSy>Z ^m§S>r ~ZdÊ`mMo

VgoM H$mñ`m§À`m _yË`m©, IoiÊ`m ~Z{dÊ`mMo AdKS> V§ÌkmZhr Ë`m§Zm AdJV hmoVo.Ë`mMà_mUo gmoÝ`m_Ü ohr

H$m_ Ho$bo OmV Ago, Ogo, _Ê`m, VmB©V, gy m, Ab§H$ma d Am yfUo B. Va Mm§XrMr ^m§S>r, Wmiçm, _Ur,

Am yfUo Bµ ~Z{dbr OmV AgV. _mohoZOmoXS>mo oWo Va Xm{JÝ`m§Mm _moR>m gmR>m {_imbobm Amho. _mohoZOmoXS>mo oWo

CËH¥$ï> Ago Vm§~o Am{U H$mñ`m§Vrb {eënH$ma {XgyZ oVmV. Va bmoWb oWo bmoH$dñVrÀ`m ^mJmV Vm§~Q>, gmoZma

B. {d{dY H$mam{Jam§Mr Kao d Ë`m§À`m ^Å>`m ngaboë`m AmhoV. Aem YmVyH$m_m~amo~a Hw$§ maH$bmhr {dH${gV

Pmbobr hmoVr. "H$miçm a§JmVrb {M{ÌV bmb m§S>r' ho hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb m§S>çm§Mm {deof àH$ma hmoVm. m_Ü o

gmR>nmÀ`m gd©gmYmaU ^m§S>çm§~amo~aM Amb§~ wŠV Wmir (Dish-on-stand), OmirXma C^Q> ^m§So>( Perfo-

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rated Jar) ho {deof C„oIZr` hmoV. `mdarb {MÌm§Mm {dMma H$aVm, OmS> aofm, nmZ§, VamOw,OmisXma H$m_,

qnnimMo PmS>, ^m¡{_{VH$ AmH$ma, _mZdr AmH$ma B. AmH¥$Ë`m {XgyZ oVmV.

`m~amo~aM MÝhþXS>mo (qgY) VgoM ~mbmH$moQ> (~bwMrñVmZ) oWrb qenë`mÀ`m dñVy (_Ur, ~«ogboQ>,

A§JR>çm, H$moard H$m_) VgoM ~m§JS>çm à{gÜX hmoË`m. VgoM, gobIS>r_Ü o {e o$ Am{U hñVrX§Vm§À`m H§$Jdo,

\$Ê`m, {eŠŠ`m§gmR>s H$moard R>moH$io, H$moaÊ`m, Q>mMÊ`m V`ma H$aUmaohr hmoVo. oWo nmWadQ> hr (XJS>m§Mr gmYZo

~Z{dUmao) AgyZ, Jmam§Mo {dio, Zm§JamMm \$mi B. eoVrMr AdOmao XJS>mnmgyZ ~ZdV. amohas d g¸$a oWyZ

MwZIS>rMm XJS> ooV AgyZ Ë`mMm dmna XJS>mMr nmVr ~ZdÊ`mgmR>r hmoV hmoVm. {edm` _mVrÀ`m Q>H$içm dmné

gyVH$m_-drUH$m_ Ho$bo OmV AgyZ hm EH$ Hw${Q>amoÚmoJ Agmdm Ago {XgVo. `mgmo~V {dQ>m ~ZdUo, Jd§S>rH$m_ B.

CÚmoJ hr _moR>çm à_mUmda MmbV AgmdoV.

H$ƒm _mb : hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr_Yrb Adeofm§_Ü o Am{U Ë`mZwf§JmZo H$ÀÀ`m _mbm_Ü o d¡{dÜ` {XgyZ

oVo. Ago {XgVo H$s Vm§~o amOñWmZÀ`m IoÌr ImUrVyZ VgoM ~bw{MñVmZ, dm`ì` gr_m^mJmVyZ; Va gmoZoo

H$mZm©Q>H$mVsb H$mobma joÌmVyZ; Mm§Xr A\$Jm{UñVZm, BamU VgoM _ogmonmoQ>o{_`m_YyZ; ergo H$mí_ra AWdm

amOñWmZ _YyZ {_idbo OmV hmoVo. Va _UrH$margmR>r d¡Xw © ~XŠemZ oWyZ; OoS> Am{U {\$amoOm _Ü` Am{e`mVyZ;

Jmo_oX gm¡amï´> oWyZ Va {en§bo JwOamVÀ`m {H$ZmanÅ>rdéZ {_idbo OmV. Va, bmHy$S> Oå_y oWyZ {_idbo OmV

Ago. hS>ßnmÀ`m H$mhr dgmhVr Aem g§gmYZmÀ`m {R>H$mUrM dgboë`m {XgyZ oVmV, Ogo ~XŠemZÀ`m n[agamVrb

emoVw©KB© Am{U ApëVZ Xono m dgmhVr. VgoM gwVH$mOoZ-S>moa gmaIr {~JaeoVr eha§ hS>ßnm Am{U _ogmonmoQ>o{_`m

`m_Yrb ì`mnmamV EH$àH$mao ì`mnmas Mm¡H$sgmaIo H$m © H$asV AgV. AWm©V, ZJam§Vrb àemgm §ÌUm `m EH§$Xa

ì`mnmar Omiçmda {Z §ÌU R>odV Ago.

ì`mnma Am{U dm{UÁ` : hS>ßnZ ZJamVrb YZmT>ç VgoM à^mdembr bmoH$m§Mr JaOm nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r

_w»`Ëdo XyaXoer ì`mnmambm àmoËgmhZ {_imbobo {XgVo. oWrb {bnrMr g_mZVm, ì`mnmamVrb dñVy§Mr {d{dYVm

d Am§Vaamï´>s`Vm `mdéZ ho {Z[íMV H$s hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr hr ì`mnmaàYmZ hmoVr. oWrb _hËdmMr ehao hS>ßnm

g§ñH¥$VrÀ`m BVa eham§~amo~aMo, ^maVmVrb Xwgè`m eham§er/g§ñH¥$Vr¨er VgoM Am{e`mVrb g§ñH¥$Vr¨er EH$m

ì`dpñWV ì`mnmar Omù`mZo/ZooQ>dH©$Zo OmoS>br Jobr hmoVr. bmoWb ho hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMo Aa~r g_wÐmH$So> KS>Umao

EH$ _hËdmMo ~§Xa hmoVo.

A. A§VJ©V ì`mnma : H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m JaOoVyZ hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMr {d{dY àXoemV H$mhr H|$Ðo {Z_m©U

Pmbr. VgoM, `m{R>H$mUr nyds©nmgyZM H$m_ H$aV AgUmar H|$Ðo XiUdiUmÀ`m gmYZm§Zr OmoS>br Jobobr {XgyZ

oVmV. `m_YyZ gmoZo (C. H$mZm©Q>H$mVyZ), Vm§~o (IoÌr: amOñWmZ), _m¡ë`dmZ XJS>m§_Ü o (_Ur V`ma H$aÊ`mgmR>r)

A°_o{WñQ> (_hmamï´>), Jmo_oX/AJoQ>, M°pëgS>moZr, A{H$H$ (gm¡amï´>) B. H$ƒm _mb {_idbm OmV Ago.

~. Am§Vaamï´>s` ì`mnma : hS>ßnmÀ`m Am§Vaamï´>s` ì`mnmamMm {dMma H$aVm _w»`Ëdo _ogmonmoQ>o{_`m Am{U

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BamUer hmoUmam ì`mnma bjmV ¿`mdm bmJVmo. _ogmonmoQ>o{_`m _Yrb gygm, D$a, {Zßnya, {H$e, Cå_m, Vob Añ_ma

Aem {R>H$mUs hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMr {e o$, dOZ-_mno, _mVrÀ`m VgoM Q>oamH$moQ>mÀ`m _wVs©, A{H$H$mMo _Ur, ZjsXma

hmSo> gmnS>bobo AmhoV. `mVrb H$mhs {eŠŠ`m§da EH$qeJs àmUr VgoM hS>ßnm {bns {_imbobr Amho. VgoM,

n{e© m/BamU oWrb \o$bH$m, ~hmarZ B. {R>H$mUshs Aem àH$maMo hS>ßnm {e o$ {_imbobo AmhoV. Va hS>ßnm

ñWim§_Ü o _mÌ _ogmonmoQ>o{_`mÀ`m dñVy H$_s à_mUmda {_imboë`m AmhoV. H$Xm{MV Ago Agmdo H$s _ogmonmoQ>o{_`m,

H$nSo>, bmoH$a, dmgmMo Vob, H$mVS>s dñVy B. gma»`m Zmed§V _mbm_Ü o ì`mnma H$asV Agë`mZo `m dñVy§Mo

Adeof {Q>H$bobo ZmhsV. _mÌ hS>ßnm ñWim§Vrb Mm§XrÀ`m dñVy Am{U H$mhr b§~mH$ma {e o$ Am{U Vm§ã`mMm

YmVyqnS> {ZpíMVM _ogmonmoQ>o{_`mH$So> ~moQ> XmI{dVmV.

H$. Am`mV d {Z`m©V : `mVrb Am`mV _mbm§Mm {dMma H$aVm Mm§Xr (A\$Jm{UñVmZ, BamU), _m¡ë`dmZ

XJS>m§_Ü o (_Ur V`ma H$aÊ`mgmR>s) d¡Xw © (~XŠemZ, BemÝ` A\$Jm{UñWmZ), Zrb_Ur (Turquise) (_Ü`

Am{e`m, BamU), OoS> (_Ü` Am{e`m) `mMm {dMma hmoVmo. Va {Z`m©Vr_Ü o _ogmonmoQ>o{_`mer hmoUmè`m ì`mnmamV

Vm§~o, gmoZo, A{H$H$, hñVsX§V, _moVr, H$mnyg, _gmë`mMo nXmW©, doJdoJiçm àH$maMo bmHy$S> Bµ Zmed§V ~m~tMm

g_mdoe hmoVmo.

S>. dOZ-_mno : ooWrb dOZ_mnm§_Ü ohr EH$ àH$maMr à_mU~ÜXVm {XgyZ oVo. `m dOZm§Mr EH$

_m{bH$m AgyZ, àW_ XwnQ>rV åhUOo 1, 2, 4, 8, 64 Aer d Z§Va 16 À`m nQ>rVrb Xe_mZ nÜXVrMr åhUOo

320, 640, 1600, 3200, 6400 Aer hmoVr. oWo bm§~s "37.6 go_s Mm EH$ \y$Q>' Aes _moOnÅ>rZo _moObr

OmV hmoVr. hr dOZ§ JmaJmoQ>r,Omñna, ñQ>oQ>mB©Q> VgoM MwZIS>rnmgyZ ~Zdbobr AgV. Va `mgmR>r Vm§ã`mMm VamOy

dmnabm OmV Ago. dOZ_mnm§Vrb Aem à_mU~ÜXVoVyZ hS>ßnm àemgZmMm {dñV¥V àXoem§darb {Z §ÌUmMm

`eñdr à`ËZ {XgyZ oVmo.

B. {e o$ d _wÐm : ì`mnmar _mbmMr h_r XoÊ`mgmR>r {eŠŠ`m§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmV hmoVm. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVyZ

OdiOdi 2000 nojm A{YH$ {e o$ {_imbobo AmhoV. ho gmYmaUV: Mm¡H$moZr AgyZ, ñQ>oQ>mB©Q>nmgyZ ~Zdbobo

AgV. ho {e o$ 1 Vo 5 go_r n ªV AmH$mamMo AgyZ, gmYmaUV: Ë`m§À`m EH$m ~mOyda {MÌ Va Xwgè`m ~mOyg

Ajao {XgVmV. àmÊ`m§À`m AmH¥$Vr¨Mm {dMma H$aVm `m_Ü o ^maVr` hËVr, aoS>m, J|S>m, dmK Am{U _w»`Ëdo

dqeS> wŠV ~¡b {XgyZ oVmV. Ë`mMà_mUo H$mhr g§ wŠV new hr {XgyZ oVmV. Va H$mhr {eŠŠ`m§da newnVr Am{U

_mV¥XodVm hr {XgyZ oVmV. H$Xm{MV Ago {e o$ Ym{_©H$ Cn`moJmgmR>s dmnabo OmV AgmdoV.

\$. dmhVwH$sMs gmYZo : hm ì`mnma {d{dY Aem gmYZm§Ûmao Ho$bm OmV Ago. `m dmhVyH$ gmYZm§V,

A§VJ©V ì`mnmamgmR>s ~¡bJmS>çm, ~¡bm§Mo Vm§So>, D$§Q> `m§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmV Ago. VgoM, Xyadarb ì`mnmamgmR>s

newnmbH$ O_mVrM _w»`Ëdo ~¡bm§Mo Vm§So> KoD$Z _mb dmhVyH$sMs H$m_§ H$arV AgV. Va gmJas ì`mnmamMm {dMma

H$aVm, _mohoZOmoXS>mo Am{U hS>ßnmÀ`m {eŠŠ`m§da OhmO, Zmdm§À`m AmH¥$Ë`m {XgVmV Va bmoWb_Ü o EH$m

OhmOmMr _mVrMr à{VH¥$Vrhr {_imbobs Amho. AWm©VM, gmJar ì`mnma `mÛmao Ho$bm OmV AgyZ npíM_

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{H$ZmanÅ>sda bmoWb, ~mbmH$moQ> gmaIr ~§Xao Va _H$amZ {H$Zmè`mda gwËH$mOoZo-S>moa (nm{H$ñVmZ Am{U BamUÀ`m

añË`mda), gwËH$mH$moh Aem Mm¡Š`m {XgVmV.

bmoWb oWrb S>m°H$`mS©>Mr gmo {deof bjUr` Amho. bmoWb (JwOamV) ho ^moJmd ZXsÀ`m H$mR>s dgbobo

AgyZ m {R>H$mUs hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VsMo _hËdmMo ~§Xa hmoVo. hs moJmd ZXs gm~a_Vr ZXrMr EH$ CnZXr AgyZ, H±$~oÀ`m

AmImVmÛmao Aa~r g_wÐmbm OmD$Z {_iVo. `m ehamÀ`m npíM_og, ZXsÀ`m ~mOyZo EH$ S>m°H$`mS©> (216 _r. C-

X x 36 _r. ny-n) Amho. ho mOrd drQ>m§À`m rVrZo (4.3 _r.C§M x 1.2 _r é§X) ~§{XñV Ho$bobo Amho. ho S>m°H$`mS©>

ZXrbm EH$m H$mbì`mZoo (7 _r. é§X) OmoS>bobo Amho.Ago {XgVo H$s ì`mnmas OhmOo hs Aa~r g_wÐ-H°$~|Mo AmImV-

gm~a_Vr-^moJmd Aem _mJm©o àdmg H$asV oV AgV. nwT>o hr OhmOo ^moJmdVr ZXrVyZ àdmg H$éZ, aVrÀ`m doir,

`mo H$mbì`mVyZ bmoWbÀ`m S>m°H$`mS©>_Ü o oD$Z Wm§~V AgV. nwT>o, S>m°H$`mS©>bm OmoSy>ZM EH$ Y¸$mhr Amho. `m

YŠŠ`mda hm _mb CVadbm OmV Ago/OhmOm§V MT>dbm OmV Ago. nwT>o AmohmoQ>rÀ`m dois hs OhmO nwÝhm H$mbdm-

^moJmd ZXr-gm~a_Vr-H±$~oMo AmImV-Aa~r g_wÐ Aer OmV AgV.

H$) gm_m{OH$ Am{U Ym{_©H$ n[apñWVs

gm_m{OH$ n[apñWVs :

A. gm_m{OH$ oX : hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr hr EH$ ZmJar g§ñH¥$Vr AgyZ `m_Ü o {d{dY dJ© d Ë`m_Ü o oXhs

Agmdm. `oWrb ZJaaMZm VgoM `oWo gmnS>Umè`m AdeofmVrb {d{dYVm Aem g_mOmVrb ^oXm§H$So> ~moQ>

XmIdVmV. Ogo H$mbr~§JZÀ`m g_mOmMm {dMma H$aVm `m{R>H$mUs {ÌñVas` gm_m{OH$$ oX {XgyZ oVmV Ogo,

~mbo{H$ëë`mV ahmUmam nwamo{hV dJ©, bmoH$dñVsÀ`m ^mJmV ahmUmam eoVs-CÚmoJ H$aUmam dJ© Am{U H$ï>H$ar/

H${Zð> dJ©. _mohoZOmoXS>mo, bmoWb oWrb nwamdohr darb ~m~rg nwï>s XoVmV. åhUOoM, `m g_mOm_Ü o nwamo{hV dJ©

(emgZH$Vm© dJ©), ì`mnmar dJ©, H$mamJra dJ©, eoVH$ar dJ©, ì`mnmar newnmbH$ O_mVs, gmYm H$m_Jma/H$ï>H$as

B. dJmªMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m_Ü o nwamo{hV dJ©mMo Ym{_©H$, Am{W©H$ (YmÝ`nwadR>`mda) VgoM gm_m{OH$ dM©ñd

{XgyZ oVo. Va, hr g§ñH¥$Vr ì`mnmaàYmZ Agë`mZo Ë`m§Mohr g_mOmV {ZpíMVM _hËdmMo ñWmZ Agmdo.

~. mfm Am{U {bnr : hr g§ñH¥$Vr _w»`Ëdo ì`mnmaàYmZ Agë`mZo bmoH$m§Zm mfoMo Am{U boIZmMo kmZ

hmoVo. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMm EH§$Xa _moR>m {dñoVma nmhVm `m g§ñH¥$VrV doJdoJiçm ^mfm ~mobë`m OmV AgUo

ñdm^m{dH$ Amho. Va, {bImUmMm {dMma H$aVm, `m g§§ñH¥$VrMr ì`dpñWV {bns hmoVs ho Amnë`mbm H$iVo.

{d{dY dñVy§da Amnë`mbm boImMo nwamdo AmT>iyZ oVmV. {Zìdi hS>ßnm oWyZ Aem 3700 dñVy {_imboë`m

AmhoV H$s Á`mda H$mhrVar {b{hbobo Amho. ho {bImU _w»`Ëdo {e o$ Am{U N>mnm§da ({e o$ Á`mda C_Q>bobo

AmhoV Vmo mJ) {XgyZ oVo. m{edm`, {d{dY dñVy§dahr {XgyZ oVo, Ogo,Vm§ã`mMr dS>r,Vm§~o/H$mñ`mMr gmYZo,^m§S>r

B. {h {bnr {MÝhm§À`m ñdénmV AgyZ,gmYmaU 5 {MÝhm§Mm EH$ boI AgVmo. `mVrb gdm©V _moR>m boI

OdiOdi 26 {MÝhm§Mm Amho. ho {bImU COdrH$Sy>Z S>mdrH$So> Ho$boo OmV Agmdo. hs {bnr OmñVrV OmñV

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{eŠŠ`m§da Amnë`mbm {XgyZ `oVo. hoo {e¸o$ ~hþYm ì`mnmè`m§Mo AgmdoV. ì`mnmar Amnbm _mb A{YH¥$V

H$aÊ`mgmR>s ho {e o$ _maV AgmdoV.

AmnU nm{hbo H$s {eŠŠ§ mì`{V[aŠV BVahs dñVyda Am{U {d{dY CÔoem§gmR>s boIZ {XgyZ oVo.Ymobmdram

`oWo àdoeÛmamg_moa ZJamÀ`m ZmdmMo bmH$S>s \$bH$hr ~gdÊ`mV Ambo. `oWo CËVaoH$S>sb àdoeÛmamdarb

\$bH$mda ImMm nmSyZ Ë`m_Ü o gobIS>rMr (ñQ>oQ>>mB©Q>) 10 Ajao (33 go_r C§M x 27 go_r é§X) ~gdÊ`mV

Ambobr hmoVr. Va, `m{R>H$mUr H$mhr YmVyÀ`m Am{U _mVrÀ`m dS>çm§dahr boIZ gmnS>bobo Amho. _mohoZOmoXS>moo

`m{R>H$mUs EH$ boIZ Agbobr Am`VmH¥$Vr Vm§ã`mMr dS>r gmnS>bobr Amho. Aem dS>çm§Mm Cn`moJ Ym{_©H$

{dYsgmR>s Ho$bm OmV Agmdm. VgoM, _mVrÀ`m ^m§S>çm§dahr Amnë`mbm boIZ AmT>iyZ oVo. `m~amo~aM, Vm§~o/

H$mñ`m§Mr hË`mao, ~m§JS>çm, hmS>m§À`m {nZm Am{U Ab§H$mam§dahr boIZ AmT>iVo. Aer hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb {bnr

AmOn ªV dmMVm Ambobr Zmhr. Varhr, BVŠ`m {dñV¥V àXoemda g_mZ {bnr gmnS>Uo ho hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VsMm

EH$g§KnUm Xe©{dVo.

H$. Amhma : AmhmamMm {dMma H$aVm, m g§ñH¥$VrVrb bmoH$ AmhmamV Jhÿ, Od (qgY Am{U n§Om~_Ü o),

Od (amOñWmZ), ~mOar, Vm§Xyi (JwOamV_Ü o), dQ>mUo dmnaV AgV. Va VobmgmR>r _mohar, Vri Am{U VynmMm

dmna H$arV AgV. ho bmoH$ AÞmV JmoS>nUm AmUÊ`mgmR>r _YmMm dmna H$aV AgmdoV. Va, \$im§Mm {dMma

H$aVm ho, Ho$is, S>mis¨~, A§Ora, Am§~o ImV AgmdoV. `mM~amo~a, AmhmamV, Xw½YOÝ` nXmWmªMmhr dmna

Agmdm. Aem emH$mhmam{edm` Vo _m§gmhmamgmR>s hasU, Añdb, eoiçm, _|T>çm, damh, _mgo `m§Mm dmna H$arV

AgV. Ho$Zm° a, Ho$ZoS>r, bwH$mg B. Aä`mgH$m§À`m åhUÊ`mZwgma, `m H$mimVrb _mZdmMm Amhma hm EH$

g_Vmob Amhma hmoVm. `m§À`m AmhmamV E§H$Xa OrdZgËd Am{U à{WZo `mo½` à_mUmV AgV.

S>. doe yfm-Ho$e yfm : oWrb doe yfoMm {dMma H$aVm, {ó`m JwS>¿`mn ªV nmoMUmao AYmodó dmnaV Va

nwéf YmoVa d CnaUo dmn[aV AgV. ho H$nSo> gwVr AgyZ, Hw${Q>amoÚmJmVyZ V`ma hmoV Agmdo. ¹${MV bmoH$asMo

H$nSo>hr dmnaV AgmdoV. oWrb {ó-nwéf, XmoKm§Zmhr Ho$g dmT>{dÊ`mMr AmdS> hmoVr Ago {XgVo. nwéf Ho$gm§Mm

_Ymo_Y m§J nmSy>Z _mJo ~m§YV AgV. Vo XmT>s R>odV _mÌ {_em H$mT>V AgV. Va {ó`m Am§~mS>m ~m§YrVM {edm`

nmJmoQ>çmgma»`m AmH$f©H$ Ho$eaMZmhr H$asV AgV.Ë`mMà_mUo {ó`m n§»`mÀ`m AmH$mamMo {eamo yfUhr KmbrV.

nwéf _mÌ S>moŠ`mda H$mhr KmbV ZgV. H$mhs _mÌ nmJmoQ>o KmbV AgmdoV.

B. gm¢X ©àgmYmZo-Ab§H$ma : Va, gm¢X ©àgmYZo d Ab§H$mamMr aobMob nmhVm, `m gwIdñVy bmoH$m§Mm

EH§$Xa ZQ>Ê`m_waS>Ê`mH$So> H$b Agmdm Ago {XgVo. {deofV- {ó`m n§»`mÀ`m AmH$mamMo {eamo yfU, Ë`mdarb

Ab§H$ma, q~Xs, H$U© yfUo, ~mhþ yfUo, {d{dY àH$maMo hma, H$_anÅ>m, A§JR>çm, n¢OU Ago Ab§H$ma KmbV

AgyZ `mgmR>r gmoZoo, Mm§Xr, Vm§~o, hñVr¨X§VmMm dmna gam©g Ho$bm OmV Ago. nwéfhr hma, A§JR>çm, ~mhþ yfUo Ago

Ab§H$ma Km{bV. {edm` {ó`m gm¢X`©àgmYZmgmR>s Img noQ>s dmnaV AgyZ, `m_Ü`o ^wd`m-Moham-AmoR>

a§J{dÊ`mgmR>s nmD$S>a, H$mOi-d Vo bmdÊ`mgmR>s H$mS>s, hñVrX§Vr H§$Jdo, nrZm-AmH$So> B.Mm g_mdoe hmoVm.

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\$. H$bm : hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrÀ`m bmoH$m§Zr mOrd _mVr, Vm§~o, H$mñ`, gobIS>sgmaIo _D$ XJS> Am{U XJS>

dmnéZ Amnbm àJV H$bm{dîH$ma Ho$bobm {XgyZ oVmo. _mohoZOmoXS>moo oWo {_imbobr H$mñ`m§Vrb Z{V©Ho$Mm nwVim

hm hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb H$boÀ`m {dH$mgmMo Xe©Z KS>dVmo. Ë`mM~amo~a aoS>m Am{U eoiçm§À`m N>moQ>çm-N>moQ>çm

_yVs©hs gw§Xa AmhoV. N>moQ>çm _wbm_wbtÀ`m IoiÊ`m hm AmUIrZ _OoXma {df`. m_Ü o, modam,bJmoar IoiÊ`mgmR>s

MH$Ë`m, M|Sy>, IwiIwim, {eQ>çm, gwQ>o H$aVm oÊ`mgmaIo mJ Agboë`m ~¡bJmS>çm, MmH$mdasb àmUs B. àH$ma

AgV. m IoiÊ`m ~hþVoH$Xm mOŠ`m _mVrÀ`m ~ZdV. mVrb modam hm EH$ J§_Vera àH$ma. ho modao mOŠ`m

_mVsMo ~ZdV. `m§Mo O{_Zrda {\$aUmao Q>moH$ _mÌ Vm§ã`mMo Ago. Va _wbs¨gmR>s "^mVwH$bs'Mo hs IoiUo {XgVo.

`m_Ü o N>moQ>r Myb, N>moQ>r ^m§S>r, N>moQ>m {~N>mZm `m§Mm g_mdoe Ago. Xm`_m~mX oWrb JmS>rdmZmgh ~¡bJmS>s,

hËVs, aoS>m, J|S>m B. H$mñ`m§Vrb {eën§ (IoiÊ`m) A{Ve` {dñ_`H$maH$ AmhoV. H$mñ`m§~amo~a _mohoZOmoXS>mo

oWrb ñQ>oQ>mB©Q>À`m nwamo{hVMm nwVim hs _hËdmMm Amho. Va hS>ßnm oWsb nwéfm§À`m AY©{eënmMr H$bmH¥$Vr `m

BVŠ`m CËV_ AmhoV H$s Ë`m \$ma AmYw{ZH$ H$mimVrbM dmQ>VmV. VgoM, _mVr_Ü o V`ma Ho$boë`m N>moQ>çm _yVs©,

{eën§ _mÌ _moR>çm à_mUmda gmnS>VmV. `m_Ü o njs, _mH$S§>, Hw$Ìr, eoiçm-~H$è`m, VgoM dqeS> wŠV Am{U

dqeS>a{hV Ago ~¡b Aem newnú`m§Mm g_mdoe AgyZ, `m§Mm Cn`moJ IoiUr qH$dm nyOogmR>r Ho$bm OmV Ago.

`m~amo~aM H$mhr Q>oamH$moQ>mÀ`m (^mOŠ`m _mVrÀ`m) N>moQ>çm ~¡bJmS>çmhr {_iVmV. `m_Ü o, {d{dY _wÐm§da/

{eŠŠ`m§da H$moaboë`m {d{dY AmH¥$Ë`m§Mmhr g_mdoe hmoD$ eHo$b.

J. N>§X-AmdS> : `m gwIdñVy g_mOmg g§JrV-Z¥¥Ë`mgmaÀ`m H$bm§Mr AmdS> hmoVrM {edm` àmÊ`m§À`m

Q>H$as/Pw§Or-{eH$ma-_mgo_margmaIo N>§Xhr hmoVo. Ë`mMà_mUo _Zmoa§OZmMohr {d{dY àH$ma {XgyZ oVmV, Ogo,

_mVrMr IoiUs, OwJma B. WmoS>Š`mV hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr hs ZmJar g§ñH¥$Vr AgyZ, oWo gm_m{OH$ oXm§gh, EH§$Xa

gwIdñVwnUm {XgyZ oVmo.

Ym{_©H$ n[a[ñWVr

A. X¡dVo : hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrV gmnS>bobo {d{dY {e o$ VgoM _mVrÀ`m Am{U Q>oamH$moQ>m§À`m _yVs© oWrb Xod-

XodVm§~Ôb bjUs` _m{hVr nwadVmV. `m{R>H$mUr _mV¥XodVm, nwéfXodVm, àmUr {deofV: ~¡b, dZñnVr, g§ wŠV/

H$mën{ZH$ Aem XodXodVm§Mo nyOZ hmoV Ago. OJmVrb H$moUË`mhr eoVràYmZ g_mOmV gwédmVrbm "_mV¥XodVobm'

_hËdmMo ñWmZ AgVo. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü ohr "_mV¥XodVm' Am{U {VMo nyOZ hm EH$ _hËdmM {deof Amho. `m

g§ñH¥$VrV Amnë`mbm ^mOŠ`m _mVrÀ`m {H$Ë oH$ ós-_yVs© {_iVmV. `m{R>H$mUs EH$m {eŠŠ`mda, d¥jmbm OÝ_

XoUmè`m EH$m órMr AmH¥$Vr Amnë`mbm {XgVo. {hMo gmå` nyd©_Ü` wJrZ emI§~ar XodVoer {XgyZ oVo. hS>ßnm

oWo AerM EH$ _mV¥XodVm Amnë`mbm {_iVo. H$mhs _mV¥XodVm m JamoXa AdñWoV {XgVmV Va H$mhs ~mim§~amo~ahs

{XgVmV. ho g_¥ÜXsMo nyOZ AgVo. VgoM H$mhs ós-_yVvÀ`m S>moŠ`mda nUVrM AmH$ma {XgVmo. `m{R>H$mUs

H$Xm{MV nUVr bmdbr OmV Agmdr. `m _yË`m© `km_Ü o An©U H$aÊ`mgmR>s qH$dm _w»` XodVoÀ`m nyOm{dYsgmR>s

dmnaë`m OmV Agmì`mV. Va H$mhr ór-_yVs© `m VwQ>boë`m ñdénmV AmT>iboë`m AmhoV. `m H$mhr àmg§{JH$

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Ym{_©H$ {dYsgmR>s `km_Ü o An©U H$aÊ`mgmR>s qHdm VmËnwaË`m nyOm{dYsgmR>s dmnaë`m OmV Agmì`mV. AWm©V

Aem _mV¥XodVm Amnë`mbm _mohZOmoXS>mo, hS>ßnm, ~Zmdbr `m{R>H$mUr {_iVmV. _mÌ H$m{b~§JZ, bmoWb,

gwaH$moQ>S>m, {_VmWb m{R>H$mUs m§Mm A^md OmUdVmo. mMm AW© hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü o EH$mM àH$maMr Y_©ì`dñWm

Zm§XV Zgmdr.

nwéf XodVoMm {dMma H$aVm gdm©V _hËdmMr åhUOo "newnVs' hs XodVm. ga Om°Z _me©b `m§Zm _mohZOmoXS>mo

oWo EH$ XodVoMm {e¸$m gmnS>bm. Ë`m§Zr Ë`mg "newnVr' Ago åhQ>bo. AemM qeJYmas XodVm Amnë`mbm H$moQ>

{XOr oWrb ^m§S>çmda, H$m{b~§JZ oWrb ^mOŠ`m _mVrÀ`m dS>rda VgoM nmXar oWrb am§OUmda {XgyZ oVo.

Ë`mMà_mUo bodmZ oWrb nyd©hS>ßnm ^m§S>çmdahr {XgyZ oVo. `mMmM AW© nyd©hS>ßnm H$mimnmgyZM hs XodVm

hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vhr_Ü o nyObr OmV hmoVr.Aem _mV¥XodVm Am{U nwéf XodVm§~amo~a, Amnë`mbm "g¥OZmMr' H$mhs

à{VH§$ {XgyZ oVmV. Ogo H$mbr~§JZ_Ü o qbJ Am{U moZrnrR> m§À`mer gÑí` AgUmè`m H$mhs _yVs© gmnS>boë`m

AmhoV.

Aem nwéf Am{U _mV¥XodVm§~amo~aM, H$mhs d¥jXodVmhr {XgyZ oVmV. {deofV: qnnimMo _hËd AJXr

nyd©hS>ßnm H$mimnmgyZ (Vo AmOn ªVhr!) {XgyZ oVo. H$mhs {eŠŠ`m§da g^modVr nma Agbobm qnni XmI{dbobm

Amho. VgoM, EH$m {R>H$mUs EH$m XodVoÀ`m S>moŠ`mdasb qeJm_YyZ EH$ PmS> CJdVmZm {XgVo. _mohoZOmoXS>mooo oWsb

EH$m {eŠŠ`mda EH$ bm§~gS>H$ Ho$g Agboba XodVm qnnimÀ`m \$m§Ú§m_YyZ da oVmZm {XgVo. {VÀ`mg_moa EH$

ì`ŠVs gmï>m§J Z_ñH$ma KmbV Amho d gmo~V gmV AmH¥$Ë`m AmhoV. H$mhs {dÛmZm§À`m _Vo `m§VyZM nwT>rb

H$mimVsb "gmVr Amgam (Aßgam)' qH$dm "gáfs©' CX`mg Ambo AgmdoV.hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrÜ o àmÊ`m§Mohs nyOZ

Ho$bo OmV hmoVo. ~¡b, gmn, hËVs, J|S>m, H$midsQ>, _Ja, dmK ho àmUs {XgyZ oVmV. dasb X¡dVm§gh ñdpñVH$/

MH«$ Aes ey {MÝho nwObr OmV AgmdrV qH$dm Vr VmB©V åhUyZ dmnabr OmV AgmdrV.

~. nyOZ/Ym{_©H$ {dYs ñWmZo : hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü o {ZpíMV Aes _§{Xam§gmaIr aMZm {XgyZ oV Zmhr.

Var nyOmñWmZo AWdm H$mhs Ym{_©H$ {dYsÀ`m OmJm AmnUmg XmIdVm `oVmV. Ogo, _mohZOmoXS>mo `oWrb

bmoH$dñVrÀ`m ^mJm_Ü o EH$, _Ü`dVs© _§M Agbobr _moR>r B_maV {_imbobr Amho. {hbm EH$ _moR>o àdoeÛma

AgyZ, _§MmH$So> OmÊ`mgmR>r Xwhoar nm`è`mhr AmhoV. ho EH$ nyOmñWmZ Agmdo. `oWrb _hmñZmZJ¥hmOdi

nyOmnmR>mgmR>r Imoë`m {XgyZ oVmV. VgoM bmoWb _Ü ohs ~mbo{H$ëë`mV EH$m C§MdQ>çmda (4 _s. C§M) 12

ñZmZJ¥hm§À`m am§Jm AmhoV. H$mbr~§JZ_Ü ohr A¾rdoXsOdi, {dhsa d A§KmoisgmR>s C§MdQ>o Ho$bobo hmoVo. ho nwamdo

Ym{_©H$ {dYrVrb ñZmZmMo _hËd XmI{dVmV.

`m{R>H$mUs H$mbr~§JZ oWrb nwamdo {deof _hËdmMo AmhoV. oWrb ~mbo{H$ëë`mÀ`m X{jU ^mJmV Ym{_©H$

ñWio AmhoV. `m{R>H$mUs _mVsÀ`m {dQ>m§Zr ~m§Ybobo C§M OmoVo {XgyZ `oVmV. `m OmoË`§mda gmV A¾rdoXs

~m§Yboë`m AmhoV. `m doXr_Ü o amI, H$moigm, ^mOŠ`m _mVrÀ`m dS>çm gmnS>boë`m AmhoV. H$Xm{MV `m

doXs¨_Ü o AmhÿVr {Xbr OmV Agmdr. `m doXs¨Odi EH$ ~gÊ`mMr OmJm Amho. OdiM O{_ZrV nwabobo EH$

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_mVrMo m§So> Amho. åhUOo, EH$m OmJr ~gyZ, OdiÀ`m m§S>çm_Yrb dñVy KoD$Z, Ë`m dñVy§Mr g_moarb doXr_Ü o

AmhÿVr XoÊ`mMr EH§$Xa gmo H$aÊ`mV Ambobr Amho. `m OdiM EH$ {d{ha d A§KmoisgmR>s C§MdQ>o Ho$bobo

AmhoV. AWm©VM, ñZmZ d Ë`mZ§Va nyOmnmR>> H$aÊ`mMr hs OmJm Agmdr. AemM àH$maÀ`m `kdoXs ~Zdbr,

bmoWb, Am_as, ZmJoída, dmJS> (JwOamV); amIJS>s (ha`mUm) oWo gmnS>boë`m AmhoV. _mÌ H$mbr~§JZ Am{U

~Zmdbs oWrb `m ì`dñWm gm_w{hH$ nyOmnmR>m§gmR>r AmhoV. Va, ~mH$s {R>H$mUs ì`ŠVsJV Ym{_©H$ {dYs¨gmR>s

AmhoV.

H$. Ym{_©H$ g§H$ënZm : AmnU ho nm{hbo H$s hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrV {d{dY XodXodVm {XgyZ oVmV. Ë`mM~amo~a

Aem§Ms Ym_s©H$ ñWmZ§ hr AmnU nm{hbr. m ì`{V[aŠV hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrV H$mhr {d{eð> Aem Ym{_©H$ g§H$ënZmhr

Amnë`mbm {XgyZ oVmV. `m g§ñH¥$VrV ñZmZmbm Y_©{dYr_Ü o _hËdmMo ñWmZ hmoVo. _mohZOmoXS>mo oWrb

nyOmñWmZmOdirb _hmñZmZJ¥h hoM Xe©{dVo. Ë`mM~amo~a bmoWb, H$mbr~§JZgma»`m {R>H$mUr OoWo OoWo A¾rdoXr

{_imbobr Amho. Ë`mOdi ñZmZmMr ì`dñWm (Ogo, A§KmoisgmR>s C§MdQ>m Am{U {d{ha) {XgyZ `oVo. `m

g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü`o ~is XoÊ`mMo àH$ma {XgyZ `oVmV. H$mbr~§JZ _Ü`o `kdoXrOdi EH$ ^mOŠ`m _mVrMr dS>r

gmnS>bobr Amho. `m dS>rda EH$m ~mOybm qeJYmar XodVm {XgVo Va Xwgè`m ~mOybm EH$ ì`ŠVr, Xmoè`mZo EH$m

àmÊ`mbm IoMV Mmbbobm XmI{dbobm Amho. VgoM, {d{dY XodVm§Zm ñdV§ÌnUo Am{U H$m`_ñdénr nyObo OmV

Agmdo Ago {XgVo. Ë`mMà_mUo H$mhs àmg§{JH$ CËgdmgmR>r H$mhr doJiçm XodVm§Zm nyObo OmV Agmdo Ago

{XgVo. VgoM, JiçmV doJdoJio VmB©V KmbUo hs EH$ g§H$ënZm Amnë`mbm {XgyZ oVo.

S>. A§Ë`g§ñH$ma nÜXVs : A§Ë`g§ñH$ma nÜXVrbm Ym{_©H$ OrdZmV EH$ _hËdmMo ñWmZ AgVo. mVyZ, Ë`m

g§ñH¥$VrÀ`m _aUmoËVa OrdZmdarb {dídmg Am{U H$ënZm {XgyZ oVmV. AWm©V hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr hr _moR>çm

àXoemV {dVarV Pmbr Agë`mZo AË`g§ñH$mamÀ`m {d{dY na§nam AgUo ñdm^m{dH$ Amho. Ogo, nyU© X\$Z,

A§eV: X\$Z(_mohoZoOmoXS>mo Am{U hS>ßnm), XhZmoËVa X\$Z, à{VH$mË_H$ X\$Z (H$mbr~§JZ), ^m§S>çm_YyZ X\$Z

(_mohZoOmoXS>mo Am{U hS>ßnm), nVr-nËZrMo X\$Z (bmoWb) B. oWo _¥VXohmMo X\$Z H$aVmZm Ë`m~amo~a qenë`m§À`m

~m§JS>çm, hma, H$U© yfU, Vm§ã`m§Mo Amago, H$mÁObebmH$m, _mVrMo bmSy>, M_Mo, _Us, hñVrX§Vr dñVy gmo~V

R>odbr OmV. `mdéZ _aUmoËVa OrdZm~Ôb Ë`m§À`m H$mhr H$ënZm Agmì`mV Agohs {XgVo. `m§Mr ñ_emZ y_r

eham§nmgyZ ñdV§Ì Ago.

hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb EH§$Xa Ym{_©H$ n[apñWVsMm {dMma H$aVm, {d{dY joÌm§_Ü o {d{dY àH$maMo {dYs

àM{bV hmoVo Ago AmT>iVo. Ogo, H$mbr~§Jm-bmoWb _Ü o A½ZrdoXs {XgVmV, _mÌ BVaÌ Hw$R>o Zmhs. Va, `m

XmoKm§~amo~a, _mohoZOmoXS>mo oWo ñZmZmMo nyOm{dYsgmR>s _hËd {XgVo, hS>ßnm _Ü o Zmhs. A§Ë`g§ñH$mam_Ü o hr

EH$ àoV, OmoS>s àoV, gm_w{hH$ X\$Z§ B. d¡{dÜ` {XgyZ oVo. AWm©VM, hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VsMm àM§S> {dñVma Am{U

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VËH$m{bZ _`m©{XV XiUdiU/g§nH©$ ì`dñWo_wio ho ñdm^m{dH$M hmoVo. Ë`mM~amo~a `mVyZ hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VsÀ`m

g_mOOrdZmMo d¡{dÜ`nyU© ñdén Am{U Varhr gm§ñH¥${VH$ EoŠ` Amnë`mbm ~aoM H$mhs {eH$dy nmhVo!

ñd § AÜ``Z àíZ-3

A) `mo½` n`m© {ZdS>m.

1. hS>ßnm ho ñWi..................ZXrÀ`m {H$Zmar dgbobo Amho.

A) amds ~) qgYy H$) gVbO S>) gañdVs

2. Xm`_m~mX...................`m amÁ`mV oVo.

A) amOñWmZ ~) _hmamï´> H$) H$Zm©Q>H$ S>) CËVa àXoe

3. ...............`m {R>H$mUmhÿZ àdoeÛmamdarb {b[IV \$bH$ gmnS>bobm Amho.

A) Ymobmdram ~) hS>ßnm H$) H$mbr~§JZ S>) bmoWb

4. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb _moOnÅ>s............go_rMr Ago.

A) 37.6 ~) 30 H$) 35.5 S>) 35.2

5. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb OhmO ~§Xa Am{U JmoXr...............`m {R>H$mUs AmT>iyZ oVo.

A) _mohZoOmoXS>mo ~) hS>ßnm H$) H$mbr~§Jm S>) bmoWb

~) WmoS>Š`mV CËVao Úm.

1. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü o H$moUH$moUË`m XodVm§Mo nyOm Ho$bo OmV Ago?

2. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb Zm§Jabobo eoV H$moR>o AmT>iyZ Ambobo Amho?

3. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrVrb {dQ>m§Mo à_mU H$m` Amho?

4. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrÀ`m H$moUË`m ehamV Vbmdm§Mr _m{bH$m {XgyZ oVo?

5. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VsMm èhmg H$moUË`m H$maUmZo Pmbm?

2.2.4 {d^mJ 4 : _hmí_ wJ

A) g§H$ënZm Am{U {d{dY àH$ma :

_moR>çm XJS>m§Mm IwUogmR>s dmna H$éZ, _¥Vm§Mo X\$Z H$aÊ`mMr nÜXVs Á`m g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü o hmoVs Aem

g§ñH¥$Vsbm _hmí_ wJsZ g§ñH¥$Vs Ago åhUVmV. `m g§ñH¥$VsÀ`m dgmhVs¨Mo nwamdo VwaiH$ AmhoV; _mÌ Ë`m§Mr

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X\$Z§ Amnë`mbm _moR>çm à_mUmda {_iVmV. Aer hr g§ñH¥$Vr gmYmaUV: Bgdr gZ nyd© 1000 _Ü o X»IZÀ`m

nR>mamda {Xgy bmJVo. VgoM X{jU ^maVmVhs _moR>çm à_mUmda hr g§ñH¥$Vr ngabobr {XgyZ oVo. gmYmaUV:

Bgdr gZ nyd© 300 À`m Xaå`mZ `m g§ñH¥$VsMm èhmg hmoV OmVmo. Ë`mZ§Va `m ^mJmV gmVdmhZm§Mo amÁ` {Z_m©U

hmoVo. bmohV§ÌkmZ, KmoS>m, XJS>m§Mm X\$Zm§À`m IwUogmR>s dmna Am{U bmb-H$mis _S>H$s hr `m g§ñH¥$VrMr

R>iH$ bjU§ AmhoV.

1823 _Ü o ~°q~½Q>Z `m§Zr X{jU ^maVmVsb _b~ma ^mJm_Ü o _hmí_ wJrZ X\$Zm§Mm gd©àW_ emoY

bmdbm. _hmamï´>m_Ü o \$ŠV {dX^m©_Ü o `m g§ñH¥$VrMo nwamdo {_iVmV. oWo Or eoH$S>mo X\$Z {_iVmV, Ë`m_Ü o

\$ŠV Mma {R>H$mUr dgmhVr¨Mo nwamdo Amnë`mbm {_iVmV.

_hmí_ wJrZ g§ñH¥$Vr_Ü o {d{dY Cng§ñH¥$Vr Amnë`mbm {XgyZ oVmV. `m Cng§ñH¥$VsÀ`m IyUm Ë`m§À`m

EH$_oH$m§nmgyZ doJiçm Aem X\$ZnÜXVs¨déZ H$iyZ oVmV. Ogo, {eimdVw©i§ (Cairn Circles), noQ>r-X\$Z

Agbobs {eimdVw©i§ (Cist & Cairn Circle), S>m°b_oZ/M|~a X\$Z§ (Domen/Chamber), _oZ{ha

(Menir), Q>mons-{ebm (Toip-Kal), _S>Š`m§Vrb X\$Z (urn), gmH$m}\°$Jg (Sarcophagus), Jwhm (Rock-

Cut Cave) B. `mVrb {ebmdVw©i§ _w»`Ëdo {dX^m©V gmnS>VmV. Cd©asV H$Zm©Q>H$, Am§Y«àXoe, Vm_riZmSy>,

Ho$ai B. àXoem_Ü o gmnS>VmV.

(~) _hmamï´>mVrb _hmí_ wJrZ X\$Zo :

_hmamï´>mVsb {dX © àXoemV _moR>çm à_mUmda {eimdVw©i§ gmnS>bobs AmhoV. oWo _¥VmMo, EH$m IÈ>`mV

X\$Z Ho$bo OmV Ago. _¥Vm§gmo~V, Ë`mÀ`m nwT>sb àdmgmÀ`m gmo~VsgmR>s, AÞ, nmUs, KmoS>m, KmoS>çmMo Ab§H$ma

B. R>odbo OmV. Ë`mMàH$mao, Vmo dmnaV AgUmar gmYZo Am{U hË`maohs R>odbs OmV. Ë`mZ§Va, _mVr bmoQy>Z ho

X\$Z nyU© Ho$bo OmB©. nwT>o, IwUogmR>s, `m X\$Zm^modVs, _moR>o_moR>o XJS> dVw©imH$ma _m§S>bo OmV. `m dV©wim§Vsb

OmJm IS>tZr ^abobr Ago. `mbm "{eimdVw©i' Ago åh§Q>bo OmV Ago. {dX^m©Vsb H$mhs {eimdVw©im_Ü o

EH$mnojm XmoZ ì`ŠVtMo hr X\$Z Ho$bobo {XgVo. `mVsb H$mhs {ebmdVw©im§Mo CËIZZhs Aä`mgH$m§Zr Ho$bobo

Amho, Ogo, Q>mH$iKmQ>-Imnm, _mhþaPas, ^mJs_moas, Z¡Hw$§S>, am`nya, nmMIoS>s B.

g_mOOrdZ, amhUr_mZ dJ¡ao

dgmhVs :

AmnU ho nm{hbo H$s, _hmí_ wJsZ X\$Zm§À`m VwbZoZo, `m§À`m dgmhVs¨Mo à_mU AË`ën Amho. ho bmoH$

^Q>Ho$ hmoVo. eoVsnojm, {eH$ma d newnmbm ho `m§Mo CnOr{dHo$Mo à_wI _mJ© {XgyZ oVmV. `m§À`m Amhmam_Ü o

H§$X_wio, \$io, dZñnVs¨Mo Am{U _m§gmMo à_mU OmñV Ago. {dX^m©Vsb Q>mH$iKmQ>, Z¡Hw$§S>, ^mJr_moar Am{U

am`nya _Ü o _hmí_ wJrZ dgmhVs {XgyZ oVmV. `m dgmhVs h§Jm_s ñdénmÀ`m Agmì`mV Ago g§emoYH$m§Mo

åhUUo Amho. ho bmoH$ Am`VmH$ma, Mm¡H$moZr VgoM JmobmH$ma PmonS>çm§_Ü o ahmV. MwÝ`mZo gmadbobs O{_Z,

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Hw$S>mÀ`m q^Vr Am{U JdVmZo emH$mabobo N>V hr Vm_«nmfmU wJsZ na§nam H$m`_ am{hbobr {XgyZ oVo. Myb

Am{U YmÝ` gmR>{dÊ`mgmR>s _mVsÀ`m H$U½`m hr `m Kam§Vsb _hËdmÀ`m Jmoï>s.

H$mamJrar :

ho CËV_ H$mamJra hmoVo Ago Amnë`mbm {XgyZ oVo. {deofV: bmohV§ÌkmZm_Ü o ho nwT>mabobo Ago hmoVo.

{dX^m©Vsb Z¡Hw$§S> `m {R>H$mUs Aes bmoI§S>mMs ^Å>shs {_imbobs Amho. hs O{_ZrÀ`m AmV 1.25 _sQ>a

Imobsda hmoVs. hs Mma go_s OmS>sÀ`m {dQ>m§Zr ~m§Ybobr AgyZ, 30 go_r ì`mgmMr hmoVr. AmV hdm _maÊ`mgmR>r

XmoZ _mVsMo Zi hmoVo. VgoM, bmoI§S> V`ma H$aÊ`mÀ`m à{H«$ o_Ü o, Jmi H$mT>Ê`mgmR>s Vimes Vm|S>hs R>odbobo

hmoVo. Amnë`mbm {XgyZ oVo H$s, `m§À`m hË`mam_Ü o bmoI§S>mMo à_mU A{Ve` ewÜX (99%) Ago Amho. ho

bmoH$ bmoI§S>mMs {d{dY gmYZo, AdOmao Am{U hË`mao V`ma H$asV AgV. `m gmYZm§_Ü o àM§S> à_mUmda

d¡{dÜ` Amho. Ogo, Vbdma, I§Ora, ^mbo, ~mU, {N>Þs, Hw$èhmS>s, Zm§Ja, {dio, {VnmB©, Wmis, hñV yfU,H$T>B©,

ZobH$Q>a, [Iio, {Xdo, KmoS>çmMr [aH$s~ B.

bmoI§S>m~amo~aM, `m§Zr Vm§ã`mMr Am yfU§ Am{U {d{dY dñVy ~Zdboë`m {XgyZ oVmV. Ogo, H$U© yfU§,

~m§JS>çm, K§Q>m, Amagm, KmoS>çmMo Ab§H$ma B. VgoM ho bmoH$ Mm§Xs Am{U gmoÝ`m_Ü ohs Am yfU§ ~ZdVmZm

{XgyZ oVmV, Ogo, A§JR>çm, ~m§JS>çm, H$U© yfU, hñV yfU, nXHo$, nÅ>o, doT>Ê`m ~Z{dë`m OmV.

bmohV§ÌkmZmà_mUoM, Hw$§ maH$m_hr JaOoMo hmoVo. ho bmoH$ "bmb-H$mis' Aem Xwhoar a§JmVsb ^m§S>r dmnarV.

`m_Ü o dmS>Jo, dmQ>çm, Hw$§So>, Wmiçm ~Z{dë`m OmV. Ë`mMà_mUo ho bmb _S>H$sgwÜXm dmnaV. EH$Va ho bmoH$

ñdV: hr ^m§S>s ~ZdV qH$dm, T>disH$a åhUVmV Ë`mà_mUo bmohAdOmam§À`m _mo~Xë`mV, JmdH$è`m§H$Sy>Z ^m§Sr

KoV. "_UrH$mar' hm CnOr{dHo$Mm AmUIrZ EH$ n`m© . ho bmoH$ {d{dY àH$maÀ`m _m¡ë`dmZ XJS>m§nmgyZ _Us

~ZdVmZm Amnë`mbm {XgVmV, Ogo, JmaoÀ`m XJS§>mnmgyZ, A{H$H$, nmodio, d¡Xy ©/B§ÐZrb, e§I AemnmgyZ.

ghg§~§Y :

ho _w»`Ëdo {\$añVo Agë`mZo, `m§Mm BVa g§ñH¥$Vs¨es ghg§~§Y AgUo ñdm^m{dH$M hmoVo. Aem g§ñH¥$Vsgh

ho bmoH$ {d{dY dñVy_Ü o {d{Z_`hs H$asV, Ogo, d¡Xy ©, e§I B. _Ê`m§Mm H$ƒm _mb. VgoM, gmoZo,Mm§Xs ho

{d{Z_`mVyZM `m§À`m g§ñH¥$VrV Ambobo {XgVmV. _hmí_ wJsZ bmoH$ H$moU hmoVo `m~Ôb g§emoYH$m_Ü o _V oX

AmhoV. wamo{n`Z X\$Zm§es gmYå © Agë`mZo ho y_Ü`gmJamH$Sy>Z ^maVm_Ü o Ambo AgmdoV Ago g_Obo OmV

hmoVo. nU A{bH$S>À`m Aä`mgmdéZ Ago {XgyZ Ambobo Amho H$s ho bmoH$ ^maVs`M hmoVo. EH$_mÌ {ZpíMV

H$s `m§À`m_Ü o _moR>çm à_mUmda g§mñH¥${VH$ d¡{dÜ` hmoVo. H$maU ho bmoH$ {d{dY ^m¡Jmo{bH$ n[adoem_Ü o ahmV

AgV.

`m H$mimVrb OZOrdZ H$go AgmdoV `m~m~V T>disH$am§gmaIo {dÛmZ Ago åhUVmV H$s, _hmí_ wJsZ

bmoH$ ho ^Q>Ho$ newnmbH$ hmoVo. VgoM `m§Zm bmohmaH$m_mMo Cƒ XOm©Mo kmZ hmoVo. ho bmoH$, Amnë`m ^Q>H§$VsÀ`m

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Xaå`mZ, JmdmOdi VmËnwaVs dgmhV H$aV. Ë`m Jmdm§Mr Oer JaO Agob Ë`mà_mUo Vo bmoH$m§Zm bmoI§S>mMs

gmYZoo, AdOmao V`ma H$éZ XoV. Ë`mZ§Va nwT>o OmV. Ago dma§dma KS>ë`mZo, `m bmoH$m§Mm àdmgmMo _mJ© Am{U

Wm§~o {ZpíMV hmoV AgV. Aem _mJm©VM Am{U Wm§ã`mdaM Ë`m§Ms X\$Zoo AgV. VgoM X\$ZmVrb doJdoJio

àH$ma, `m H$mimVsb {d{dY Q>moiçm§Mo {dVaU, {dMaU Am{U ghmM © Xe©{dVmV. Aem `m _hmí_wJsZ H$mimÀ`m

eodQ>seodQ>s Amnë`mbm gmVdmhZm§Mo amÁ` nwT>o oVmZm {XgyZ oVo.

ñd § AÜ``Z àíZ - 4

A) `mo½` n`m© {ZdS>m.

1..............`m§Zr ^maVs` _hmí_ wJmMm emoY bmdbm.

A) ~°q~½Q>Z ~) _me©b H$) H$qZJh°_ S>) pìhba

2. _hmí_ wJsZ bmoI§S>mMs ^Å>s.................`m {R>H$mUs {_imbobr Amho.

A) am`nya ~) Z¡Hw$§S> H$) Zodmgo S>) ^mJr_moar

3. _hmí_ wJrZ KmoS>çm§Mo Ab§H$ma..........`m§nmgyZ ~Zdbo OmV.

A) e§I ~) ^mOrd _mVr H$) Vm§~o S>) gmoZo

4.................^m§S>s _hmí_ wJsZ H$mimMo d¡{eï>ç hmo .

A) bmb-H$mis ~) bmb H$) H$mis S>) amImS>s a§JmMs {M{ÌV

5. _hmí_ wJrZ bmoH$..............V§ÌkmZm_Ü o nwT>mabobo hmoVo.

A) Aí_ ~) bmoh H$) Vm§~o S>) gmoZo

~) WmoS>Š`mV CËVao Úm.

1. _hmí_ wJrZ g§ñH¥$Vr åhUOoo H$m`?

2. _hmí_ wJrZ bmoH$m§Mo CnOr{dHo$Mo à_wI _mJ© H$moUVo hmoVo?

3. {dX^m©_Ü o _hmí_ wJrZ dgmhVs¨Mo nwamdo H$moRy>Z {_iVmV?

4. {dX^m©Vsb _hmí_ wJm_Ü o H$moUË`m àH$mamMr X\$Zo {_iVmV?

5. {eimdVw©i X\$Z åhUOo H$m`?

2.3 gma§me :

àmMrZ ^maVmÀ`m B{VhmgmMm àma§ hm àmJ¡{Vhm{gH$ H$mbI§S>mnmgyZ hmoVmo. `m H$mimbmM Aí_ wJrZ

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H$mbI§S> Ago åh§Q>bo OmVo. `m H$mimVsb _mZd hm Ë`mÀ`m ^modVmbÀ`m n`m©daUmMm EH$ KQ>H$ AgVmo. Vmo,

`m n`m©daUmVsb g§gmYZmMm dmna H$éZ Amnbo OrdZ {dH${gV H$aVmo. OgOgoo n`m©daU ~XbV OmVo,

~wpÜX_ËVm {dH${gV hmoVo Ë`mMà_mUo `mÀ`m OrdZe¡br_Ü ohr ~Xb hmoV OmVmo. hm Ë`mMm {dH$mg Ë`mÀ`m

Aí_hË`mam§VyZ, Jwhm{MÌm§VyZ {XgyZ oVmo. Aí_ wJmÀ`m eodQ>s Am{U nydm©Zw dmVyZ, hm eoVr, newnmbZmMm

emoY bmdVmo. Am{U AemàH$mao `m "Zdmí_ wJmV' `mÀ`m pñWa amhÊ`mg gwédmV hmoVo. Aem àmJ¡{Vhm{gH$

{dH$mgmÀ`m ~¡R>H$sda _mZd Vm_«nmfmU`wJm_Ü`o àdoe H$aVmo. `m H$mimV Ë`mbm YmVyMm emoY bmJVmoM.

{edm`, `m AmÚ eoVH$è`m§Ms n{hbsdm{hbs IoS>s ApñVËdmV oVmV. `mVrbM, dm`ì` ^maVmVrb H$mhs

IoS>s A{YH$ {dH${gV hmoVmV. Ë`m§Mo ZJam§_Ü o énm§Va hmoVo. Aem àH$mao ^maVmMo n{hbo ZmJasH$aU `m{R>H$mUs

KSy>Z oVo. `mbm "hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$Vr' Ago åhUVmV. bmImo Mm¡ag {H$_r ngabobr AgyZhr, VgoM, {d{dY lÜXm

AgVmZmhr `m§À`mV EH$ {d{eð> àH$maMo g§mñH¥${VH$ EoŠ` {XgyZ oVo. `m wJmZ§Va, `mà_mUo CËVa ^maVm_Ü o

d¡{XH$ g§ñH¥$VrÀ`m n{hë`md{hë`m IwUm {Xgy bmJVmV. Ë`mMà_mUo, X»IZ Am{U X{jU ^maVm_Ü o EH$m

doJiçm g§ñH¥$VrMm n[aM` Amnë`mbm hmoVmo. ho ^Q>Ho$ newnmbH$ Agë`mZo, `m§À`m dgmhVr ¹${MVM {_iVmV.

`mbQ>, `m§Mr àM§S> à_mUmda X\$Z§ {XgyZ oVmV. hm "_hmí_ wJrZ H$mi' hmo . ho bmohV§ÌkmZm_Ü o Hw$eb

AgVmV. åhUyZ `m H$mimnmgyZ "bmoh wJmbm' àma§ Pmbm Ago åhUVm oB©b. `m§À`mVhr gm§ñH¥${VH$ d¡{dÜ`

Amnë`mbm {XgyZ oVo, Am{U R>iH$nUo `m§À`mVrb EoŠ` hs {XgyZ oVo.

2.4 eãX, nm[a^m{fH$ g§km Am{U AW© :

àmJ¡{Vhmg (Prehistory) : boIZH$bm AdJV hmoÊ`mAmYrÀ`m H$mimVrb _mZdmMm B{Vhmg åhUOo

àmJ¡{Vhmg. `m H$mbI§S>mV ^maVmVrb Aí_ wJ oVo.

nwamVËdemó (Archaeology): _mZdmZoo hoVynyd©H$/{Zh}VyH$nUo Amnë`m _mJo gmoS>boë`m ^m¡{VH$ Adeofm§Mm

Aä`mg H$éZ Ë`mÀ`m B{VhmgmMs nwZ~mªYUs Am{U {díbofU H$aUmao emó hmo .

ZmJarH$aU: ZmJasH$aU hm _mZdr {dH$mgmÀ`m à{H«$ oVrb EH$ Q>ßnm AgyZ, {hMr, {Z`moOZ~ÜX Am{U

VQ>~§Xr wŠV ehao, gmd©O{ZH$ B_maVs, bmoH$g§» oV dmT>, gm_m{OH$ ñVasH$aU, eoVrVrb A{V[aŠV CËnmXZ,

ì`dgm`mMo {deofrH$aU, _moR>çm ì`másMm ì`mnma, à_mU~ÜX dñVy Am{U _mZH§$, dOZ_mn§, ZmUs Am{U

EH§$Xa à{H«$ oda {Z §ÌU R>odUmas ì`dñWm B. R>iH$ bjU§ _m§S>Vm oVmV.

2.5 ñd § AÜ``ZmMs CËVao

ñd§ AÜ``Z àíZ - 1

A) 1. bmoh§S>m Zmbm, 2. ehm_¥JmMo A§So>, 3. gyú_móo, 4.H$mbm©B©b, 5. ^r_~oQ>H$m

~) 1. àmJ¡{Vhm{gH$ H$mi åhUOo _mZdmÀ`m B{VhmgmVsb àma§^sMm H$mbI§S>. `m H$mimg "Aí_`wJ'

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Agohs åh§Q>bo OmVo. `m wJm_Ü o nwamí_ wJ, _Ü`mí_ wJ Am{U Zdmí_ wJ ho CnH$mbI§S> oVmV.; 2. hþUgJs,

^r_~oQ>H$m; 3. gyú_móo, Jwhm{MÌo, 4. pìh.Eg.dmH$UH$a, 5. _mZdmÀ`m {dídaMZo~Ôb Ñ{ï>H$moZ {XgyZ oVmo.

ñd§ AÜ``Z àíZ - 2

A) 1. bw~m°H$, 2. Mm¡nmZr _§S>mo, 3. ~w{Yhmi, 4. BZm_Jmd, 5. H$Zm©Q>H$

~) 1. hmd}ñQ>a, Hw$Í`mMr X\$Zo; 2. ~¡bJmS>s, hËVs, amZJdm, J|S>m Aer CËH¥$ð> {eën§; 3. gmdiXm, CËVa

hS>ßnm, _midm, Omod}, CËVaOmod}; 4. KmoS>ZXrMo A{V[aŠV nmUs, H$mbì`mÛmao EH$m VbmdmV gmR>dyZ R>odbobo

hmoVo. Ë`m§Zm g_m§Va Agm XJS>_mVsMm ~m§Yhr KmVbobm hmoVm.; 5. H$miçm a§JmZoo {M{ÌV bmb ^m§S>s

ñd § AÜ``Z àíZ - 3

A) 1. amdr, 2. _hmamï´>, 3. Ymobmdram, 4.37.6, 5. bmoWb

~) 1. newnVr, _mV¥XodVm, d¥j, àmUs; 2. H$mbr~§JZ; 3. 4:2:1 4. Ymobmdram; 5. yH§$n, XwîH$mi,

nya, ZÚm§À`m nmÌmV ~Xb, H$moaSo> hdm_mZ B. Z¡g{J©H$ H$maUmZo

ñd § AÜ``Z àíZ - 4

A) 1. ~°q~½Q>Z, 2. Z¡Hw$§S>, 3. Vm§~o, 4. bmb-H$mis, 5. bmoh

~) 1. _moR>çm XJS>m§Mm IwUogmR>s dmna H$éZ, _¥Vm§Mo X\$Z H$aÊ`mMs nÜXVs Á`m g§ñH¥$Vs_Ü o hmoVs Aem

g§ñH¥$Vrbm _hmí_ wJrZ g§ñH¥$Vr Ago åhUVmV; 2. newnmbZ d {eH$ma; 3. Z¡Hw$§S>, ^mJr_moar, am`nya, Q>mH$iKmQ>;

4. {eimdVw©io; 5. _¥Vm§Mo X\$Z H$éZ, IyUogmR>s _moR>çm XJS>m§Mo dVw©i g^modVr V`ma Ho$bo OmB©. Ë`mg

{eimdVw©i§ Ago åhUVmV.

2.6 gamdmgmR>s ñdmÜ`m` :

XrKm}ËVas àíZ :

1. ^maVs` Aí_ wJrZ OrdZmMs _m{hVs Úm.

2. ^maVs` Zdmí_ wJmMr _m{hVr Úm.

3. Vm_«nmfmU wJmMs _m{hVs Úm.

4. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMr ZJaaMZm ñnï> H$am.

5. hS>ßnmH$mbrZ Am{W©H$ n[apñWVs ñnï> H$am.

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6. hS>ßnm g§ñH¥$VrMo gm_m[OH$ Am{U Ym{_©H$ qH$dm ñnï> H$am.

7. _hmí_ wJrZ OrdZmMs _m{hVr Úm.

Q>rnm {bhm :

1. Zdmí_ wJ 2. Vm_«nmfmU wJ 3. hS>ßnmH$mbrZ g_mO 4. hS>ßnmH$mbrZ Y_©

2.7 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>s g§X © :

_. Ho$. T>disH$a, "H$moUo EHo$H$miMs qgYw g§ñH¥$Vs', amOh§g àH$meZ.

_. Ho$. T>disH$a, "_hmamï´>mMs Hy$iH$Wm', amOh§g àH$meZ.

em§. ^m. Xod, "^maVs` nwamVËd{dÚm', H$m±{Q>Z|Q>b àH$meZ.

_amRr {dídH$moe :

`.Zm. H$X_, "àmMrZ ^maVmMm B{Vhmg', \$S>Ho$ àH$meZ.

E.Or. WmoamV Am{U {Za§OZ Hw$bH$Us© (g§nm.) àmMrZ ^maVmMm B{Vhmg, ~s.E.-3/nona H«$.4,

KQ>H$ 2 Vo 3, ñd §-AÜ``Z gm{hË`, Xya {ejU H|$Ð, {edmOr {dÚmnrR>

{Za§OZ Hw$bH$Us© Am{U Qr.Eg.nmQ>sb (g§nm.) àmMrZ ^maVs` amOH$s` Am{U Am{W©H$ g§ñWm,

E_.E.-1, KQ>H$ 2 Vo 3, ñd §-AÜ``Z gm{hË`, Xya {ejU H|$Ð, {edmOr {dÚmnsR>.

{Za§OZ Hw$bH$Us© Am{U Q>r.Eg.nmQ>sb (g§nm.) àmMrZ ^maVr` g_mO Am{U g§ñH¥$Vr, E_.E.-2,

KQ>H$ 1, ñd §-AÜ``Z gm{hË`, Xya {ejU H|$Ð, {edmOr {dÚmnsR>.���


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Điều gì sẽ mang đến cho tôi một cuộc sống tốt đẹp? · Điều gì sẽ mang đến cho tôi ... • Tôi cần những gì và giấc mơ của tôi là gì?

Điều gì sẽ mang đến cho tôi một cuộc sống tốt đẹp? · Điều gì sẽ mang đến cho tôi ... • Tôi cần những gì và giấc mơ của tôi là gì?

(TAÄP MÖÔØI MOÄT) - nguyenthuychonnhu.netnguyent1/images/ebooks/BenThayHocDao11.pdf · Cái gì đúng là đúng; cái gì sai là sai; cái gì tốt là tốt; cái gì xấu

(TAÄP MÖÔØI MOÄT) - nguyenthuychonnhu.netnguyent1/images/ebooks/BenThayHocDao11.pdf · Cái gì đúng là đúng; cái gì sai là sai; cái gì tốt là tốt; cái gì xấu

CHUẨN BỊ ĐÁM CƯỚI CẦN LÀM GÌ – KHÔNG CẦN LÀM GÌ 1 …

CHUẨN BỊ ĐÁM CƯỚI CẦN LÀM GÌ – KHÔNG CẦN LÀM GÌ 1 …

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Odia Spiritual Books # 1004 aÞ»Ê jkjÍ Ðc · Odia Spiritual Books # 1004 viShNu sahasranAma aÞ»Ê jkjÍ_Ðc

eddy B * aÞ eddy B Teeldy sag gour prayers. · Teidg Beep turn off the light. eddy B * aÞ eddy B sag *Lilz! good night,

eddy B * aÞ eddy B Teeldy sag gour prayers. · Teidg Beep turn off the light. eddy B * aÞ eddy B sag *Lilz! good night,

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Swing là gì

Swing là gì

Lưu Dục Huy ĐIỀU GÌ ĐANG XẢ I KINH T H - vepr.org.vnvepr.org.vn/upload/533/20170413/BE - Điều gì đang xảy ra với kinh tế học... · “Nỗ lực cô lập kinh

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Tổng quan về SEO, SEO là gì, Làm SEO cần gì? Tú Cao

Facebook là gì?

Facebook là gì?

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Cẩm nang du lịch nha trang (chơi gì?, xem gì?, ăn gì khi đi du lịch Nha Trang?)

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New {dH$mg à{V mZ {df`H$ MMm©gÌ · 2010. 7. 2. · {dH$mg à{V mZ {df`H$ MMm©gÌ ... 2

Kay Khau Kiti Khau - Target Publications · 2019-01-12 · SAMPLE CONTENT 4 / H$m¶ ImD$, {H$Vr ImD$? g‘Vmoc AmhmamMr Aerhr ì`m»`m H$aVm `oB©c H$s {d{dY VèhoMo AÞ Oo `mo½`

Kay Khau Kiti Khau - Target Publications · 2019-01-12 · SAMPLE CONTENT 4 / H$m¶ ImD$, {H$Vr ImD$? g‘Vmoc AmhmamMr Aerhr ì`m»`m H$aVm `oB©c H$s {d{dY VèhoMo AÞ Oo `mo½`

Thương hiệu là gì? Điều gì làm lên thương hiệu?

Thương hiệu là gì? Điều gì làm lên thương hiệu?

Môi trường là gì ?

Môi trường là gì ?

ĐỨC PHẬT VÀ THIÊN LONG BÁT BỘ · Vị Trời Học Đạo cho ta biết được cái gì nặng, cái gì cao, cái gì nhanh và cái gì nhiều, để tự gẫm vào

ĐỨC PHẬT VÀ THIÊN LONG BÁT BỘ · Vị Trời Học Đạo cho ta biết được cái gì nặng, cái gì cao, cái gì nhanh và cái gì nhiều, để tự gẫm vào